The Sea in biological nomenclature

ALVYDAS UMBRASAS

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

KEYWORDS: biological nomenclature, taxon names, fish names, metaphor, systematicity, error

The article examines Lithuanian biological nomenclatural names associated with the word sea. The main focus is on fish¹ names (since they are the most numerous in the aspect under study), but names of mammals, birds, other animals, and plants are also discussed. The material was collected from the Dictionary of Fish Names (ŽPŽ 2005), compiled by Juozas Virbickas and published in the Terminology Bank of the Republic of Lithuania (LRTB), as well as from dictionaries of other animal and plant names². The aim is to show the variety of names and the models by which they are formed, and to draw attention to inconsistencies and other shortcomings. The article was prompted by a discussion with colleagues about the use of the words marine and maritime in nomenclatural names. On investigating the matter, it became clear that the dictionaries contain a wealth of interesting material.

Unlike Lithuanian botanical nomenclature, which has a fairly long tradition of regulation and corresponds structurally quite well to scientific (Latin or usually Latinized) names formed according to the requirements of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants³ (ICN), Lithuanian zoological nomenclature was regulated differently and often does not correspond structurally to the requirements of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). Understandably, those requirements apply only to scientific Latin-

¹ I thank Dr Gintautas Vaitonis, a researcher at the Nature Research Centre, for advice on the names of certain fish.

² See the list of literature and sources. When examples are presented in sentences, the source is sometimes indicated before the group of examples or, more often, after it. Where no source is cited in discussions of fish (to avoid frequent repetition), ŽPŽ 2005 is meant. Some Latin names taken from sources and given alongside Lithuanian names in the article may be obsolete and have already been changed, but this is immaterial to the study of Lithuanian names.

³ It was formerly called the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, but the name was changed at the congress of botanists held in Melbourne in 2011.

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for names, but it is also an important point of reference in standardizing Lithuanian nomenclature. With the exception of a few tradition-driven cases, Lithuanian botanical nomenclature has been and continues to be organized according to the principle that each genus should have a distinctive single-word name, while distinctions between species are indicated by adding one modifying word, i.e. binomial names are formed (Gudžinskas, Rašomavičius 2004: 3, 4). Both Latin and Lithuanian names of botanical taxa ranked above genus are also single-word names, formed using conventional suffixes and elements (Kutorga 1997: 23–25, see also Gaivenis 1973: 23). Latin zoological nomenclature is based on similar principles, but no strict system is followed when creating its Lithuanian equivalents—not only species, but also genera and higher taxa are quite often named with names consisting of two or even more elements; the number of elements in species names also varies, and the same genus name, combined with different elements, is used to designate different genera. Such a nonsystematic system appears unsophisticated from the perspective of botanists (Gudžinskas, Rašomavičius 2004: 4), but it has become traditional in zoology and is difficult to change⁴.

NOMENCLATURAL NAMES WITH THE ELEMENT MARINE

A well-established tendency in nomenclature is to indicate the distribution areas of both plants and animals using elements with the suffix -inis, forming derivatives from various common and proper nouns denoting places and geographical features (e.g. Andean, Atlantic, high-mountain, Asian, Bolivian, jungle, Egyptian, Japanese, marsh, meadow, Santonian, Urotian). Following this model, for example, the names formerly used mountain wagtail, mountain pine were changed to mountain wagtail (Lat. Motacilla cinerea), mountain pine (Lat. Pinus montana). Kazimieras Gaivenis has previously written that such a change is often unnecessary (Gaivenis 1973: 24), but this naming principle has taken hold in nomenclature, even though the derivatives formed can sometimes be atypical of common language. Of course, nomenclature includes names in which location is indicated

⁴ In recent years, the Terminology Subcommittee of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language has held considerable discussion, while considering zoological nomenclature, about making zoological nomenclature more systematic, particularly in naming genera and species that had not previously had Lithuanian names. However, no fundamental changes have been made: traditions are difficult to change, and efforts to achieve greater systematization are also seriously hindered by changes in Latin nomenclature, resulting from the frequent transfer of species from one genus to another. This makes it difficult to maintain a stable single-word name for a genus, and zoologists tend not to assign Lithuanian names to at least some genera at all. There are, admittedly, unorthodox views that scientific taxon names are not Latin but international, common to all languages, and should therefore be treated as international words used in Lithuanian, with no Lithuanian equivalents created at all (Gliwa 2011: 119), but this is excessively radical.

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otherwise (e.g. Balkhash foothill barbel (Lat. Schizothorax argentatus), mountain-stream brook lamprey (Lat. Ichthyomyzon greeleyi), hot-spring pupfish (Lat. Cyprinodon macularius), coastal pellona (Lat. Pellona harroweri), rice-field eel (Lat. Fluta alba) (ŽPŽ 2005)), but they are relatively rare and should now be considered atypical. In accordance with the predominant model, association with the sea is expressed in nomenclatural names by the element marine. As ŽPŽ 2005 shows, in fish nomenclature this word is used to name taxa of different ranks: families (a), genera (b), and species (c), e.g.:

a) tropical hakes (Lat. Steindachneriidae), marine seabreams (Lat. Sparidae), marine sea breams (Lat. Bramidae), marine catfishes (Lat. Ariidae), marine chubs (Lat. Kyphosidae), marine conger eels (Lat. Congridae);

b) American marine blennies (Lat. Phytichthys), white marine catfishes (Lat. Sciadeichthys), sailfin marine scorpionfish (Lat. Taenianotus), cockatoo marine perch (Lat. Neosebastes), longfin marine scorpionfish (Lat. Lioscorpius), marine sticklebacks (Lat. Spinachia), marine catfish (Lat. Anadoras), marine gouramis (Lat. Yerutius), marine hakes (Lat. Merluccius), marine lampreys (Lat. Petromyzon), marine flounders (Lat. Pleuronectes), marine rockfish (Lat. Sebastiscus), marine perch (Lat. Psammoperca), marine sea breams (Lat. Brama), marine conger eels (Lat. Congrina), slender marine sea bass (Lat. Lateolabrax), eastern marine smelts (Lat. Allosmerus), brown-headed marine seabreams (Lat. Crenidens);

c) African hake (Lat. Merluccius capensis), Australian marine smelt (Lat. Aplochiton marinus), white-striped marine rockfish (Lat. Sebastiscus albofasciatus), sailfin marine scorpionfish (Lat. Taenianotus triacanthus), snake-like marine goby (Lat. Gobius cobitis), marine flounder (Lat. Pleuronectes platessa), marine pike-perch (Lat. Stizostedion marinum), marine sea catfish (Lat. Bagre marinus), ribboned marine eel (Lat. Gnathophis habenatus), marbled marine chub (Lat. Dactylosargus arctidens), small marine dragonet (Lat. Callionymus rissoi), blue marine seabream (Lat. Pachymetopon aeneum), redspotted marine sea bream (Lat. Taractes rubescens), eastern marine smelt (Lat. Allosmerus elongatus), bright marine gourami (Lat. Yerutius apricus), viviparous marine blenny⁵

⁵ In 2013, the Terminology Subcommittee of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, together with zoologists, changed this name to viviparous eel blenny (published in the List of Commercial Fish Species Names (KŽPRS)). Incidentally, in the Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia (VLE IX 2006), Lat. Zoarces viviparus is called the marine blenny, whereas in ŽPŽ 2005 it is the common viviparous blenny; in other sources, besides the synonym marine blenny, it is also called simply the viviparous blenny or livebearing blenny (Repečka, Bukelskis, Kesminas 1998: 74; Virbickas 2000: 99).

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eelpout (Latin Zoarces anguillaris), violet rock eel (Latin Cebedichthys violaceus), green-striped rockfish (Latin Sebastes elongatus).

With the element marine, ŽPŽ 2005 names a total of 144 taxa. It is evident that names are often formed from familiar one-word fish names in the common language. Although Lithuanian family and genus names sometimes coincide, for example, sea breams (Latin Bramidae and Brama), conger eels (Latin Congridae and Congrina) (this is impossible in Latin nomenclature and, essentially, is also inconvenient in Lithuanian nomenclature, although perhaps sometimes expressive resources are lacking), names of taxa of the same rank can never coincide. Therefore, the placement of common rockfish (Latin Sebastes) and giant sea basses (Latin Stereolepis) genera of the giant sea bass (Latin Sebastes marinus and Stereolepis gigas) is a nomenclatural error in ŽPŽ 2005. A similar error occurs with the Japanese conger eel (Latin Conger japonicus and Japonoconger sivicolus), which can be found in the genera of common congers (Latin Conger) and Japanese congers (Latin Japonoconger). In a large dataset, such errors usually arise through oversight, and one reason for their occurrence is the use of the same basic elements to name different genera. There are more such coincident-name errors in ŽPŽ 2005 (see below in the article).

Not only fish are associated with the sea. Birds may be mentioned first. PPŽ 2009 distinguishes the sea eagle (Latin Haliaeetus) and frigatebird (Latin Fregatta) genera, and includes a dozen or so species names formed with the element marine, for example: African fish eagle (Latin Cuncuma vocifer), white-bellied frigatebird (Latin Fregatta grallaria), purple sandpiper (Latin Arquatella maritima), ringed plover (Latin Charadrius hiaticula), black-bellied plover (Latin Pluvialis squatarola). The element is also used to form the name of a mammal, the sea otter (Latin Enhydra) (the genus contains only the sea otter (Latin Enhydra lutris)) (ŽinPŽ 2002). There are also names of other animals, for example: the order of invertebrate animals of the phylum ArthropodaArthropoda, sea spiders (Latin Pantopoda); the turtle suborder sea turtles (Latin Chelonioidea); the reptile family of the snake suborder (Latin Ophidia), sea snakes (Latin Hydrophiidae); and a lizard of the iguana family (Latin Iguanidae), the marine iguana (Latin Amblyrhynchus cristatus) (VLE IX 2006). One or two names also occur in botanical nomenclature: the tree grey mangrove (Latin Avicennia marina), which grows by the sea (in mangroves), and the herbaceous plants beach grasswort (Latin Ruppia maritima) and eelgrass (Latin Zostera marina) (BVŽ 1998).

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NOMENCLATURAL NAMES WITH THE ELEMENT SEA

Although one might expect that, when naming fish, their connection with the sea would most often be expressed by the element marine, ŽPŽ 2005 contains almost three times as many names with the word sea—as many as 409 taxon names. There are many names⁶, but the variety of words serving as their principal elements is not very great. The group that stands out most clearly semantically comprises names formed using names of animals other than fish. These are metaphorical names incorporating the names of mammals (a), birds (b), amphibians (c), and insects (d), for example (genera):

a) sea bullheads (Latin Taurulus), sea mice (Latin Neosynchiropus), sea foxes (Latin Percis), spade-headed sea bats⁷ (Latin Halieutichthys), moray sea puppies (Latin Halimuraenoides), Norwegian sea foxes (Latin Leptagonus), longsnout seahorses (Latin Dunckerocampus), thresher sharks (Latin Alopias), weed blennies (Latin Cristiceps);

b) sea flying fish (Latin Hirundichthys), sea cocks (Latin Alectrias), sea sparrows (Latin Prognichthys), thick-lipped sea swallows (Latin Cheiloprion), shortfin sea ducks (Latin Diplecogaster);

c) sea toads (Latin Cyclopterus);

d) sea butterflies (Latin Chaetodon), sea wasps (Latin Ocosia).

Species are named analogously; their names sometimes differ from genus names only in number (in zoology, genera are conventionally named in the plural, species in the singular), and more elements are usually added, for example:

a) Atlantic sea hare (Latin Eumicrotremus spinosus), Darwin's sea bat (Latin Ogcocephalus darwini), yellow seahorse (Latin Hippocampus kuda), longtail sea mouse (Latin Spinicapitichthys draconis), Japanese sea fox (Latin Percis japonicus), sea bullhead (Latin Taurulus bubalis), spotted sea bat (Latin Platax pinnatus), coral rabbitfish (Latin Siganus corallinus), pelagic thresher⁸ (Latin Alopias

⁶Throughout the article, the aim is to demonstrate the greatest possible variety using the fewest possible examples. Usually, only one example of a particular pattern formed with a given element is provided, although nomenclature commonly contains several, a dozen, or even dozens of analogous examples (the same elements recur in names of species, genera, and higher taxa).

⁷The changed word order in the species name is apparently an error: Puerto Rican spade-headed sea bat (Latin Halieutichthys smithii). Incidentally, in other sources the place name is replaced by an adjective; compare the bird names Puerto Rican amazon, Puerto Rican screech owl (PPŽ 2009).

⁸This species belongs to the genus named thresher sharks (Latin Alopias). The latter name is distinctive because the metaphor occupies the modifier position. The opposite arrangement is also possible, with a modifier placed before a metaphorical name: weedy seadragons (Latin Phyllopteryx.

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pelagicus), silver-scaled sea blenny (Latin Blennoclinus stella), northern dagger-snouted sea fox (Latin Aganopsis vulsa); b) graceful sea duck (Latin Gastrocyathus gracilis), sea peacock (Latin Symphodus tinca), sea sparrow (Latin Prognichthys brevipinnis), common sea swallow (Latin Hirundichthys affinis), scalari sea swallow (Latin Shuettea scalaripinnis), mirror sea swift (Latin Hirundichthys speculiger), green-bellied sea cockerel (Latin Alectrias benjamini); c) sea toad⁹ (Latin Cyclopterus lumpus); d) sea wasp (Latin Ocosia vespa), four-eyed sea butterfly (Latin Chaetodon capistratus).

The metaphorical meaning arose because in this case the element sea¹⁰ was chosen, rather than marine, since with the latter element, which is systematic in nomenclature, the meaning would be literal (we would be talking about mammals, birds, and so on). As can be seen, some of the animal names used to name fish have diminutive suffixes, sometimes even different ones (fox, little fox; little dogs, little doggies). This means that such a suffix is considered not to weaken or obscure the metaphorical connection with the animal (otherwise, the element marine would normally be used). Indeed, the fish name sea dragon (Latin Trachinus draco), known from earlier times and still used today, is associated with reptiles¹¹ (LTE V 1979; VLE IX 2006); in ŽPŽ 2005 it was changed to large marine dragonet (Latin Trachinus draco) (the genus is simply dragonets (Latin Trachinus)). In this case, it was presumably thought that adding a suffix and changing the gender fundamentally altered the name, so there was no longer a need to write sea. That is logical. Nevertheless, the species name sea bat (Latin Platax pinnatus) was treated differently: a genus in the batfish family (Latin Ephippididae) was simply named bats (Latin Platax) (cf. the species orbicular batfish (Latin Platax orbicularis)). It should also be noted that another family, named batfishes (Latin Ogcocephalidae), includes several genera whose names contain the phrase sea bats, for example,

⁹ This fish’s name is associated not only with an amphibian but also with a bird; it is also called sea cuckoo (VLE IX 2006). Older sources prefer the name ciegorius, but they also list metaphorical synonyms, including sea hare (Virbickas 2000: 116).

¹⁰ Fish names based on animal metaphors also occur with a different genitive, e.g.: algae mice (Latin Fucomimus), water goats (Latin Pelecus), patterned water goats (Latin Pachychilon) (ŽPŽ 2005). By contrast, names with the element aquatic are used in their literal sense, e.g.: common aquatic dipper (Latin Cinclus cinclus) (PPŽ 2009), water deer (Latin Hydropotes inermis), swamp rabbit (Latin Sylvilagus aquaticus) (ŽinPŽ 2002).

¹¹ Plg. drakonai (lot. Draco), agaminų (lot. Agamidae) šeimos driežų gentis (VLE V 2004).

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common sea bats (Latin Ogcocephalus). If it was thought that the gender distinction bat (masculine) – bat (feminine) was sufficient in fish nomenclature (in general, it is better to avoid names that differ so little, especially within one system¹²), then, following the system, the name marine bat could have been chosen.

Species names are most often associated with genus names, but there are also discrepancies; for example, common sea swallow (Latin Hirundichthys affinis belongs to the genus sea swifts (Latin Hirundichthys (other species in it use the word swift), while sea peacock (Latin Symphodus tinca belongs to the genus of greenfish (Latin Symphodus) (no other taxa named with the word peacock are indicated). If we consider the logic of name formation, it seems somewhat odd when the spotted sea fox (Latin Lo vulpinus) is placed in the genus spotted rabbitfishes (Latin Lo). When creating names, it would be better to avoid such illogical mismatches between metaphors, especially when they are not dictated by tradition. Incidentally, the word rabbitfish would have been suitable for naming a rank above genus, and instead of common rabbitfishes (Latin Siganus), the name sea rabbits could have been used (this phrase does not currently occur in any genus name), since the genus includes goldlined sea rabbit (Latin Siganus rivulatus), and so on. It is also interesting that the genus spiny lumpsuckers (Latin Eumicrotremus) contains the species round sea hare (Latin Eumicrotremus orbis), Atlantic sea hare (Latin Eumicrotremus spinosus), although there is no fish genus called sea hares. The reason is clear—the name is already taken: sea hare (Latin Erignathus barbatus) is a seal, the sole member of the genus sea hares (Latin Erignathus) (ŽinPŽ 2002). With this in mind, it is generally questionable why the phrase sea hare had to be included in fish nomenclature at all (one solution could have been the diminutive little sea hare or the like).

If we look at the system of fish taxon names that contain the same head word, we can see instances of inconsistency. It is difficult to avoid this in a highly branched system, but wherever possible consistency should be sought. The genus that includes the species Hector’s sea duck (Latin Gastroscyphus hectoris is named Briggs’s water ducks (Latin Gastroscyphus). The element of the waters

¹² It is inconvenient when only grammatical gender distinguishes the names of animals from different classes; for example, ruffled ones (feminine) (Latin Parachaetodon) are fish (ŽPŽ 2005), whereas ruffled ones (masculine) (Latin Tricholestes) are birds (PPŽ 2009). If we assume fish names are under discussion, the systems become conflated; compare perch ruffled ones (Latin Ectreposebastes), but ruffled grenadiers (Latin Trachonurus) (ŽPŽ 2005). The head element of the latter fish name is already ruffled one; here it should have been grenadier ruffled ones. It can also be noted that, for example, Atlantic great robber (Latin Magnisudis atlantica) is a fish (ŽPŽ 2005), whereas great robber (Latin Catharacta skua) is a bird (PPŽ 2009). The gender of names for predatory fish is, of course, matched—hardhead catfish robber (Latin Osteogeniosus militaris).

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alongside marine is possible (especially if the fish live not only in seas; admittedly, in usage water is more usual, cf. water goats (Latin Pelecus), water hatchetfish (Latin Carnegiella)), although here the distinction does not seem well-founded. Another genus in the same family of clingfishes (Latin Gobiesocidae) is named striped Briggs’s clingfish (Latin Gastrocy mba). Here there are neither seas nor waters, although the genus includes the species four-rayed sea clingfish (Latin Gastrocy mba quadriradiata). The same family also includes the genera marsh clingfishes (Latin Arabes), oceanic clingfishes (Latin Diplocrepis). In view of the related names, one could suggest marsh clingfishes (if they really live in marshes), ocean clingfishes¹³. The genus name triggerfishes (Latin Balistidae) in this family, however, would, according to the system, be appropriate to change from ocean triggerfishes (Latin Canthidermis) to oceanic triggerfishes (and then oceanic patterned triggerfish (Latin Nelusetta ayraudi) should likewise be adjusted). In the family of pipefishes (Latin Syngnathidae), alongside thorny seahorses (Latin Solegnathus), pipefish seahorses (Latin Syngnathoides) seems rather poorly justified—it would be appropriate to say pipefish sea horses. In the family of sea poachers (Latin Agonidae), Chilean poacher (Latin Aganopsis) is inconsistent; it should be Chilean sea poacher. Although there are sea butterflies (Latin Chaetodon), it is logical and semantically well-founded to use freshwater butterflies (Latin Pantodon); however, in the genus of long-snouted sea butterflies (Latin Forcipiger), common longsnout butterflyfish (Latin Forcipiger longirostris) is inconsistent; it could, for instance, be longsnout sea butterflyfish.

When coining fish names from the names of other animals, ŽPŽ 2005 did not avoid homonyms—two genera were named sea swallows (Latin Chromis and Monodactylus). The first belongs to the family of damselfishes (Latin Pomacentridae), the second to that of moonyfishes (Latin Monodactylidae). The nomenclature's authors also failed to notice that longsnout seahorse (Latin Acentronura gracillissimus ir Hippocampus ramulosus) is included in two genera, assigned both to longsnout seahorses (Latin Acentronura) and to common seahorses (Latin Hippocampus).

Naming fish after other animals is an example of creating vivid nomenclature. According to K. Gaivenis, vividness in terminology is most often not avoided where the distinguishing (distinctive) function of terms is more important than their naming (nominative) function. Expressive terms are often coined in systematic terminology, because here, in order to distinguish one plant or

¹³ Adjectives tend more toward birds, cf. moorhens (Latin Gallinula), dippers (Latin Cinclus) (PPŽ 2009).

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gyvūnų rūšių nuo kitos, dažnai griebiamasi vaizdingo lyginimo (Gaivenis 1991: 29). Įdomumo dėlei dar galima paminėti, kad kai kurių žuvų vardai siejami iš karto su dviem gyvūnais, panašumo požymiai rodomi dar ir šalutiniu dėmeniu, pvz.: aligatorinės jūrų laputės (lot. Anoplagonus), ežinė jūrų antelė (lot. Diademichthys lineatus), kirmėlinis jūrų triušis (lot. Siganus vermiculatus), rykliagalvė jūrų antelė (lot. Eckloniaichthys scylliorhinoceps), zebrinis jūrų drugelis (lot. Discochaetodon octofasciatus). Tokių vardų vaizdingumas, išraiškingumas ypač ryškus.

A separate group consists of metaphorical fish names containing the element sea, whose head element is a word denoting various objects. Examples of genus (a) and species (b) names:

a) sea needles (Latin Syngnathus), sea files (Latin Thamnaconus), sea spines (Latin Hemiarus), sea sharpeners (Latin Pervagor), sea awls (Latin Nerophis), sea shovelnoses (Latin Halieutopsis), sea tongues (Latin Dicologlossa), sea globes (Latin Sphoeroides), sea crests (Latin Crenicichla), left-eyed sea tongues (Latin Symphurus), three-humped sea hatchetfishes (Latin Argyropelecus);

b) bearded sea tongue (Latin Monochirus hispidus), spotted sea globe (Latin Sphoeroides maculatus), Indian sea shovelnose (Latin Halieutopsis microps), blackhead sea sharpener (Latin Pervagor melanocephalus), common sea tongue (Latin Dicologlossa cuneata), common sea awl (Latin Nerophis ophidion), Paraiba sea crest (Latin Crenicichla dorsocellata), slender-snouted sea needle (Latin Syngnathus tenuirostris), transparent sea hatchetfish (Latin Sternoptyx diaphana), sand-colored sea file (Latin Thamnaconus arenaceus).

Metaphorical usage also explains why the names in this case were not formed with the element marine¹⁴. Admittedly, homonyms were not avoided here either—the family of right-eyed sea tongues (Latin Soleidae) includes two genera named shortfin sea tongues (Latin Brachirus ir Microchirus), while the species Senegalese sea tongue (Latin Cynoglossus senegalensis ir Solea senegalensis) was assigned to two genera—oblique-toothed sea tongues (Latin Cynoglossus) and common sea tongues (Latin Solea), which belong respectively to the families of left-eyed sea tongues (Latin Cynoglossidae) and the aforementioned right-eyed sea tongues. Incidentally, ŽPŽ 2005 also has the feminine name tonguefish (Latin Parexglossum),

¹⁴ If, for example, alongside sea needle the name pipefish is also coined, there is no need to include “sea”; instead of “stinging sea pipefish” (Latin Amphelikturus), “stinging marine pipefish” is entirely consistent with the system, and the same applies in species names (cf. little marine dragonet (Latin Callionymus rissoi)).

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Laura’s tongue (Latin Parexglossum laurae). As can be seen, with the feminine gender, the element marine has been omitted. Interestingly, the word tongue is also used for a genus of plants in the orchid family (Latin Orchidaceae), namely Odontoglossum (LRTB). If a fish does not live in the sea or does not live exclusively in the sea, it is understandable why, within the family of right-eyed marine tongues, a genus name without the word marine—freshwater tongues (Latin Achirop­sis) has appeared. Perhaps for the same reason, the names small tongues (Latin Parachirus) and peacock tongues (Latin Pardachirus) are used, although a species of the genus false horned tongues (Latin Pseudaesopia) is called the Japanese marine tongue (Latin Pseudaesopia japonica). Ichthyologists themselves could say whether omitting marine is truly justified; linguistically, it is possible (these metaphors differ from animal metaphors, where the absence of the element marine may be misleading in the general context of animal names). Species of the genus shortfin marine tongues (Latin Microchirus) are named Spanish shortfin tongue (Latin Microchirus azevia) and four-eyed shortfin tongue (Latin Microchirus ocellatus), perhaps to avoid four-word names, but names such as Spanish marine tongue, four-eyed marine tongue. could be suitable here.

Another feature of a similar group of metaphorical fish names containing the word sea is the choice of words denoting persons or beings as the main elements. Here are a few examples of genus (a) and species (b) names:¹⁵

a) beautiful sea devils¹⁶ (Latin Haplophryne), sea surgeons (Latin Acanthurus), sea wrasses (Latin Coris), sea captains (Latin Pseudotolithus), sea soldiers (Latin Myripristis), sea shepherds (Latin Nomeus), sea riders (Latin Ophiosciodon), royal sea angels (Latin Pygoplites), bare sea clowns (Latin Nudiantennarius);

b) spotted sea rider (Latin Ophiosciodon punctatissimus), spiny-gilled sea swordfish (Latin Plectrypops retrospinus), Hawaiian sea surgeon (Latin Acanthurus sandvicensis), bulging-eyed sea devil (Latin Ceratias uranoscopus), black-headed sea captain (Latin Pseudotolithus epipercus), black-backed sea soldier (Latin Myripristis kuntee), sea shepherd (Latin Nomeus gronovii), multicolored sea clown (Latin Amphiprion akallopisos), emerald sea angel (Latin Pomacanthus chrysurus).

¹⁵ An atypical name has been found in which the word denoting a person is used only in the appositive position—flying sailor (Latin Prognichthys sealei). There are no other names containing this word.

¹⁶Devil also occurs in mammalian nomenclature; compare Tasmanian devil (Latin Sarcophilus harrisii) (ŽinPŽ 2002), while a genus of birds has been named angels (Latin Heliomaster) (PPŽ 2009). Plain angel (Latin Heliomaster constantii) is a bird species, whereas common sea angels (Latin Pomacanthus) is a genus of fish.

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It was overlooked that two genera are called sea clowns (Latin Amphiprion and Antennatus). One belongs to the family anemonefishes (Latin Antennariidae), the other to the family damselfishes (Latin Pomacentridae). Particular attention should be paid to names containing the word soldier. ŽPŽ 2005 contains many species with identical names: large-scaled soldierfish (Latin Myripristis berndti and Sargocentron macrosquamis), deep-bodied soldierfish (Latin Ostichthys kaianus and Sargocentron bullisi), Japanese soldierfish (Latin Ostichthys japonicus and Sargocentron ittodai), red soldierfish (Latin Sargocentron rubrum and Sargocentron tiere), dark soldierfish (Latin Myripristis adustus and Sargocentron spiniferum), violet soldierfish (Latin Myripristis violaceus and Sargocentron violaceum). As can be seen, the species names in the genera soldierfishes (Latin Myripristis), rough soldierfishes (Latin Ostichthys), and common soldierfishes (Latin Sargocentron) are repeated; in the latter genus, there is even a duplication within the same genus. Such things should not occur in a nomenclatural system. Incidentally, soldier is also used as an appositive element: there is a genus called soldier seabreams (Latin Argyrops). It is also interesting that one species in the genus crested grenadiers (Latin Coelorhynchus) has a name in the feminine gender: half-beaked soldierfish (Latin Coelorhynchus coelorhynchus). As can be seen, in this case the element sea is omitted.

The two-word combinations mentioned above containing the word sea function as indivisible names, to which additional modifiers can be added when needed. The following names in ŽPŽ 2005 do not fit this system: tropical¹⁷ hatchetfish (Latin Argyropelecus lychnus), eastern-sea hatchetfish (Latin Argyropelecus sladeni), since here the modifier attaches to sea rather than to the entire underlying two-word combination (though the first example can be interpreted in two ways: not only as tropical sea + hatchetfish, but also as tropical + sea hatchetfish). Although the combinations do not contradict the logic of the language and are possible, names more appropriate to the system are tropical sea hatchetfish, eastern sea hatchetfish (cf. tropical sea bream (Latin Brama orcini), southern sea puffers (Latin Sphoeroides spengleri)). From another perspective, the name eastern sea blennies (Latin Neozoarces) should be standardized according to the system. As can be seen, this is not a metaphorical name, so eastern marine blennies. is the systematic form.

ŽPŽ 2005 contains more than 30 taxon names whose head word is cardinalfish¹⁸, for example: round-scaled cardinalfish (Latin Sphaeramia orbicularis),

¹⁷ Error; it should be tropical.

¹⁸ Mistakes have been made in writing species names: large-jawed cardinalfish (Latin Cheilodipterus macrodon), five-lined cardinalfish (Latin Cheilodipterus quinquelineata). These should be singular.

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white cardinal (Latin Epigonus denticulatus), Caribbean starry cardinal (Latin Astrapogon alutus), transparent cardinals (Latin Pseudamiops), and so on. Among them, only spiny-finned sea cardinal (Latin Plectrypops retrospinus) stands out—the name was probably formed by analogy with a species of the same genus, spiny-headed sea soldier (Latin Plectrypops lima). Interestingly, birds are also named with the word cardinal—PPŽ 2009 also lists more than 30 taxon names, for example: large-billed blue cardinal (Latin Cyanoloxia glaucocaerulea, Passerina glaucocaerulea), parrot cardinal (Latin Cardinalis sinuatus, Pyrrhuloxia sinuatus). Some names are similar; for example, yellow-finned cardinalfish (Latin Apogon apogonides) is a fish, whereas yellow-bellied large-billed cardinal (Latin Caryothraustes canadensis) and yellow cardinal (Latin Gubernatrix cristata) are birds. The family names use words from different roots: the fish are cardinalfishes (Latin Apogonidae), and the birds are cardinals (Latin Cardinalidae). The use of the same generic word to name different animals could perhaps be justified by a tradition of usage, but if no such tradition exists, such overlaps are best avoided when coining new names. We now have a situation where the common cardinal is both a fish (Latin Tanichthys albonubes) and a bird (Latin Cardinalis cardinalis). At the very least, one could be common and the other true, or something similar.

Metaphorical names containing the element sea occur not only in fish nomenclature, but also in that of mammals, for example: sea elephants (Latin Mirounga), sea cows (Latin Hydrodamalis), porpoises (Latin Phocoena), sea¹⁹ guinea pigs (Latin Cavia), sea hares (Latin Erignathus), sea leopards (Latin Hydrurga), sea lions (Latin Eumetopias), and southern fur seals (Latin Arctocephalus) (ŽinPŽ 2002). As can be seen, the names were created by drawing on the names of other animals. Also worth mentioning is the name of the class of invertebrate animals in the phylum Echinodermata, Echinodermata: sea urchins (Latin Echinoidea); the name of the superfamily of invertebrate animals in the order of barnacles, Latin Cirripedia, is goose barnacles (Latin Lepadomorpha) (the species is goose barnacle (Lepas anatifera)) (VLE IX 2006). There are also metaphors based on non-animal names: the previously mentioned class of invertebrates in the phylum Echinodermata, starfish (Latin Asteroidea), and the order of invertebrate animals in the class of coral polyps (Latin Anthozoa), sea

¹⁹ These South American rodents have no direct connection with the sea. It is thought that when they were brought to Europe, their name was associated here with pigs (cf. German Meerschweinchen, Russian морские свинки) because of their visual resemblance and the sounds they make, while sea is used because they were brought from overseas. In many languages, the name indicates that this little pig comes from India (cf. Portuguese porquinho da Índia, French cochon d’Inde), since, as is well known, America was confused with India (for more, see Михайлов 2000: 7–9).

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sea pens (Latin Pennatularia), and the class of invertebrates in the subphylum of stalked echinoderms (Latin Pelmatzoa), sea lilies, also called crinoids (Latin Crinoidea) (VLE IX 2006). The names of echinoderm taxa sea bladders (Latin Cystoidea), sea buds (Latin Blastoidea), and sea cucumbers, more commonly called holothurians (Latin Holothurioidea), are based on the same metaphor-forming logic (Kabilienė, Radzevičius 2011: 331, 332, 339). Some older sources have animal taxa named sea lilies, sea bladders, sea mosses, sea stars, sea urchins (GFGTŽ 1956), but these terms are no longer used; they could sometimes be misleading—for example, sea lilies would more readily suggest the name of a plant. Instead of the aforementioned sea mosses, the term bryozoans (Latin Bryozoa) is used (Kabilienė, Radzevičius 2011: 301). In the past, other compounds were also used to name echinoderms; for example, jūražvaigždė, jūraežis were probably neologisms coined by Jurgis Elisonas (Gaivenis 1997: 78–79).

Ekologijos terminų aiškinamajame žodyne (ETAŽ 2008) pateiktas gyvačių šeimos pavadinimas jūrų gyvatės (lot. Hydrophiidae) keistinas pagal sistemą į jūrinės gyvatės (taip ir yra VLE IX 2006), nes čia taksonomiškai apibūdinamos pačios gyvatės. Kas kita yra terminai jūrų žuvys „žuvys, gyvenančios vandenynuose ir jūrose“, jūrų paukščiai „paukščiai, gyvenantys jūrų, vandenynų pakraščiuose, jų salose ir mintantys žuvimis, kai kuriais bestuburiais gyvūnais“, jūrų žinduoliai „jūros aplinkoje (sausumoje ir vandenyje) gyvenantys žinduoliai: bedančiai, dantytieji banginiai, ruoniai, jūrinės ūdros“ ir pan. (ETAŽ 2008). Čia ne taksonų pavadinimai, įvardijamos terminines sąvokos, todėl kilmininkas jūrų jokių keblumų nekelia, yra įprastas ir tinkamas.

N O M E N C L A T U R A L N A M E S W I T H T H E E L E M E N T S E A

In animal nomenclature, the genitive sea is usually used when names refer to specific seas. In total, ŽPŽ 2005 names 57 taxa using this word, for example: Baltic Sea flounder (Latin Pleuronectes platessa baltica), White Sea cod (Latin Gadus morhua marisalbi), White Sea herring (Latin Clupea pallasi marisalbi), Bering Sea eelpout (Latin Lycenchelys sarsi), Bering Sea wolffish (Latin Anarhichas orientalis), Black Sea red mullet (Latin Mullus barbatus ponticus), Black Sea sprat (Latin Clupeonella cultriventris), Black Sea flounder (Latin Platichthys flesus luscus), Black Sea horse mackerel (Latin Trachurus mediterraneus ponticus), Black Sea trout (Latin Salmo trutta labrax),

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Red Sea b a r b e l (Latin Parupeneus forsskali), Red Sea s a r g a s s u m²⁰ (Latin Diplodus noct), Mediterranean s i l v e r s i d e (Latin Nansenia oblita), Mediterranean cow-nosed r a y (Latin Rhinoptera marginata), Mediterranean s m o o t h h o u n d (Latin Mustelus punctulatus), Mediterranean rabbit-headed p u f f e r f i s h (Latin Lagocephalus spadiceus), Mediterranean pike-conger e e l (Latin Cynoponticus ferox), Mediterranean h a k e (Latin Trisopterus capelanus), Mediterranean sawbelly b e r y x (Latin Hoplostethus mediterraneus), Mediterranean b a r r a c u d i n a (Latin Paralepis speciosa).

Difficulties arise when one wants to indicate a particular sea in a name based on the metaphorical names mentioned above, for example, sea clown, sea tongue, sea puffer. In ŽPŽ 2005 it was decided to write Adriatic S e a t o n g u e (Latin Solea impar), Red S e a t o n g u e (Latin Cynoglossus sinusarabici), Mediterranean s e a p u f f e r (Latin Spheroides cutaneus). When the words sea and sea came together, the logical solution chosen was to write only sea. Indeed, from some sea names (though not all names lend themselves to this) it is possible to form adjectives with the suffix -ine, as is customary in nomenclature. If there is an Adriatic sturgeon (Latin Acipenser naccarii), then one could have formed the name Adriatic sea tongue. Compare also Bering dragonet (Latin Bathymaster signatus). It is precisely this way that the dictionary formed the name Sargassum sea clown (Latin Historio histrio), but for some reason retained the incongruous²¹ genus name Sargasso Sea clowns (Latin Historio). If a place name or a person's surname, which is written in the genitive, rather than a sea name is included in the name alongside the underlying metaphorical phrase, then there is no obstacle to writing sea; therefore, instead of South African sea tongue (Latin Heteromycteris capensis), Klein's sea tongue (Latin Solea kleinii), according to the system of related names, should be

²⁰ This is not the Lithuanian word sargas, ‘guardian’, cf. white s a r g a s (Latin Diplodus s a r g u s, Russian белый с а р а, белый с а р г у с).

²¹ There are more similar inconsistencies in expression in ŽPŽ 2005; compare Seychellois goby (Latin Stonogobius dracula), but Seychelles sea soldier (Latin Sargocentron seychellense); Californian sea clown (Latin Antennatus strigatus), but California sea tongue (Latin Parophrys vetulus). Some place names, especially less common ones, are given only in the genitive in ŽPŽ 2005, for example, Cape of Good Hope sea tongue (Latin Cynoglossus capensis), Natal sea tongue (Latin Cynoglossus acaudatus), although in other systems, for instance when naming birds or mammals, corresponding adjectives are formed, for example: Cape wagtail (Latin Motacilla capensis), Natal ground thrush (Latin Zoothera guttata) (PPŽ 2009); Cape ground squirrel (Latin Xerus inauris), Natal wrinkle-lipped free-tailed bat (Latin Mormopterus acetabulosus) (ŽinPŽ 2002). Even for indeclinable place names, other systems tend to form adjectives; compare Peruvian anchovy (Latin Engraulis ringens) (ŽPŽ 2005), but Peruvian tern (Latin Sterna lorata) (PPŽ 2009).

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South African tonguefish, Klein’s tonguefish (cf. South African moony (Latin Monodactylus falciformis), Poll’s moony (Latin Polyppnus polli)). Among the drawbacks, one can also mention cases of overlapping taxon names, which were not avoided in this group of names either. Two species in the shad genus (Latin Alosa) are named Black Sea shad (Latin Alosa pontica and Alosa maeotica), while the species name Mediterranean flounder (Latin Bothus podas and Arnoglossus kessleri) occurs in both the genus of common lefteye flounders (Latin Bothus) and the genus of lefteye flounders (Latin Arnoglossus).

In the nomenclature of animals other than fish, taxon names containing sea are rare, e.g.: Red Sea cliff swallow (Latin Petrochelidon perdita) (PPŽ 2009), Mediterranean monk seal (Latin Monachus monachus) (ŽinPŽ 2002). Apparently, there are no such plant names. For example, sea cabbage, “edible thalli of brown algae” (VLE IX 2006), is not a taxon name but rather a traditional commercial name for various kelps and other brown algae. In it, sea is used similarly to the phrase sea salt, “a mixture of salts obtained by evaporating seawater” (ETAŽ 2008).

COMPOUND NOMENCLATURAL NAMES

One way to show a relationship with the sea in taxon names is to form compounds with the word sea. The material gathered for this study shows that such compounds are not numerous (ŽPŽ 2005 names over 70 taxa using them). ŽPŽ 2005 includes names of species and higher taxa containing the compound elements sea-perch, sea-bream, for example: longfin sea-perches (Latin Malakichthys), single-striped sea-perch (Latin Odontanthias); dwarf sea-breams (Latin Parascolopsis), pink threadtail sea-bream (Latin Nemipterus japonicus). Such compounds essentially stand in for phrases with marine. However, it should be borne in mind that ŽPŽ 2005 contains quite a few genera and species whose names use an adjective formed from the same elements, for example: common rockfishes (Latin Sebastes), cocktail rockfish (Latin Neosebastes entaxis); sea-breams (Latin Brama), Japanese fanfish (Latin Pteraclis aestigola). Formally speaking, a compound produces a different name, which is possible, though not particularly convenient or distinctive, especially since such variant expressions can be perceived in language as synonymous. Some compounds with the element sea- can also correspond to phrases formed with the word sea, cf. sea sculpins (Latin Alectrias) and wing-

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winged sea robins (Latin Pterygotrigla), satyr sea robins (Latin Satyrichthys). For interest, one can also mention a pair of fish names incorporating the names of different animals: butterfly sea robin (Latin Paratrigla papilio), crocodile sea robin (Latin Gargariscus prionocephalus). However, the name blue-winged sea robin denotes species from different genera in ŽPŽ 2005—Latin Currupiscis volucer and Chelidonichthys kumu. Judging by some sources (Jennings 1998), the Latin names are synonyms, so there was no need to list this taxon twice in the dictionary.

A secondary element can also be formed in the nomenclature system from a compound made with the element sea-, for example, sea-robin gurnards (Latin Ereunias). Also worth mentioning here is the fish genus name seaweed butterflyfishes (Latin Hemitaurichthys). As discussed earlier, the system includes butterflyfishes, but because in this case the sea is indicated by a different compound element, sea is omitted, although a species of that genus is brown-and-white butterflyfish (Latin Hemitaurichthys zoster). The genus name Pollack of the ice sea (Latin Pollachius) is distinctive. Here, sea is the second element of the compound. There are no other such compounds in ŽPŽ 2005. The previously given name was ice-sea cod (Latin Pollachius virens) (Repečka, Bukelskis, Kesminas 1998: 56; Virbickas 2000: 89), but in ŽPŽ 2005 it was changed to American pollock, although the synonym ice-sea cod continues to be used for trade purposes (see KŽPRS).

The compounds of the model under discussion occur not only in fish names but also in the names of other animals. PPŽ 2009 gives the genus name oystercatchers (Latin Haematopus); among the species is the Eurasian oystercatcher (Latin Haematopus ostralegus), also simply called an oystercatcher. It was also called a sea magpie (the name is mentioned in the entry for magpie in DLKŽ₇ 2012). This aptly demonstrates the synonymous use of a compound and a phrase, especially outside specialist usage. DLKŽ₇ 2012 also has the compound sea raven (Latin Phalacrocorax carbo), but today this is only a synonym; the nomenclature gives great cormorant (PPŽ 2009). From DLKŽ₇ 2012, one can mention the plant name sea sandwort (Latin Honkenya²²). Plant nomenclature also contains a few other names indicating a connection with the sea (since the plants generally grow by the sea or the like), for example: sea oats (Latin Uniola) (LRTB), sea squill²³ (Latin Drimia, Urginea) (DAV 2007).

²² It should be Honckenya (see ITIS).

²³ Outside nomenclature, one may also find sea onions, as in “the juicy leaves of the bulbs of Urginea maritima” (MTŽ 1980), as well as the previously mentioned sea cabbages.

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CONCLUSIONS

1. In biological taxon names, the distribution areas of animals and plants are commonly indicated by adjectives formed with the suffix -inis, deriving them from various common and proper nouns denoting places and geographical features. In accordance with prevailing tendencies in the formation of biological nomenclature, an animal’s or plant’s association with the sea (living in the sea, growing by the sea, etc.) is often indicated in names by the word jūrinis (marine), for example: jūrinės plekšnės (marine flatfish; Latin Pleuronectes), jūriniai ereliai (sea eagles; Latin Haliaeetus), jūrinės gyvatės (sea snakes; Latin Hydrophiidae), jūrinis andras (marine eelgrass; Latin Zostera marina).

2. There are many names of fish, mammals, and invertebrates living in the sea that have been formed using names of land animals. To distinguish such metaphorical names from those of the animals that provide the basis for the metaphor, the element jūrų (of the sea) is used—thus jūrų kregždės (sea swallows; Latin Chromis and Monodactylus) are fish, whereas jūrinės kregždės (sea swallows; Latin Fregatta) are birds; jūrų kiškis (sea hare; Latin Erignathus barbatus) is a seal, while vandeninis triušis (water rabbit; Latin Sylvilagus aquaticus) is simply a rabbit that lives near water. The jūrų buivolai (sea buffaloes; Latin Taurulus) and jūrų drugeliai (sea butterflies; Latin Chaetodon) swimming in the water have nothing biologically in common with buffalo grazing in meadows or butterflies flying about. In names of marine animals, jūrų is also written when the metaphor is based on objects or other things (e.g., jūrų galąstuvai (sea sharpeners; Latin Pervagor), jūrų skiauterės (sea combs; Latin Crenicichla), jūrų žvaigždės (starfish; Latin Asteroidea)), people or beings (e.g., jūrų angelai (sea angels; Latin Pomacanthidae), jūrų piemenėliai (sea shepherds; Latin Nomeus), jūrų raiteliai (sea horsemen; Latin Ophiosciodon)), or plants or their parts (e.g., jūrų lelijos (sea lilies; Latin Crinoidea), jūrų pumpurai (sea buds; Latin Blastoidea)). Even with diminutives, the metaphorical meaning remains prominent, so the names jūrų pelytės (sea mice; Latin Neosynchiropus) and jūrų gaideliai (sea roosters; Latin Alectrias) are used. However, there is a reluctance to write jūrų if the grammatical gender changes, for example: didžioji jūrinė drakoniukė (large marine dragonet; Latin Trachinus draco) (formerly called jūrų drakonas, sea dragon), pusžiotė kareivė (half-beaked grenadier; Latin Coelorhynchus coelorhynchus) (cf. ilg­ažiomenis jūrų kareivis (long-snouted sea soldier; Latin Ostichthys archiepiscopus)). Metaphorical names for aquatic animals may also take other forms, for example: jūržolių drugeliai (seaweed butterflies; Latin Hemitaurichthys), vandens ožkos (water goats; Latin Pelecus).

3. When a biological nomenclatural name needs to specify a particular sea, a phrase is formed with the word jūros (of the sea). This is most often used to name fish, for example: Baltijos jūros plekšnė (Baltic Sea flounder; Latin Pleuronectes platessa baltica), Juodosios jūros šlakis (Black Sea trout; Latin Salmo trutta labrax). Other animal names are found

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only a couple: Raudonosios jūros klifinė kregždė (Red Sea cliff swallow; Latin Petrochelidon perdita), Viduržemio jūros ruonis vienuolis (Mediterranean monk seal; Latin Monachus monachus).

4. The choice between jūrinis (marine) and jūrų (of the sea) is avoided by forming names as compounds (with the element jūr-). Fish taxon names are usually formed this way, for example: iškirptapelekiai jūrkaršiai (cutfin sea breams; Latin Odontoglyphis), japoniniai jūrėsėriai (Japanese sea basses; Latin Odontanthias), stambiažvyniai jūrgaidžiai (large-scaled sea robins; Latin Lepidotrigla). There is also a genus of birds called jūršarkės (sea magpies; Latin Haematopus). Corresponding compounds (cf. jūrinis karšis, marine sea bream, and jūrkaršis, compound sea-bream name) may be needed in nomenclature to name different taxa, but this is inconvenient in broader usage. In botany, when the aim is to indicate an association with the sea in a genus name, only a compound is possible, because two-word names are avoided; for example, the preferred forms are jūravizė (sea oat; Latin Uniola), jūrsuogūnis (sea squill; Latin Drimia).

5. In the Dictionary of Fish Names (ŽPŽ 2005), the elements jūrinis, jūrų, jūros (marine, of the sea, sea) are unjustifiably inconsistent in the names of some similar taxa, or sometimes none of these elements is included even though the system of related names suggests that one is needed. Other nonsystematic forms are also found. Different taxa (genera, species) are sometimes given identical names. One reason for these overlaps is the use of the same base words to name different genera and species. Since the dictionary took a long time to compile, is extensive, and has a systematic structure, it was difficult for the compiler and reviewers to keep track of names appearing in different places. Some of the inconsistencies may have arisen when the dictionary was revised in response to terminologists’ comments: a name was corrected in one place but not another, or was amended to match a form already used elsewhere in the dictionary. The shortcomings should be eliminated in future revisions of fish names.

REFERENCES AND SOURCES

BVŽ 1998: Botanikos vardų žodynas. Sudarė R. Jankevičienė, Vilnius: Botanikos institutas.

DAV 2007: Kisielienė D., Grigienė I., Grigas A. Dekoratyvinių augalų vardynas: lietuvių, lotynų, anglų, vokiečių, lenkų ir rusų kalbomis, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

DLKŽ 2012: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. 7-asis patais. ir papild. leid. Vyr. red. St. Keinys. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

ETAŽ 2008: Ekologijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas: lietuvių-anglų-vokiečių-rusų kalbomis. Parengė A. Paulauskas, K. Jankevičius, R. Liužinas, V. Raškauskas, P. Zajančkauskas, Vilnius: Grunto valymo technologijos.

Gaivenis K. 1973: Terminijos ugdymo vingiai. – Kalbos kultūra 25, 19–27.

Gaivenis K. 1991: Lietuviškų terminų vaizdingumo klausimu. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 29. Lietuvių leksikos ir terminologijos problemos, 26–31.

Gaivenis K. 1997: J. Elisono zoologijos sistematikos terminija. – Jurgis Elisonas. 1889–1946. Straipsnių rinkinys. Sudarė A. Jakimavičius, Vilnius: Baltic ECO, 75–79.

GFGTŽ 1956: Gudelis V. Geologijos ir fizinės geografijos terminų žodynas, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

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Gudžinskas Z., Rašomavičius V. 2004: Kelis lietuviškus pavadinimus turinčių augalų genčių nomenklatūra ir jos norminimo principai. – Botanica Lithuanica 6, 3–18.

ICN – International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011. – http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php.

ICZN – International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Fourth Edition adopted by the International Union of Biological Sciences, London: International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, 1999. – http://iczn.org/iczn/index.jsp.

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Jennings G. 1998: The Sea and Freshwater Fishes of Australia & New Guinea 2. North-East, North, North-West Australia and New Guinea, London: Calypso Publications.

Kabalienė M., Radzevičius S. 2011: Paleontologija. Mokymo priemonė, Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas.

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KŽPRS – Order No. 3D-826 of the Minister of Agriculture of the Republic of Lithuania of 10 December 2013 “Amending Order No. 3D-22 of the Minister of Agriculture of 15 January 2008 ‘On the Approval of the List of Commercial Fish Species Names’” (Official Gazette, 2013, No. 128-6541).

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ŽinPŽ 2002: Žinduolių pavadinimų žodynas: lotynų, lietuvių, anglų, prancūzų, rusų, vokiečių kalbomis. Rengė P. Bluzma (ats. red.), R. Mažeikytė, E. Mickevičius, J. Prūsaitė, K. Baranauskas, R. Baleišis, Vilnius: Ekologijos instituto leidykla.

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SEA IN BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

The paper deals with Lithuanian names in biological nomenclature related with the word jūra (sea). It pays most attention to names of fish (due to the large number of such names containing this word), but also the names of mammals, birds, other animals and plants are researched. An attempt is made to show the variety of names and patterns of their creation and to draw attention to the lack of systematicity and other faults.

There is a settled trend in Lithuanian nomenclature to indicate the habitats of both animals and plants using components with the suffix -inis derived from various words meaning places and geographical features. On the basis of this model the connection of an animal or a plant with the sea (lives in the sea or grows near the sea) is, according to the prevailing trends of the creation of biological nomenclature, most frequently indicated by the word jūrinis. Quite a few names of fishes, mammals or invertebrates which live in the sea have been created using names of animals living on the

96 Alvydas Umbrasas | Jūra biologijos nomenklatūroje

land. In order to distinguish such metaphorical taxon names from the names of the animals on which the metaphor is based, the component jūrų is used. Thus jūrų kręgždės are fishes, while jūrinės kręgždės are birds. When a particular sea needs to be specified in biological nomenclature, a compound expression with the component jūros is formed. In some names, the components jūrinis or jūrų are replaced by compounds containing the component jūr-.

The research shows that the components jūrinis, jūrų and jūros in the names of some similar taxa presented in Žuvų pavadinimų žodynas (Dictionary of the names of fish) (Vilnius, 2005) by J. Virbickas vary unnecessarily. Sometimes none of these components is presented even if it seems necessary when compared with the system of contiguous names. Other cases of lack of systematicity have also been noticed. There are some different taxa (species, genera) named the same. The dictionary is large, it is arranged systematically and its preparation took a long time therefore its compilers and reviewers had difficulties in ordering names presented in different places. Future ordering of the names of fish should include some corrections.

Received 2015-08-31

Alvydas Umbrasas, Institute of the Lithuanian Language, P. Vileišio St. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius. Email: [email protected]

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