PRAEITIES AIDAI

Angelė KAULAKIENĖ

MECHANICS TERMS IN THE FIRST PHYSICS TEXTBOOKS

At the beginning of the 20th century, two physics textbooks for gymnasiums were being written at the same time. One was I. Končius’s physics textbook, which he wrote while teaching in Estonia for the Palanga girls’ gymnasium after it had moved to the town of Verro. This textbook was never printed. Its 312-page manuscript is kept in the Vilnius University Manuscript Library¹. The manuscript states very precisely when writing began (January 28, 1916) and ended (December 23, 1919).

The other physics textbook for gymnasiums was by K. Šakenis. As J. A. Martišius notes, K. Šakenis taught physics in various gymnasiums in Vilnius, Voronezh, Kaunas, and Panevėžys from 1912 to 1926. During the 1917–1918 school year in Voronezh, while explaining a lesson in Lithuanian, he felt an acute need for a Lithuanian textbook. He wrote its first part in Voronezh, and in 1918, already in Vilnius, its second part by Christmas; in 1919, at his parents’ home in Veleniškiai (Vabalninkas district), its third part. They were published in 1920, revised, and reprinted until 1940.²

Thus, the textbooks by both I. Končius and K. Šakenis can be considered the principal sources³ for the second stage in the development of physics terminology, since the textbooks by P. Vileišis, Pr. Mašiotas, and J. Dragašius were intended for pupils in lower grades, while V. Čepinskis’s “Physics Lectures,” published somewhat later (1923–1926), were intended for students.

So what terminology did they use? The article analyzes only the terminology in the mechanics sections of these physics textbooks. The mechanics sections were selected because physics courses are almost always begun with mechanics.

¹ K o n č i u s I. Physics: A Physics Textbook for Gymnasiums: [Manuscript]. 312p. // VUBR, F1. F1039 (hereafter – KF).

² M a r t i š i u s J. A. Konstantinas Šakenis – author of the first Lithuanian physics textbooks // Fizikų žinios. 1996. No. 11. P. 16-17.

³ K a u l a k i e n ė A. Stages in the Development of Physics Terminology // Lituanistica. 1997. No. 3(31). P. 66-73.

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Here are some of the titles of the introductions and subsections of the mechanics chapters in the two textbooks:

KF | ŠF⁴ Introduction | Introduction 1. Physical body.⁵ Medží̌?

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28. Tiesioginis nelygnešinis kusėjimas (=Tiesus nelygnešinis judėjimas) 36 29. Greitumo grafika 37 30. Kusėjimų (=Judėjimų) ir greitumų sudėstymas 37 3. Judesio greitėjimas ir mažėjimas 20 4. Sudėtinis judesys 21 31. Mažuma apie spėkas (=jėgas) 39 Inercijos principas (Dinamika) 39 32. Spėkos (=Jėgos). Jų mataviniai 40 5. Inercija 22 6. Jėgos ir jų matavimai 23........................................................................................................................ 38. Spėkų (=Jėgų) sudėstymas 47 II. Jėgų sudėtis ir skaidyba 1. Jėgų žymėjimas 32 2. Atstojamoji jėga 33 39. Spėkų (=Jėgų) paralelogramas 47 40. Spėkų (=Jėgų) išdėstymas 48 6. Jėgų lygiagretainis 34 7. Vienos jėgos suskaidymas į dvi jėgas 36 41. Paralelių spėkų (=jėgų) sudėstymas 49 8. Dvi jėgos einančios į vieną pusę lygiagrečium 36 42. Paralelių spėkų (=jėgų) išdėstymas 51 9. Vienos jėgos išskaidymas į dvi lygiagretes jėgas 38 43. Paralelių spėkų (=jėgų) sudėstymas, kuomet jų linkiai eina į įvairias puses 51 10. Dvi lygiagretes jėgos, einančios į priešingas puses 38

As the subsection titles given above show, the structure of the textbooks differs somewhat. This is entirely understandable, since the author usually chooses the principles on which the structure is based. However, most concepts are defined similarly in both textbooks and are even designated by the same terms, for example: in this way, the pressure exerted by a liquid on the bottom, whatever the shape of the vessel and however much liquid it contains, will equal the weight of the vertical column of liquid KF76; Thus, if we begin to press a liquid in a vessel closed on all sides, that pressure will act equally in every direction, and every square centimeter of the vessel’s wall will be pressed equally ŠF58; a lever is the simplest of all machines, a tool that transmits force to some resistance KF52; Let us imagine a rod supported at point C, whose ends A and B are pulled by two parallel forces P and Q. Such a rod is called a lever ŠF47. Another group of concepts is defined in both textbooks—

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similarly, too, but their terms differ, for example: phenomenon—the name we give to every change in the state or position of a physical body is natural phenomena KF2, whereas ŠF uses reiškinys (phenomenon)—all changes in the state and composition of physical bodies are called phenomena ŠF3; force—every cause of motion, or a cause that turns rectilinear and uniform motion into curvilinear and non-uniform motion, is called spėka (force) KF40, whereas ŠF uses jėga (force)—everything that sets any object in motion and can turn uniform rectilinear motion into non-rectilinear or non-uniform motion is called jėga ŠF23; motion—in this way, we call a body’s change of position relative to the positions of other stationary bodies kusėjimas KF34, whereas ŠF uses judėjimas (motion)—when speaking about the movement of objects, we always have in mind other objects that remain in place. These objects help us determine in which direction an object is moving and along which path ŠF18.

Many more such variants of single-word and compound terms could be given.

Single-word terms

KF

ŠF

capacity 14

bulkiness 99

volume 17

height 6

height 5

bellows 104

air pump 92

speed 35

speed 19, velocity 27

length 6

length 5

movement 34

motion 18

width (thickness) 6

width 5

equilibrium 45

equilibrium 40

porosity 7

porosity 8

liquidness 71

liquid 57, liquidness 58

pimple 60

point 43

congestion 92

compression 81

fragmentation 7

division 7

compression and expansion 7

compressibility (smoothness) and growth 8

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wetting 83

šampumas 63

weight 15

weight 13

elasticity 7

stiffness 8

Compound terms

open manometer 100

manometer for measuring the pressure of rarefied air 88

fall of bodies 63

fall of objects 26

gravity of bodies 57

weight of an object 41

resultant force 45

resultant force 33

mercury manometer 100

metal manometer 89

parallel forces 49

parallel forces 38

parallelogram of forces 47

parallelogram of forces 34

center of gravity 57

center of gravity 41

uniform straight-line motion 34

uniform rectilinear motion 19

nonuniform straight-line motion 35

nonuniform rectilinear motion 19

fire pump 109

fire engine 94

closed manometer 100

manometer for measuring the pressure of compressed air 88

water displacer 88

water engines 68

curvilinear motion 37

curvilinear motion 19

Often, in both textbooks, some concepts are designated by only two variants or synonyms, one of which is usually a borrowing. They are presented in various ways: separated from one another by a comma, joined by the conjunction “or,” or placed in parentheses, e.g.: gas KF 92, 106, 110 and gases KF 110, ŠF 75; fluid bodies or liquids KF 4; aerostat (airship) KF 111 and aerostat ŠF 85; capacity (volume) KF 90, 98 and volume ŠF 17; pig iron KF 187 and metals or pig iron ŠF 104; compression (congestion) KF 92 and compression ŠF 81; compression (blandness) KF 99 and volume 17; cast iron (pig iron) KF 67 and cast iron (pig iron) ŠF 13, 104; Archimedes’ principle KF 79, 81 and Archimedes’ truth ŠF 70; hydraulic jacks (press) KF 76 and water presses or presses ŠF 60, and so on. The description of synonymy is similar (though perhaps there are somewhat more cases in which both

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Lithuanian synonyms are also plentiful when each textbook is considered separately, for example: KF – gaseous bodies or gases 4; the movement of a body illuminated horizontally or obliquely 65; understanding of normal (ordinary) air pressure 95; implements (tools) 95; relative (comparative) motion of a body 43; pounds or weights 67, while ŠF – nitrogen 77; nitrogen or azote 100; parallelepiped 45; sulfuric acid, or vitriol 101; radius 29; pendulum, or swinger 55, and so on.

Moreover, in both textbooks one can observe instances of terminological systematization and the distinction between generic and specific terms. Here is how the state of matter is described. For example:

KF – “Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gaseous. 1) Objects made of wood, glass, iron, and so on are called solids (3) <…>. 2) Such bodies as water, ink, quicksilver, alcohol, and so on are called liquid bodies or liquids. 3) Such bodies, whose separate parts are not only very weakly bound together but already strive to disperse in all directions <…> are called gaseous bodies (gases)” (4); cf. also KF – elongation: elongation (1) is directly proportional to the weight (p); elongation (1) is directly proportional to the length (L) (27); deformation: temporary deformation III; tensile deformation V; residual deformation III; pump: two-cylinder air pump, butter pump; jet water-air pump (102); water pump (106).

ŠF – “A body may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. <…> a solid body maintains its shape and volume by itself, without assistance. <…>. Examples of liquid bodies include water, kerosene, alcohol, and liquids in general” (4) <…>. “We call air, hydrogen, steam, and so on gases” (5); cf. also SF – object: continuous objects (95); moving object (18); solid object (16); submerged object (72); liquid object (57); composite objects (95); rotating object (29); dense object (8); brittle object (9); gases: explosive gases (98); illuminating gas (77, 103); force: atmospheric force (81); resultant force (33); opposing forces (72); centrifugal force (29); parallel forces (38); continuous force, continuous force (25); decomposing force; pressing force; sudden force, impulsive force

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(25); component forces (36), and so on.

Thus, the variation in the names of concepts, synonymy and systematization of terms, and coordination of specific and generic terms found in these textbooks lead to the conclusion that physics terminology was still being developed at the time and exhibited all the characteristics of a developing terminological system.

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