LIETUVIŲ KALBOS GRAMATINĖ SANDARA LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

PREDICATIVE MODIFIER AS A SEPARATE SENTENCE CONSTITUENT

A. VALECKIENĖ

§ 1. Lithuanian quite frequently uses constructions of the following kind: the son came back worried, the fox came out backwards, the father stood bareheaded, Marytė came in upset, the sister ran up out of breath, he brought that animal alive, they pulled the young man out first (from the water), and so on. Cf.:

The stork flew back happy with the other neighbors. DonR 22. Although the master and the tailor try a couple more times to reach the water backwards, they cannot manage it. CvMS 26. As the hedgehog had said, so it came to pass: the wheat ground itself, baked itself into the tastiest pies, climbed into the carts, and, fragrant and warm, rides to the king. CvR V 48. The next day he made a larger snack and, having decorated it with flowers, sent it to the table hot, straight from the oven. BalčHP₁ 166. Once he came back with his chin newly shaved. CvR VII 39. Grėtė has long been known as an outspoken girl. SimonVK I 195.

In the underlined constructions of these sentences, there is always a verb form with an independent lexical meaning (flew back, ground itself, rides, sent, came back, known) or a verbal phrase containing such a verb (try to reach). Various inflected words (happy, backwards, itself, fragrant, warm, hot), a prepositional construction (with his chin newly shaved), and a comparative construction (like an outspoken girl) are related to these verbs in dependent relations. Moreover, the specified inflected words and constructions are also jointly related to the subject or object cases (the stork, the master and the tailor, the wheat, the snack, he, Grėtė). Words with double syntactic relations in the highlighted constructions indicate the state of the entity expressed by the subject or object case while the verb (or verbal phrase) action is taking place. This function may be performed both by words whose lexical meaning denotes the state of an entity and by words that do not have such a meaning in other contexts.

Most commonly, nominative and accusative forms of inflected words have double syntactic relations and express the state of an entity; other cases, as well as prepositional and comparative constructions, occur less frequently.

1. The nominative of an inflected part of speech, attached to a verb with an independent lexical meaning, in a sentence

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is wholly or partly in agreement with the subject’s nominative and indicates the state of the entity denoted by that nominative while the verb’s action is taking place. For example, the sentence The stork flew back happy says that “the stork flew back and was happy when it flew back.”

Sometimes the subject’s nominative is not expressed in the sentence, but is understood from the context, e.g.: During the day they keep sending me either to bring in wood or to call someone; I keep running barefoot through the snow. ŽemR IV 376. Here it is understood that “I run and am barefoot when I run.”

Most often, this function is performed by the nominative of an adjective or participle, though the nominative of a pronoun, numeral, or noun can also occur here.

a) Nominative of an adjective. Adjectives with various lexical meanings can serve this function. Quite often, the adjective used here denotes a state (barefoot, face down, on foot, etc.).

The elders say that Deveika used to go into the forest on foot and return by wagon. CvMS 11. And the squint-eyed assistant of Vaičiulis often came to the mill drunk. VencIR III 15. The orphaned little chick returned safe and sound. The father stands bareheaded, and I see how the cold writes bruises on his face. CvR 129. BaltPV₁ 31.

b) Nominative of a participle. Usually, active past simple and passive past participles are used. Most often they are prefixed and have perfective aspectual meaning. In rare cases, passive present participles serve this function.

When the orphan ran around out of breath and warmed up, the little son with the long name slept full and well-fed in the sun. CvR V 128. His wife greeted her husband from afar, tearful. CvR V 137. The food brought by the mother stood untouched on the little table. LzPR III 114. We are going home, all contented. ŽemR IV 313. They search for Džiugas through the bushes, sniff around the ditches, poke their noses into the water, fire shots into the clouds, while Džiugas, unnoticed and unseen, stands behind the very oldest German’s back, holding a silver bullet. CvR V 58.

c) Nominative of a numeral. Most commonly, the ordinal numeral first is used, but other numerals can also serve this function.

Levukas laughed cheerfully and, dipping potatoes into the brine, firmly announced that he would be the first to pet the calf. BaltPV₁ 10. Third came a horse, dragging its feet, head bowed, its short tail flickering. CvR V 146.

d) The nominative of the pronoun. As a rule, adjectival pronouns are used, very often the pronouns visas, vienas, pats. (For other pronouns, cf. § 5c.).

The fox grew angry and said: “Put your tail down and sit down whole, you good-for-nothing!” The wolf curled himself up whole and sat down comfortably. LTt 295. Let the women workers wash by themselves. SimonYK I 199. The words that had weighed on his heart burst forth of their own accord, irresistibly, with longing and hatred.

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CvR VIII 226. I think to myself: if a learned lady likes me as I am, then she will like me even more in squeaky boots. CvR III 100.

e) Examples of the noun in the nominative.

He, as his father had said, crawled into the ear, turned around, and came out a fine soldier. LTt 322. The son grew so beautifully; he grew into a good lad. LTt 338. It was a real hardship to be with him at such times: he would sit down like some sort of lout in the wood shavings, in the field, stare into the distance with his arms hanging down, mute as a stone. CvR VIII 54. Tall, wearing a gray homespun coat and wrapped in a black kerchief, she went out into the yard where she had grown up and where she had run about as a little girl. VenclR III 154.

2. The accusative of an inflected part of speech, attached to a verb with independent lexical meaning, is wholly or partly in agreement with the accusative of the complement in the sentence and, like the nominative, expresses the state of the thing denoted by the complement’s accusative during the course of the verb’s action. For example, the sentence They sent the pâté (to the table) hot states that “they sent the pâté, and the pâté was hot when they sent it.”

Most often, the accusative of adjectives and participles is used in this function, but accusatives of other inflected parts of speech also occur.

a) Examples of the adjective in the accusative.

Matušėlė, weeping... asks that she be allowed to help the child grow at home, at least until the age of 11–12, and then she will give the older one to the manor. ŽemR IV 369. They caught the fox alive. JablRR I 614. Do you remember, Grandma, how I used to visit you when you were young? VaičiūnD 15. — Just wait, that’s how he’ll take her, naked and bare. VienR I 165.

b) The participle in the accusative. In this function, the accusative is used not only for active past frequentative and passive past and present participles, but, unlike the nominative, also for active present participles (often with the prefix be-).

Juozas was speaking and had already started running into the room when he saw Marytė standing in the doorway, smiling. LzPR III 36. Besides, it seemed strange to her that Vilius never paid any attention to her when she was crying. SimonVK I 358. May you be kept without food for three days. LTt 375. In the grove he saw the trees, short and sturdy, unaffected by gales and storms. DaukB₁ 52. They took Tarutukas, captured in Klangiai, away. CvR VIII 206. Man, where did I shelter you when you were so wretched? SruogAD 120.

c) Examples of the numeral in the accusative.

They pull the young man out of the water first. SimonVK I 250. Upon arriving, they noticed Martynas first. SimonVK I 317.

d) Examples of the pronoun in the accusative.

That wretched family has already eaten me whole. DonR 52. You can eat a pancake like that even on its own (without fat, without sour cream). VIkv. He again remembers his grandfather as he was when he was still alive. SimonVK I 15. They said you were like this; they said you were like that. RD 70.

e) Examples of the noun in the accusative.

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Here in this corner stood “Sarkė,” the daughter-in-law’s dowry cow; she had brought a heifer in with her too. KrėvŠP₁ 190. How he saw himself as a student today. CvR II 128. They brought her the very same wretched fellow as a doctor. JablRR I 614.

3. Genitive of an inflected part of speech

most often attaches to a negative verb with independent lexical meaning and is usually in the sentence in agreement with the genitive of the object. Like the nominative and accusative mentioned above, it indicates the state of the entity expressed by the genitive of the object while the verbal action is taking place.

But no one sent matchmakers, and no young man appeared who had fallen in love with her. SimonVK I 235. Nowhere could one see any tool left behind, nor a single rag on the cottage. ŽemR I 167. Martynas knows her no other way. SimonVK I 291.

There are sentences in which the genitive of a noun or pronoun relates not to the genitive of the object, but to the accusative of the object. In that case, the related words do not agree.

Looking both into our near past and our distant past, we see the same kinds of people here and there as we ourselves are, or, in other words, there we see ourselves, only in a somewhat different guise. JablUŽ 7—8.

4. Dative of an inflected part of speech

in the sentence it agrees with the dative of the object and indicates the state of the entity expressed by that dative while the verbal action is taking place.

So they skinned the goat alive. Brž. They wound the clock for him after he had died, so that it would run. Nj. The girls struck both my eyes first. ValPJ₂ 17. After they had lived together like that for several years, the three of them grew tired of living in one house. CvR V 38. After many years, the father returned home completely aged and frail, and told his daughter-in-law to travel on her own. CvR V 50.

5. The instrumental case of inflected parts of speech.

This case has been found attached to a verb with independent lexical meaning and related to the nominative of the subject or the accusative of the object. The instrumental in question is not in agreement with these cases, but indicates the state of the entity expressed by them during the action of the verb. The instrumental of a noun, together with its dependent words, is used in this function.

One bottle already stood with its top peeled and its cork pulled out. LzPR III 48. The farmer men walk with solemn faces. SimonVK I 58. The young bride awoke with an uneasy heart. CvR V 49. Often (Monika) found Kaziukas tearful, with puffy eyes. CvR VIII 53.

6. The locative case of inflected parts of speech.

In rare cases, the locative of a noun can be found in this function, attached to a verb with independent lexical meaning and related to the nominative of the subject.

Monika awoke feverish, having made a great effort to free herself from the dream, and hurried to look for her husband. CvR VIII 94. Having led the mare around

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the lake, the devil returned to the man warmed up and drenched in sweat—in a single float. LTt 344.

7. Prepositional constructions attached to a verb with independent lexical meaning are related to the nominative of the subject or the accusative of the object, as well as to other object cases, and indicate the state of the entity expressed by those cases during the action of the verb.

The child lay lifeless, drained of color, white as a spider’s thread. CvR VIII 171. After the clashes, many came away with a torn jacket sleeve and a bruised leg. CvR VIII 39. Juras did not leave her when she had one child—he will not leave her with five. CvR VIII 22. Cf. Noticing the assistant with a split eyebrow, Vaikėzas realized there was nothing good to expect. VenclR III 16.

8. Comparative constructions used in this function are related to a verb with independent lexical meaning and to the nominative of the subject or the accusative of the object. The inflected word in comparative constructions (noun, adjective, participle, etc.) agrees in case with the aforementioned nominative of the subject or accusative of the object; that is, it too is in either the nominative or the accusative case.

As if revived, always having left the meeting having heard the speaker Sepaitis’s words... SimonVK I 26. Two hundred people lie like flies scorched to death. SruogDM 42. S. I would meet Nerį at the Kaunas State Theatre, at the meetings of the People’s Seimas, cheerful and excited, as if newly born. VenclEV 148.

§ 2. Inflected words and constructions usually attach to verbs with independent lexical meaning of the following kinds:

a) verbs of motion:

And the cat crossed the ditch first and did not fall in. LTt 282. We must go and bring back mushrooms, for they will return on horseback, hungry. LTt 322. For no one do roast pigeons fly straight into the mouth of their own accord. PP 221. And the sun, turning away from us once again, rolls onward, and, having left us, quickly sets toward evening. DonR 63;

b) verbs denoting a state:

Džiugas sits there day after day, gloomy. CvR V 54. Again the stubble fields lie unshorn. BaltPV₁ 17;

c) with verbs denoting an action associated with a state or occupation:

Another time, I remember again, after returning from somewhere, Father does not even want to eat, but only sighs sadly. ŽemR IV 307. The cows just leap about all day without eating. Brž. And what are you doing—are you still hunting, hale and strong? Don R 115. For days on end he caught small animals and birds and sold them alive. CvR V 62;

d) with verbs denoting a transition from one state to another, a change of state:

All the children hurried to their places, stopped standing upright without even a murmur. ŽemR IV 32. And Martynas sat down on the driver’s seat, still all bandag-

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ed. SimonVK I 275. Meister observes that the solitary, lame and often sad, settles down near the window and groans in an old man’s voice. CvMS 41. The first pair of ducks had been two sons, but both had died young. ŽemR IV 310;

e) with verbs of speaking:

“Calm down, it won’t happen again, you’ll see!” Simonaitienė said confidently. LzPR III 89. — “Father asked, Mother asked, worried,...and I was ashamed to speak up.” LzPR III 21. Having inspected the whole house, Passepartout rubbed his hands with delight and spoke to himself alone, his face brightened. BalčAŽ 15. — “It’s high time we put the tea on,” Aunt remarked, frowning. LzPR III 41;

f) with verbs denoting perception:

I saw him on the stage of the cultural center dancing Lithuanian folk dances with his fellow countrymen, and heard him singing. T 1965 196. And I saw my little daughter sitting there. JablRR I 614. But Jonas himself noticed my distress. BaltPV I 53.

Words and constructions that have double syntactic relations may be associated with various other verbs:

The woman was considered a prostitute by people and the church if she had a child while unmarried. CvR VIII 10. She will not surrender to the executioners alive. VenclR III 500. — “Well, I’d recognize him even if he were skinned,” Ėvė boasts. SimonVK I 292.

All these verbs with independent lexical meanings can function as predicates.

Inflected words and constructions can also combine with compound verb forms and verbal phrases whose dependent constituent is a noun or a form of the independent-meaning verbs mentioned above (a participle or infinitive).

Pempienė herself was partly to blame for the villagers beginning to fear and avoid her. Myk-PutS I 25. — “I,” he says, “had buried them (the money) alive.” LTt 354. But not even a rotten two-cent coin fell out of it: the Samogitian had deliberately hung this (pot) up empty. CvR V 67. The stake remained standing as if numb. SimonVK I 144. Having had no farmhand in her family, now the first son-in-law wants to get in as a farmhand. ŽemR IV 412. Mother Vilkienė has to go to the meeting alone. SimonVK I 299. And she said she would go to Šalteikiai on foot, or not go at all. SimonVK I 275. He’s still so young, and yesterday he said he had brought back eight cartloads of hay alone from noon until evening! LzPR III 46. It is known that the northern (winter) and central parts of Europe had at one time been entirely covered with ice. JablUŽ 13. One who had set out to look for those things claimed that only he, the father, had been sent. DaukŽP 67.

In the sentences cited, the words pati (“herself”), gyvas (“alive”), and tuščią (“empty”) are attached to the verbal phrases and compound verb forms buvo kalta (“was to blame”), buvau užkavojęs (“had buried”), and buvo pakabinęs (“had hung up”); the words and constructions lyg nutirpęs (“as if numb”), mužikas (“farmhand”), and vienai (“alone”) are attached to the verbal phrases paliko sto-

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place, wants to penetrate, must go; the words on foot, alone are attached to verbal constructions *said she was*, *said he had brought back* (for these, cf. § 5 a); the words all, alone are attached to compound verb forms and verbal constructions *has been questioned*, *having agreed that he was being sent*.

In all the sentences, the aforementioned verbal constructions and compound verb forms can also themselves serve as predicates.

An inflected word with dual syntactic relations sometimes attaches not to a verb, but to some other word capable of performing a verb’s function, that is, capable of serving as a predicate.

Oh, oh, oh! It’s hard for you alone, and it’s long—and lonely!..

LzPR III 37.

§ 3. Few constructions of the type under discussion are found in our syntax textbooks. Moreover, they are scattered across various sections on syntax and treated inconsistently.

Verb constructions with an independent lexical meaning and a nominative, e.g.: *came back cheerful, stood frowning, is driving fragrant, warm*, are considered predicates. Sentences with such constructions are usually classified as compound predicates without further explanation. It is merely noted that the link in a compound predicate is expressed not only by the verb *to be*, but also by forms of other verbs¹. More extensively, independent-lexical-meaning verb constructions with a nominative, alongside examples with the instrumental, prepositional, and comparative constructions, have been discussed by J. Balkevičius in *The Syntax of Contemporary Lithuanian* (Vilnius, 1963). He regards constructions of the type *arrived cheerful* as a separate kind of predicate. Calling them by the old term “compound predicates,” he introduces the new name “complex nominal predicate” for constructions of the type *was cheerful*². The difference between the first and second predicates, as J. Balkevičius points out, is that “the link in a complex predicate (*was cheerful*) is expressed by verbs which, in their lexical meaning, do not convey a complete thought about an action and therefore have only an auxiliary modal function in the sentence, whereas the link in a compound predicate (*arrived cheerful*) is expressed by verbs or verbal constructions which can express a verbal predicate fully not only in form but also in content”³. J. Balkevičius also correctly indicates the relation between the phenomena expressed by the constituents of what he calls a compound predicate: the first constituent of that predicate (a verb with an independent lexical meaning) states what the subject does, while the second brings out a property of the entity characteristic of it during that action. However, J. Balkevičius the verb-

¹ Žr. J. Žiugžda ir P. Gailiūnas, Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, II, Sintaksė, Kaunas, 1964, p. 17.

² Some Russian linguists also distinguish two predicates involving inflected parts of speech in Russian: «составное сказуемое» (был богат), «сложное сказуемое» (пришел веселый) (see А. Н. Гвоздев, Современный русский литературный язык, II, Москва, 1958, p. 59, 62; Н. М. Финкель, И. М. Баженов, Курс современного русского литературного языка, изд. 2-ое, Киев, 1965, p. 505, 507). The first («составное сказуемое») corresponds to the complex predicate distinguished by J. Balkevičius in Lithuanian, and the second («сложное сказуемое») to the compound predicate.

³ Žr. J. Balkevičius, Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius, 1963, p. 120—121.

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…which can, in his words, “express the predicate completely,” nevertheless does not regard as an independent verbal predicate, but only as a predicate copula, while the inflected word is treated as the nominal part of the predicate.

Constructions with the accusative, e.g.: sent the pâté hot, found the hens slaughtered, left the child asleep, and so on, are treated in our syntax books in two different ways. In some cases, a combination of a verb with a second accusative is distinguished in these constructions and considered the predicate (e.g., sent hot); in other cases, the two accusatives are joined (e.g., the pâté hot) and treated as a complex object.

In J. Jablonskis’s grammar, a complex object consists only of combinations in which the second accusative is a present active participle (alongside similar combinations with a half-participle), cf.: I kept looking and looking, and then I saw—my little daughter sitting, my little son being rocked, tying a silk kerchief, putting on a gold ring. JablJR I 472—473.

Examples in which the second accusative is expressed by another inflected part of speech, most often an adjective, are placed under the compound predicate, cf.: You made them equal for us. Raise him (the child) to be like this one. And he brought the little beast back alive. (JablJR I 455).

In J. Balkevičius’s syntax, examples of this latter type (in which the second accusative is an adjective) are found both under the predicate and under the complex object, cf. his compound predicate:

They loaded the girls’ cart full. He brought you up to be brave. (You) raise him to be like this one. (He) caught the fox alive. (p. 119);

complex object:

Everyone was used to seeing him healthy. Brazys found the buyer empty-handed. (p. 194).

By treating the adjective in the accusative in these sentences as the nominal part of the predicate in one case and as an object in another, J. Balkevičius relies on the relationship between the lexical meanings of the verb and adjective: he considers the accusative the nominal part of the predicate when the state of the entity expressed by that accusative is the result of the verb’s action (e.g., loaded the cart full), and an object when the state of the entity expressed by the accusative does not depend on the verb’s action (e.g., were used to seeing him healthy⁴.

However, this relationship between the lexical meanings of the inflected word and the verb does not alter the syntactic relations between these words. In the first case, the adjective is no more closely related to the verb than in the second. Both the first and the second sentence can be said without the adjective, cf.: They loaded the girls’ cart. Everyone was used to seeing him.

On the other hand, the same kind of dual relationship between lexical meanings obtains between the verb and the nominative of an inflected part of speech attached to it, e.g.:

⁴ Cf. J. Balkevičius, op. cit., p. 119.

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a) the state of an object expressed by the nominative is independent of the verb’s action:

Simonaitytienė likewise, uncheerful, warmed the cup by the brick. LzPR III 93. Marija stands in the peasant’s hut—proud, young, and beautiful. VenclR III 501. And Gretė got up sour-faced, like foul weather. SimonVK I 310. And the calf built itself a little hut, all alone! LTt 289;

b) the state of an object expressed by the nominative is the result of the verb’s action:

Having jumped onto the road (the fox) lay down whole. ŽemR IV 448. In the yard, having driven in, full of wagons. SimonVK I 240. And as soon as the fairies’ dog, having run onto the footbridge, began sniffing out tracks, the footbridge—quick as a flash—stood upright pointing to the sky. CvR V 12. They left me until next year: let me grow bigger, understand my studies better... ŽemR IV 314.

However, this relationship between the lexical meanings of the verb and the nominative attached to it is not considered on the basis of syntactic function.

It should be noted that neither J. Jablonskis nor J. Balkevičius, having identified the compound object, sharply distinguishes it from the predicate.

After giving his examples of the compound object (I saw my daughter sitting, etc.), J. Jablonskis remarks that the true object is, nevertheless, the first accusative (daughter), whereas the second (sitting) is supposedly like a part of the predicate (I saw)⁵.

In his system, J. Balkevičius also treats the second accusative as the predicative component of the compound object when identifying the constituent components of sentence parts⁶.

From all that has been said about the syntactic phenomena raised in our syntax textbooks, the following conclusions can be drawn. If verb phrases with an independent lexical meaning and a nominative still fit the structure of a compound predicate, then the so-called double accusative attached to an object is entirely unclear. The compound object, identified only for accusatives of this type (and not in every case), as well as for corresponding constructions with a gerund, is neither sufficiently described nor sufficiently justified in our syntax⁷. The relationship between the compound object and the predicate also remains unclear. Finally, neither the compound object nor the predicate encompasses the constructions we have raised.

§ 4. The function of each word or phrase in a sentence depends on its relationship to other words. Words in a relationship are also connected with other words; thus, every word or phrase in a sentence is like a separate link in the structure of the sentence as a whole⁸. The role of an individual word or phrase,

⁵ Žr. J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, I, Vilnius, 1957, p. 474.

⁶ See J. Balkevičius, cited work, p. 193.

⁷ Since the concept of the compound object is not entirely clear, its scope has not been established either. For example, in the Grammar by J. Žiugžda and P. Gailiūnas, only constructions with a gerund are included under the compound object.

⁸ В. М. Никитин, К вопросу о принципах изучения членов предложения, кн.: Совещание языковедов юга России и северного Кавказа по вопросу о членах предложения, Ростовский университет, 1959, р. 11.

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when forming a sentence as a predicative linguistic unit, defines its place among the other words and phrases of the sentence.

When determining the function of a word or construction that has double syntactic relations, it is important to show what function the verb with independent lexical meaning and the verbal phrase perform in forming the sentence: that is, whether the verb alone constitutes the predicate of the sentence, with the word or construction having double syntactic relations serving as a secondary sentence element, or whether the verb and verbal phrase serve only as a copula, while the aforementioned inflected word or construction forms part of the predicate as its nominal component.

The principal sentence elements are words and phrases that form the so-called predicative center of the sentence, that is, the smallest structural unit capable of functioning as a sentence on its own. Secondary sentence elements only supplement what is expressed by the principal sentence elements. If the secondary sentence elements are removed, the sentence remains intact as a predicative unit.

In the constructions under consideration, the verb with independent lexical meaning and the verbal phrase, either alone or together with the subject, form the predicative center of the sentence. For example, in the sentence The stork flew back, happy, the phrase the stork flew back is a sufficient predicative unit, capable of functioning as a sentence on its own. The adjective happy, relating here both to the stork and to flew back, specifies what the stork was like at the time it flew back. That in the sentence The stork flew back, happy the adjective happy does not form part of the predicative phrase but relates to flew back only in terms of time is shown by the possible transformations of this sentence in Lithuanian (a change in sentence structure by changing morphological forms while retaining all the sentence’s lexemes, except function words, and its meaning); compare: The stork flew back happy. The stork flew back and was happy. The stork, having flown back, was happy. When the stork flew back, it was happy.

In the sentence They brought the fox back alive, the predicative center consists of a single verb, brought back. Here, too, the adjective alive adds a further observation about the state of the object of the action (the fox) when it was brought back. The relation in terms of time between the adjective alive and the verb brought back is the same as that noted above between the adjective happy and the verb flew back; compare also: They brought the fox back alive. They brought the fox back, and it was alive. When they brought the fox back, it was alive. The fox, having been brought back, was alive.

From this perspective, all inflected words and constructions with double syntactic relations do not form part of the predicative phrase of the sentence and should be regarded as secondary sentence elements. Because of their specific syntactic relations and special meaning, this secondary sentence element can be classified neither as an attributive modifier, nor as an object, nor as an adverbial. It is an entirely new secondary sentence element. It could be called a predicative modifier, or predicate modifier, since it denotes a state characteristic of an entity while the action of the predicate is taking place⁹.

⁹ For the relation of the predicative modifier to the attributive modifier, see § 5c.

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In distinguishing a new sentence element, one relies first and foremost on syntactic principles.

A. I. Smirnitsky proposes two principal criteria for distinguishing sentence elements:

1) the degree and nature of the relations between sentence elements, and

2) the content of the relations expressed with a given sentence element (whether they concern an entity, a property, etc.)¹⁰.

Other researchers likewise note that, in defining a sentence element, syntactic relations between words or phrases should be given priority, followed by morphological (word-form) and lexical-semantic features¹¹.

The characteristic features of the new sentence element we propose—the predicative modifier—meet the requirements for a sentence element: 1) the predicative modifier has specific (double) syntactic relations with other sentence elements, 2) a special semantic function arising from the related words, and 3) certain forms of expression.

In addition, the predicative modifier is characterized by a particular word order in the sentence. Very often in the constructions under consideration, the subject or object comes first, followed by the predicate, and then by the predicative modifier.

The stepmother was very jealous of Elenytė’s wealth and ordered the father to take her daughter into the forest as well: she thought that she too would arrive rich. LTt 311. The fly arrived so sucked dry that it was difficult even to call it a fly. CvR V 146. Shall we roast this turkey whole or chopped up? JablRR I 614.

But in Lithuanian, word order is generally not strictly fixed. Predicative modifiers are often also used before the predicate, after the subject or object.

In the end, Jarmala was the first to lose patience. CvR VIII 189. The first to leave were the two sons, but both died young. ŽemR IV 310. You, sun, bake the working man alive, but pamper the lazy one. CvR V 122. — Was that why the gendarme threw you out through the gate, covered in chaff? SimonVK I 60.

Predicative attributes also occur in other positions.

— You’ll manage on your own, child. BaltPV, 77. The washerwoman rose cheerfully and took the ribbons to the count. CvR V 151. Then the little fish began to speak, saying, “Jonuli, let me go alive.” Alv. And he brought the beast alive to the king. JablRR I 614.

The predicative attribute, as a separate sentence element, is not new in the grammars of other languages. For example, among the languages more closely related to ours, the predicative attribute is distinguished in Latvian (dubultloceklis)¹², Polish (przy-

¹⁰ Žr. А. И. Смирницкий, Синтаксис английского языка, Москва, 1957, p. 172.

¹¹ Žr. B. M. Никитин, min. veik., p. 10; V. Sirtautas, Pagrindinių sakinio dalių sintaksiniai santykiai, Šiaulių K. Preikšo v. Pedagoginis institutas, Destytojų mokslinė-metodinė konferencija, Pranešimų tezės, Šiauliai, 1965, p. 29.

¹² Mūsdienu Latviešu literārās valodas gramatika, II, Sintakse, Rīgā, 1962, p. 373.

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dawka okolicznikowa)¹³, Czech (doplněk, predikativní determinant)¹⁴, and German (prädikatives Attribut)¹⁵ grammars. Russian-language research also raises the question of identifying the predicative attribute¹⁶.

Constructions with a predicative attribute are very old. They are characteristic of the ancient Greek and Latin languages, as well as of Old Church Slavonic¹⁷.

§ 5. It must be said frankly that, in distinguishing the predicative attribute in Lithuanian, we also encounter certain difficulties. Therefore, an attempt will be made here to address transitional cases between the predicative attribute and the predicate, between the predicative attribute and adverbials, and between predicative and attributive attributes.

a) The relationship of the predicative attribute to the predicate

The predicative attribute approaches the predicate in cases where the lexical meaning of a particular verb in a sentence has faded so much that the verb alone can no longer perform the function of the predicate. For example, words and constructions linked by double syntactic relations usually form part of the predicate and are not a separate sentence constituent when they are attached to the verbs tapti, darytis, pasidaryti, rodytis, pasirodyti, atrodyti, rasti, likti, palikti, pasilikti, jaustis, pasijusti, etc., which in that context have a meaning close to that of the verb būti.

— Could you weave me a cloth such that, once dressed in clothes sewn from it, I would become invisible and impossible to find? CvR V 56. And every day Vaičiulis grew richer. The earth turned to ash. And the whole house seemed warped everywhere. And at once he seemed to her so kind and lovable. The sun looked like a large golden coin through the mist. Cibikė became unhappy, sorrowful, and grew thin. Eželis took off his prickly hide, tucked it behind the stove, and remained a young, tall, handsome youth. I will marry none of them; I would rather remain an old maid. Thus the fields remained mournful to us everywhere. At the shop they all feel at home. CvR V 48. SimonVK I 216. DonR 64. VencIR

¹³ St. Szober, Gramatyka języka polskiego, wyd. IV, Warszawa, 1957, p. 316.

¹⁴ Cf. P. Mrazek, The Problem of the Predicate and Its Classification, “Sbornik prací Filosofické Fakulty Brněnské University” Vol. 7 (A)C. 6, Brno, 1958, p. 16—17; A. B. Исаченко, Transformational Analysis of Short and Full Adjectives, in: Исследования по структурной типологии, Москва, 1963, p. 88.

¹⁵ H. Paul, Deutsche Grammatik, III, Halle (Saale), 1956, p. 15.

¹⁶ See H. M. Александров, The Problem of Secondary Sentence Constituents in Russian, «Ученые записки Ленинградского Гос. пед. института им. А. И. Герцена», vol. 236, Ленинград, 1963, p. 369—371.

¹⁷ For corresponding examples from Greek, Latin, and Old Church Slavonic, alongside the Lithuanian examples of the type under discussion, see K. Brugman, Die Syntax des einfachen Satzes im Indogermanischen, Berlin und Leipzig, 1925, p. 93; A. A. Потебня, Из записок по русской грамматике, т. I—II, Москва, 1958, p. 176—177, 295 ff.

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III 52. Suddenly she felt herself cast out from among her own people.

SimonVK I 29.

In another context, however, the same verbs may retain an independent meaning and themselves perform the function of the predicate. Cf.: There was not a single upright one left in the square (ŽemR IV 360), where upright one is not part of the predicate and is a predicative attribute.

In a particular context, verbs that require the accusative or instrumental case are not entirely independent either, e.g.: rasti, daryti, padaryti, turėti, laikyti. However, their meaning does not approach that of the verb būti, and they do not become a copula. The accusative and instrumental case forms associated with them may be considered predicative attributes, although they are very close to the nominal part of the predicate.

When the little goat returned, she found the door open. LTt 287. A large nose makes a face look solemn. SimonVK I 314. You made them equal for us. JabIRR I 455. And the goat was beautiful too: she had large, gentle eyes, a pointed little beard, pink nostrils, and teeth white as peas. ŽemR IV 460. — Oh, tell me, man, which of the three of us do you need most, which would you consider first and seat at your right at the table? CvR V 123.

In Lithuanian, combinations of verbs with an independent lexical meaning and participles are also used; cf.:

She denies having taken it, says she does not know (=denies that she took it, does not know). DaukŽP 23. He threatens that he will sell (=threatens that he will sell) the farm. SimonVK I 167. — Will you not stop howling! (=will you not stop howling). KrėvŠP₁ 111. Plonis gave up drinking and smoking (=gave up drinking and smoking). SimonVK I 189.

In these sentences the participle is related not only to a verb with an independent lexical meaning, but also to the nominative subject, as in the sentences discussed above, e.g.: The father returned tired. However, the relationship of the participle to the verb itself is not the same in the sentence The father returned tired as in the sentence She denies having taken it. In the first sentence, the father returned denotes an action of the entity, whereas the father tired denotes a property of the entity, or a certain state of it at the time of the action mentioned (the meaning of a predicative attribute). In the second sentence, both she denies and she having taken it denote an action of the entity. Here the participle having taken does not have the state meaning characteristic of a predicative attribute. Therefore, in these cases participles should be distinguished from predicative attributes and considered parts of the predicate.

Words having double syntactic relations form part of the predicate also when they are attached to compound forms of auxiliary verbs or to verbal combinations whose dependent component (participle, infinitive) has no independent lexical meaning.

And they had already become necessary for the construction work. VaižgRR I 297. Lankutis turned out to be more virtuous. SimonVK I 165. But since the father said so, one must be satisfied. DaukŽP 39. I can still remain a beggar all my life. LTt 344. But Vilkas thanked him, saying that he too had ridden there. SimonVK I 287.

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b) The relationship of the predicative attribute to adverbials

Predicative attributes expressed by a participle in the nominative are closely related to adverbials. Agreeing with the subject in the nominative and attached to the verb or verbal phrase functioning as the sentence predicate, active and passive past-tense participles and passive present-tense participles are used¹⁸. However, they do not always have the meaning of a predicative attribute.

When agreeing with the subject in the nominative, active and passive past-tense participles quite often relate differently to the verb or verbal phrase functioning as the predicate, namely: they express a secondary action that does not coincide with the main action expressed by the predicate and is usually prior to it. Such uses of participles should be regarded not as predicative attributes, but as adverbials¹⁹.

The fox, having returned, stood far away on the hill and spoke to the wolf. LTt 292. The grandfather, warmed up, laughed cheerfully. ŽemR IV 450. Martynaitytė, having picked it up, put the broom in the corner. SimonVK I 276. The king immediately sends Jonis to bring back that water maiden after catching her. DaukŽP 60.

Called by Vilko Martynas, he blushes like a girl. SimonVK I 121. The released serpent began to speak. DaukŽP 11. Woken in the morning, she would dance and hurry to drive out the geese. ŽemR IV 439.

The aforementioned participles are considered predicative attributes in cases where the state of the thing they express coincides in time with the action expressed by the predicate.

“That Tautrimikė is a real monkey,” says Ger-vinienė indignantly. SimonVK I 265. From storms and squalls they lay fallen, tangled over one another. DaukB 27.

Sometimes contexts occur in which the stative meaning of these participles is combined with a shade of meaning indicating a secondary action, making it difficult to determine whether this is a predicative attribute or an adverbial.

The little hare lies fallen beside the road. ŽemR IV 426. In the yard, in the grass, Evikė squats and feeds the squeaking goslings. SimonVK I 292. The horse began tossing its bridle to the sides; irritated, it galloped off. CvR VIII 213.

However, such transitional cases do not invalidate the twofold syntactic function of active and passive past-tense participles, which is grounded in differences of meaning arising from the words in relation.

¹⁸ For an analysis of the meaning and use of participles agreeing with the subject in the nominative (without addressing their syntactic function), see V. Ambrazas, Lietuvių kalbos dalyvių atributyvinė-predikatyvinė vartosena, in: Lietuvių kalbos morfologinė sandara ir jos raida, Vilnius, 1964, pp. 47—79.

¹⁹ The term “secondary, or subordinate, predicate” would also be suitable here (cf.: Совещание языковедов юга России и северного Кавказа по вопросу о членах предложения, p. 20), but it has not been introduced into Lithuanian grammars.

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The nominative of present-tense passive participles, linked by double syntactic relations, denotes an action occurring concurrently with the main action, not an earlier action as do past-tense participles²⁰. However, in almost all such cases they have a more pronounced shade of meaning as a secondary action rather than a state, and should be regarded as adverbials.

For I told Saint Peter not to let you in, because w h e n y o u w e r e b e i n g i n v i t e d (=when they invited you) y o u d i d n o t w a n t h e a v e n. DaukŽP 94. H e also came upon an oven, a cow, an apple tree, and a linden, but when a s k e d (=when they asked her), h e d i d n o t h e l p anyone. LTt 336. The o l d m a n, u n a s k e d (=although no one had asked him), s a t d o w n on a bench by the window. LzPR III 93.

In rare cases, the nominative of present-tense passive participles may have a more clearly expressed state meaning and be regarded as a predicative attribute (cf. § 1, 1 b).

In sentences, gerunds too are linked to other sentence elements by double syntactic relations. Having only the nominative case, they are used with a nominative subject²¹ and, like present-tense passive participles, denote a secondary action that coincides in time with the main action of the sentence. In contemporary literary language, gerunds do not have the state meaning characteristic of the predicative attribute, which the inflected words mentioned above possess, and should always be regarded as adverbials.

Juras ran from the fence to watch how the w o m a n s q u e a l i n g t h r e s h e d (=squeals and threshes) the godless one. CvR VIII 36. Jurgis M a r t y n a i t i s stands by his cart in the market, in the pig market, and, b o r e d, c h e w s (=is bored and chews) a straw. SimonVK I 285.

In older texts, for example in the writings of K. Donelaitis, there are instances of gerund usage in which they have a meaning close to that of a predicative attribute, that is, where alongside the meaning of a secondary action there is also a fairly distinct meaning of state or quality²².

For God did not promise to feed us without toil, and, l a z i n g, ever d o z i n g, they are w o r t h l e s s in the world. DonR 34. So that, many times, d r o o l i n g, his l i t t l e t o n g u e hangs from his hot jaws no less than a rag from a peg. DonR 36.

Adjectives such as lying on one’s back, barefoot, and face down, which are linked by double syntactic relations, have an adverbial shade of meaning: their lexical meaning denotes the state of an object, while they also seem to express the nature or manner of the action (much like manner adverbials).

²⁰ Cf. V. A m b r a z a s, cited work, p. 61.

²¹ In dialects, other case forms of gerunds also occur, for example the dative case, agreeing with the dative of the complement and attached to the predicate: That fellow, after serving seven years, was going home, when, as he was walking along, he happened to meet (Dubičiai, Varėna district).

²² T. Buchienė regards all the gerunds used in K. Donelaitis’s writings (including those with an adverbial shade of meaning) as predicative attributes (przydawka okolicznikowa), basing this judgment solely on their double syntactic relations (see T. B u c h, Użycie participiów w utworach Ch. Donelajtisa, “Biuletyn Polskiego Towarzystwa językoznawczego”, 21, Wrocław, Warszawa, Kraków, 1962, p. 151, 159).

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When you go farther to harrow, you open the harrow with the long handles. Vb. In summer we often went on foot. ŽemR IV 299. And as soon as the goslings had slept, they would tumble head over heels into the water to splash about. SimonVK I 296. The nobleman came riding on horseback. Whoever has once tasted Montvila’s vodka will not even look askance at Rupkus’s. LzPR III 102.

Adverbial nuances of meaning are also found in verbal adjectives with the suffix -inas, whose lexical meaning retains the nuance of a secondary action characteristic of participles.

He goes (the master) home cheerful, leading a mare, carrying a pot, a knife, and belts. LTt 381. And here we are, always hurrying as we do our work. DonR 42.

However, the adverbial nuance of these adjectives arises solely from their lexical meaning, not from their relations to other sentence constituents. Therefore, these adjectives, like others that have double syntactic relations in the sentence and denote the state of an entity while the predicate’s action is taking place (even if with an adverbial nuance), should be treated not as adverbials²³ but as predicative attributes.

In certain contexts, predicative attributes formed by the instrumental case, a comparative construction, or a prepositional construction approach adverbials. Their function can be determined by examining their relation to the subject in the nominative. In some cases, prepositional and comparative constructions or the instrumental case, attached to a verb functioning as the predicate, are not linked to the subject in the nominative and do not denote the state of an entity, but merely indicate how the predicate’s action takes place. They should then be regarded as adverbials. In other cases, the constructions mentioned and the instrumental case can be linked in the sentence not only to the predicate verb but also to the subject in the nominative. These constructions and the instrumental case indicate the state of an entity and should be regarded as predicative attributes. Cf.:

a) closer to predicative attributes:

After such quarrels, struck dumb by Jonas’s melodies, father would come out with a sour expression. CvMS 76. Oh, what toil there’ll be before I carry into the barns everything that still lies upstairs or in the granary without a stalk. DonR 32. At daybreak, the man went down to the riverside, caught a whole basketful of fish, then stopped in the forest and gathered a whole basketful of berries... and returned in the evening to the wheeled hive. CvR V 53.

b) closer to adverbials:

Džiugas returned home empty-handed, having handed over all his day’s work to the German. CvR V 54. I’ll wring my own neck; let him come back without the horse. KrėvŠP 38. Juozas rushed into the kitchen like a whirlwind. LzPR III 36.

²³J. Balkevičius, too, does not consider adjectives of this type adverbials, despite emphasizing their adverbial nuance; see the work cited, p. 123.

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However, there will always remain transitional cases in which it is difficult to determine, without a certain degree of subjectivity, the function of prepositional and comparative constructions or the instrumental case, cf.:

The ground froze without snow. CvR VIII 208. Go to the cowshed and throw some hay to the sheep; they’ve been bleating like mad all morning. BaltPV₁ 52. Dreyfus always comes to church in a black suit. SimonVK I 59.

c) The relationship of the predicative attribute to the subject and the attributive modifier.

The adjectives functioning as pronouns each, not one, one … another, etc., and the nouns functioning as pronouns someone, nobody have an ambiguous function when, in association with a verb carrying an independent lexical meaning, they agree with the subject nominative only in gender and case, but not in number: the pronouns appear in singular nominative forms (although some of them inflect for number), while the nouns appear in the plural nominative.

The workers each know their job. ŽemR II 160. And the goose sellers each rejoiced only when he turned to her with his long nose. BalčHP₁ 162. So let’s grab each our ox now. DonR 34. None of us believed that the patient would die. Grž. Apparently the women had something on their conscience, for when they had gone inside, not one of them dared approach the patient. LzPR I 278. The men took Adam, one by the back and the other by the legs. VencIR III 117. Now some of us, too, are beginning to doubt. JablRR I 224. None of us know that. JablRR I 223.

J. Jablonskis had already pointed out that in sentences of this kind the pronouns are not true subjects. Having cited examples of this type, he observed that here the pronouns “do not by themselves constitute the whole subject, and the predicates here do not agree with them.” “In the sentences Here everyone has to work, here we all work... the predicates agree with the implied subjects you, we; the word everyone here merely clarifies the subject you, we, helping to identify it more precisely”²⁴. Having understood the relationships between the words under discussion in the sentence quite accurately, J. Jablonskis calls these pronouns secondary parts of the subject, or adjuncts of the subject.

That in sentences of the type described the pronouns are not attributive modifiers is shown by their relationships with other words. An attributive modifier forms part of the sentence together with the word it modifies and has no direct connection with the predicate, cf. Every worker knows his job. In the sentences given above, the pronouns each, not one, etc., while relating to the subject nominatives, are also directly connected with the predicates. Thus, the syntactic relationships of these pronouns correspond to those of a predicative attribute. Because of their specific lexical meaning, these pronouns do not indicate a clearly defined state of an entity. Nevertheless, in the sentences cited they are very close to the predicative attribute.

Transitional cases between the predicative and attributive modifier also occur purely as a result of contextual circumstances.

²⁴ See J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, I, p. 462.

8. Lietuvių kalbos gramatinė sandara

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The predicative attribute approaches the attributive attribute when it stands before the noun with which it is related, that is, when it occupies a position ordinarily taken by an attributive attribute.

“Send me some peasant or other!” the angry gentleman agreed from the carriage. BilR₁ I 174. Now, having returned from her sister’s, cheerful Aunt Kunigunda began thinking about a present for little Marytė. LzPR III 58. As the new pot soaks things up, so the old one gives them back. PP 204.

The attributive attribute likewise approaches the predicative attribute when it occurs in an unusual word order in the sentence, that is, after the word it modifies.

They often thresh the straw and tie it back into sheaves. ŽemR IV 460. And there stood old maples, their branches, dried up with age, entwined, and century-old, hollowed-out lindens, in whose hollows bees stored honey, gave off a fragrance, as did the trampled ground around them. VencIR III 41.

Sometimes it is possible to tell whether certain words function as an attributive or a predicative attribute only from the broader context and intonation.

There is shouting in every yard, carts being pushed creak; in every wealthier cottage, roasting ducks [s]izzle, pigs squeal, hams boil, smoke billows. VencIR III 26. Look—the small, dilapidated cottage stands beside that house. LTt 355. When winter comes, the brave return again in anger, and the bristling north wind comes rushing at us once more, to frighten us. DonR 90.

d) A separate case of the use of the predicative attribute.

Active present and simple-past participles that form predicative attributes and agree with the case forms of the object (most often the accusative) are close to the corresponding converbs used in similar cases; cf.:

And I saw my little daughter sitting. JabIRR I 614. Frozen, trembling, the two of us were shoved into the pantry. ŽemR IV 33. One day, as Onelė sat by the little geese, she saw an exhausted old man coming along the highway. ŽemR IV 439. Once he heard Tautrimas telling his father about such a thing. SimonVK I 80. Martynas is waiting for Anė to come in. SimonVK I 295. The farther we move from our own times, the more difficult and meagre we see the lives of people in bygone days to have been. JabIUZ 20.

In these cases, the converb and the participle differ as follows. Since it has no ending, the converb is less closely connected with the case form of the object than the participle, which agrees with that case form. Thus, in the utterance I saw my little daughter sitting, the property of the thing is expressed more clearly, that is, her state (what the daughter was like when I saw her); whereas in the utterance I saw my little daughter sitting, the secondary action is emphasized more: that the daughter was sitting when I saw her.

Nevertheless, in these cases it is not possible to draw a strict distinction between converbs and participles. Active present participles with certain lexical meanings, ei-

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…ing as predicative attributes, alongside the meaning of state, sometimes also retain a nuance of the meaning of a secondary action; cf.: Finally, they found the clever girl plucking a goose. CvR V 137.

On the other hand, the predicative attribute is not always in agreement with the case of the object or subject, nor is it in other cases. Therefore, if the active participles mentioned above are considered predicative attributes, the corresponding gerunds, which more or less correspond to them, likewise cannot be left with a compound object. These gerunds can probably be regarded as a separate case of the use of predicative attributes.

§ 6. From all that has been said, the following more general conclusions can be drawn.

1) The predicative attribute is connected by double syntactic relations with a verb of independent lexical meaning functioning as the predicate, with a verbal phrase containing such a verb, or with another word serving the corresponding function, and with the nominative case of the subject or the cases of the object. It indicates the state of the thing expressed by the latter cases at the time when the predicate’s action takes place.

2) The meaning of state characteristic of the predicative attribute arises in the sentence from words and phrases in mutual relation; it depends only in part on the lexical meaning of the words.

3) When adjoining a verb of independent lexical meaning, the predicative attribute does not enter into the sentence’s predicative phrase and is a secondary sentence constituent. In this it differs from the nominal part of the predicate, which, when combined with the auxiliary verb to be or with verbs denoting the existence or coming into being of a thing (to become, to make, to become, etc.), enters into the sentence’s predicative phrase.

4) The relationship between the predicative and attributive attributes is as follows: the predicative attribute is directly related to the sentence predicate, whereas the attributive attribute enters the sentence together with the word it modifies and is not directly related to the sentence predicate.

5) The predicative attribute differs from adverbials not only in its syntactic relations but also in meaning. Words (the participle nominative in certain cases and the half-participle in all cases) that have double syntactic relations with the predicate and subject, but lack the meaning of state characteristic of the predicative attribute, merely indicate a secondary action and should be considered adverbials, not predicative attributes.

PREDICATIVE ATTRIBUTE AS AN INDEPENDENT SENTENCE MEMBER

А. ВАЛЯЦКЕНЕ

Abstract

A predicative attribute is the term for words or constructions characterized by a double connection in the sentence, namely, a connection with a full lexical verb—the predicate—and with the case of the subject or object. A predicative attribute indicates the state of an entity at the time when

8*

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the action of the predicate takes place, e.g.: Gandras parlėkė linksmas “the stork flew back cheerful.” Lapė sugavo gyvą “they caught the fox alive.” In Lithuanian, a predicative attribute expressed by the nominative, genitive, dative, or accusative case agrees with the corresponding case form of the subject or object; a predicative attribute expressed by instrumental or locative case forms (as well as by prepositional or comparative constructions) does not agree. The meaning of state characteristic of the predicative attribute is a syntactic phenomenon: it depends only partly on the lexical meaning of the word. While adjoining a full lexical verb, the predicative attribute is not included in the predicate phrase and is an independent secondary sentence member.

The article also examines specific cases in which a predicative attribute approaches the nominal part of the predicate, an attributive modifier, or an adverbial.