Term by term. IX

JONAS KLIMAVIČIUS

The old field implements rest: the plough, scythe, rake, and harrow

Justinas Marcinkevičius

IMPLEMENT: SYNONYMS AND TERMINOLOGIZATION

The term and its many synonyms, with their various meanings, are widely distributed in living speech. Data from old writings (and dictionaries) supplement their areal distribution. The motivation of most is clear, and that of some is even similar. Little etymological explanation is needed. Another similarity in their motivation is its lack of distinctiveness, which also results in a degree of differentiation between meanings that is insufficiently precise, as is fairly characteristic of living speech. Some semantic differentiation in the vocabulary of the standard language began in newer writings and also took place in this microsystem, but slowly and intermittently; the metaphorization of meanings that accompanied it, in turn, somewhat leveled the distinctions. Synonym and standardizing dictionaries contributed relatively little here. Only the rather late process of terminologization, although not entirely complete and not without contradictions, had a positive effect on standard usage as well.

1. The handy person (tool-bearing) — speaking figuratively, not terminologically (not homo faber) — merely took in claws, in hand (cf. gather ‘take’; although another etymology has long existed) some natural object handy to grasp, within reach — a stone, bone, shell, tree branch or rod — a tool or implement (for gathering, fishing, hunting, fighting, work, play or music). By nature the two are probably complete synonyms, although in origin perhaps from different periods or even of different ages. Tool 1. (also tool) LKŽ IV 1957 — “an object with which something is done; a tool, instrument; a weapon.” But already in everyday speech, out of necessity — first and foremost something with which something is done, rather than worked — a stick, cudgel, rough stick, switch, rod, whip, lash,... Yet: And a craftsman without a tool is a fool (— stupid) Karklėnai. All my tools are blunt Skriaudžiai. Implement 1. (also implement) has not even been properly defined — it is explained quite erroneously, i.e. by the synonyms “tool, device, instrument, implement.” Although also — from dogs...

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Aiškinimo ydos nevengta ir norminiame DŽ₁ 1954: įnagis 1. „įrankis, padargas, instrumentas“ (2. šnek. „botagas, rimbas“), įrankis 1. – kiek geriau – „įnagis, prietaisas, su kuriuo kas dirbama“, bet DŽ₂ 1972 – dar prasčiau: „prietaisas, su kuriuo dirbama (paprastai rankomis); įnagis“; vos geriau SinŽ 1980 – įrankis 1. „p r i e t a i s a s, kuriuo kas dirbama“ (nors prietaisas ten yra kitos sinonimų eilės dominantė!..). Trūksta tikslumo ir DŽ₃ 1993: įnagis – 1. „paprastas įrankis“, o įrankis – „darbo priemonė (ppr. imama į rankas)“. Nors jau prieš 40 metų būta ir specialių norminamųjų pastabų (Grinaveckienė 1972: 43; Klimavičius 1973: 25–26), ir DŽe 2006 įnagis – be pažymos tarm. – 1. „paprastas įrankis“ [2. „mušamas daiktas (...)“]. Spaudoje, klestint metaforizacijos pastangoms (beveik lenktynėms), įnagis tampa ir nepaprastu įrankiu: Parkeris ir paprastutis peiliukas tapo jo svarbiausiais k ū r y b o s į n a g i a i s MkslL 2006 5 14. O įrankis 2. prk. „priemonė kuriam nors tikslui pasiekti“ tikrai per siaurai – pasenusiais! – suprasta – tai jau ir „įvairiausiam darbui, veiksmui, veiklai atlikti“: SNO – tarptautinės taikos ir saugumo palaikymo įrankis T 1975 217 3; politikos įrankiai Vd 2004 19 22, menas suvoktas kaip įrankis NŽA 2010 7–8 276, valtis – mano darbo įrankis Sav su TV 2012 39 18, balsas – mano darbo įrankis Sav su TV 2012 3 21, jo darbo įrankis – kūnas IQ 2011 4 118. Ar čia tiesioginė reikšmė, ar metafora: K o m p i u t e r i s nebera izo-liuotas į r a n k i s Vd 2005 43 19.

In 1895, Vincas Pietaris, in his memoirs, mentions toy instruments: Of the toy instruments, in Gudeliai Žiūriai they used the kanklės, a retukas (—a small sieve) (a little drum—a small drum), and a pipe with a little horn V. PietRR 1973 417. K. Būga tried using wind musical implement, while A. Sabaliauskas-Žalia Rūta used musical tool (folk). But K. Sirvydas’s dictionary already has instrument of musicians and singers. STŽŽ 1923 i n s t r u m e n t a s is explained (and is unlikely to be altered) as tool. TŽŽ 1936 similarly: instrument—tool, means and instrument steel. Musical and medical (surgical, etc.) instrument became established. LKŽ IV 1957 instrument 1. ‘tool, implement’ is also attested in the writings of M. Daukša and S. Vaišnoras. DŽ₂ 1972 instrument 1. ‘work tool’; surgical, blacksmithing instrument PolŽ 1984 инструмент—only tool. DŽ₃ 1993 instrument 1. ‘work tool,’ but only surgical, DŽe 2006—surgeon’s. For beauty salons it sounds more elegant (and more salon-like) to say not tools but fancy instruments Sav with TV 2009 11 10. From current press usage, one should first point out the non-recommended and inadmissible use of instrument to mean ‘tool’: carpenter’s instruments Vd 2007 35 16 (signed: the future

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The Lithuanian president – Harvard University student Gintaras Gavenas!), a designer’s instruments: brush, pencil, set square, and so on. Vd 2005 35 47, children get used to working with instruments KV 1988 20 14. The trio of table implements is described musically as an instrumental ensemble Sav su TV 2007 36 20. Advertising gushes: instruments for woodworking and electrical installation. International sophisticates write: the executioner’s instruments LA 1992 56 2, an instrument for smoking Vd 2006 26 23. Even a poet: The struggles are over / Both terrible and holy. / And the axe by the bed – / It is only an instrument / Either to knock together a coffin, / Or to hollow out a trough LA 1992 27 14. About a sculptor – remarkably: The best instrument is the hands KV 1983 51 7. For the poet, there was still enough here for both hand and head – an instrument too: My hand, what a good instrument you are to me! / – – – my great instrument, my head, <...> J. RainL 1975 178. And a writer’s instruments are mental Vd 2005 41 56. A woman’s beauty, too, is increasingly emphasized as an instrument Sav su TV 2006 9 18.

A sizeable group of instruments has become especially common: a gas pipeline is a normal political instrument Vd 2006 13 3, a bill of exchange is an especially good instrument for financing working capital Vd 2005 39 37, an internet connection is a wonderful instrument NŽA 2005 9 418; pension accumulation instruments LTV 2007–08–10, legal and institutional instruments NŽA 2007 8–9 419. These are truly means, cf. instrument – 3. figurative: means, method PONS. ALKŽ 2004. Why, instead of saying it simply and clearly, ‘to translate as means,’ do people resort to instrumentalizing, even though the idea is then paraphrased in Lithuanian: Amor concupiscentiae instrumentalizes the other: the other becomes part of me, I appropriate the other’s good for myself, turning it into a means to my own good NŽA 2007 11–12 555. The most natural metaphorization of an instrument is musical, for example: People in leadership positions, <...>, can realize only what is latent in the thought of the epoch. The instrument they are to play was not made by them – they are merely seated at it. Likewise, the work, <...>, is not written by them – they are merely given the notes A. Šveick ir E 1989 81. Very unnatural: There are no other instruments for helping a person climb out of a poverty of conduct, <...> Vd 2004 41 24. A very odd coupling of instrument with mechanism: The European Union could be a perfect example. It was supposed to be a place where everyone brought together their best instruments and created a perfect mechanism. In S. Rouvillois’s opinion, so far we have only a cumbersome, unwieldy heap of instruments, rather than a smoothly functioning mechanism Vd 2004 22 19. One can only marvel at the linguistic obtuseness when an editor scolds a truly perceptive translator who rendered German Instrumentarium

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means: “Translation loses <...> instruments with which one can grasp what the author is doing when reconstructing the chronotope” NŽA 2013 4 300.

Alongside the international instrument, there is also a foreign loanword—the musical stramentas LKŽ XIII 1984 and štremenas LKŽ XV 1991, strūmēntas ‘tool’ LKŽ XIII 1984. These come from foreign-language manors—as does the farm ventoris ‘inventory’ LKT 1970 328 (Suginčiai).

The resourceful human (as it were, homo habilis) has already worked and reworked things, that is, made (for himself). That is his p a d a r g a (s) (: to make Skardžius 1943: 102; Sabaliauskas 1990: 207) 1. ‘tool, implement, device (usually used for agricultural work or in the household)’ LKŽ IX 1973. Known already from Jonas Bretkūnas and Mikalojus Daukša, it is most characteristic of the Samogitians. It also has a collective meaning: Wood for the wheels, ploughs, tables, sledges (– sleighs), tubs, beds, stoves, cupboards (– wardrobes) A. Juška’s dictionary. Other sources further broaden the range of meanings seen here, for example: I don’t know how to manage without other implements, but (– but) I’m used to wielding an axe K. Jurkšaitis’s tales. Padargas 3. ‘the trigger board of a trap’ (Biržai, Kupiškis) is undoubtedly not polysemy but a homonym (: to irritate / trigger). The Samogitian variant pádárga is also common, while pa-dargas is the only derivative with the suffix -gas, although among the more numerous -ga derivatives, padarga is the only one with the grammatical meaning of an instrument; the others are action nouns (LKG I 1965: § 451; both padargas and padarga in the word-formation of nouns were overlooked).

More characteristic of the Aukštaitians is p a d a r a s 4.: Farm implements: plough, harrow, axe, flail A. Juška’s dictionary. It is also used collectively: A poor farmer (– householder), when all the farm implements lie rusty (– autumn) in the yard Rodūnia. He had many fine clothes and implements V. Krėvė.

The Samogitians, Lietuvininkai, and Aukštaitians of the western region also have p ă d a r ỹ n ė: The wood of implements J. Brodovskis’s dictionary. It, too, is collective. I gave away both the livestock and all the implements Ramygala. Here the breadth of its meaning becomes clear: In autumn and winter, household gear (– implements), or furniture, and other household equipment, for example: ploughs, harrows <...> in the season S. Daukantas.

Even rarer is p a d a r i n y s 2: His threshing floor is crammed full of all sorts of implements Šiauliai.

Rare too is the syncopated form p ã d a r n ē (Šeduva, Smilgiai, Panevėžys District).

An excess of derivational synonyms in the same dialect or even subdialect is expressed through their adjacent use: All the farm implements and household gear burned to ashes Grūžiai. For every occasion, one could find there the materials needed for implements and household gear S. Daukantas.

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A detached western dialect meaning is—implement 5, and in Radviliškis implement set 3—“harness,” although the Samogitian ²implements “harness” has been separated from the entry implement. The southern western Aukštaitian adjective implement-related means “suitable for making implements, tools,” but the illustration attests only implement-wood (as opposed to firewood) trees in Igli̇auka (implement trees are cited only from the writings of J. A. Pabrėža). This is also borne out by the nouns: A carpenter makes implements: carts, wagons A. Juška’s dictionary. Having had enough wooden implements and warmth M. Valančius. Just as material (: wood, tree) spread to include both fabrics and iron, so too did the range of meanings of implement (and its variants) expand. Even the old Baroque writings contain grand metaphors: Their implements death takes from before their eyes M. Daukša. They are slaves and implements (tools, intermediaries) of the devil S. Vaišnoras. As if continuing the sacred writings: Crowds of people leave their homes, with all the church’s paraphernalia (flags, lanterns, etc.), in full procession Žemaitė. And so it was in ancient warfare: Horses, weapons, instruments of war and wagons—all fell into the Lithuanian’s hands S. Daukantas. Albert, having taken the implements for demolishing the castle, heads into the castle S. Daukantas. <...> they stealthily damaged the battering rams, dismantled the machines, and waited only for the chance, under their cover, to haul the cannons and howitzers out of the city and dump the damaged implements into the Neris A. VienR III 1986 322 (Kryžkelės). It reaches back even to the life of primitive man: <...> in the Neolithic period <...> man sheltered himself with stone implements LT II 4 1919 511–512 (J. Basanavičius). Finally, the term is applied to new industrial developments: Farm implements are all made in factories, adapted for better cultivation of the soil Varpas (1895). Triebwerk—for example, a powered implement, machine K II. Automat—an implement that operates by itself K I.

In standard language the variant implement has already become established, yet the scope of its meaning has few clear boundaries. Sometimes the domains are described in broader or finer detail: A. Kaminskas’s poetry revolves around agricultural and household implements L and M 1981 37 4. <...> for plowing, sowing, grinding, and baking a great variety of implements are needed LP 1981 74 2. In fact: Millstones, like other implements, <...> T 1983 123 4. But what would count as a baking implement—an oven, stove, or frying pan? The lack of complete clarity is also shown by the supplement and others: he forged plowshares, knives, chisels, sickles, scythes, axes, various hooks, and other household implements P. TarasPab 1972 25. In the cart you saw a chest, iron wolf and fox traps, a pot, and in the pot two oak plates, a ladle, seven spoons, and other implements of the culinary art A. KivSBr 1968 96. Are the tools listed here (except hooks) implements?! Why are such disparate objects described here as implements:

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For sale: a f i c u s, a g a r a g e, a p i a n o, a child’s s t r o l l e r, and other family implements ŠlKal 1975 20. The researcher of ancient folktales also surprises us somewhat with his rather peculiar use of the word: Why is this ship on wheels? Knowing the p u r p o s e o f a w a g o n a n d a s h i p, these implements are incongruous V. J. BagdKGPas 1992 162. Implement is becoming a fashionable and increasingly frequent word, often with a hint of humor or irony: Thus—theatre <...>—is one of the little garments of the world’s deception. It is good if it is at least a scarf, but it may also be a bikini (...) right down to the inevitable h y g i e n e i m p l e m e n t s L and M 1990 42 6. “If we punish thieves with g a l l o w s, robbers with a s c a f f o l d, and heretics with a s t a k e, then would it not be better for us to put all these i n s t r u m e n t s o f p u n i s h m e n t to use against these creators of destruction too <...>” (Luther) S. Mark NN 1969 207. <...> we have got rid of such i n s t r u m e n t s o f u p b r i n g i n g as a s t i c k, a b e l t, and a handful of peas scattered in the corner of the room Šl 1976 5 4. But there are also serious, admirably metaphorical uses: Individual i m p l e m e n t s c u l t i v a t e t h e s e m a n t i c f i e l d s of words such as autumn, door, clay, day L and M 1982 51 5.

Thus, the meaning of implement 1, “a tool for agricultural work or household use,” should not only be clarified (definition), but its figurative meaning, derived from it, should also be recorded.

Only a memory remains of the musical implement (which Adolfa Sabaliauskas called the implement of joy A. KivSBr 1968 56): They would ask them during the holidays to take an interest in folk-music implements—that is what we used to call folk instruments GKr 1978 41 6.

Since a person too is, albeit alive, an implement, it is not at all surprising that implement 2. means “an organ of the body” LKŽ IX 1973. The source in everyday speech is also given without a sentence — Šeduva — but this may be somewhat folkloric and humorous, since there is the foreignism shlong 1. LKŽ XV 1991 (which most likely displaced the native member¹member 2. and 3. “ankle, hip” LKŽ VIII 1970). But it was precisely the perceptive Jonas Jablonskis who undertook here to establish the term implement. A bat’s w i n g is the finest, best t a c t i l e i m p l e m e n t LKŽ IX 1973. It did not become a term even as an equivalent or synonym for “organ,” but more than one writer, translator or journalist writing in everyday language follows Jablonskis’s path: Just as in aviation, f l i g h t i m p l e m e n t s must be perfectly prepared: the f e a t h e r s are impregnated, greasing themselves with fat from the rump gland MG 1975 9 23. <...> the i m p l e m e n t s that receive beauty are the e x t e r n a l s e n s e s — sight and hearing GrožKont 1980 341. The head, eyes, nose, cheeks, ears — the most valuable i m p l e m e n t s o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e — are not protected by [boxing] regulations, which (=that⟧) instead protect the neck, chest and the rest of the body J. Par OD 1984 255. “My proud suffering

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so long persecuted and pierced through and cut to pieces! Oh, if only divine unity, that woof of pain, could bind together these estranged implements and limbs that make up me” (Oskaras Milašius) I and B 1988 258. Implements of perception L and I 1980 209. Slightly humorous, though without irony: <...> adding a trembling hand to the heart, praised by poets as the most important implement of the human body ŠI 1978 15 8.

Kazimieras Jaunius’s ¹implement 2 and implementing device 2: There are two parts of the speech-producing apparatus: the vocal cords in the larynx and the resonator were consequential for linguistic terminology. Jablonskis’s credit is that he preferred the more familiar variant and established the term organs of speech. One wonders why a novelty sometimes appears, such as the tongue as the principal means of speech J. LipskSomP 1979 15. Of course, the 2006 DŽe definition of implement 2 as “organ of the body” is unjustifiably broad.

Pabūklas 1, “implement, apparatus, tool, device,” is Samogitian and is also cited from P. Ruigys’s dictionary LKŽ IX 1973. A more fully illustrated variant is pabūklė: I repaired the implements: flails, ploughs, axes, drills, feathers [the mouldboard wing of a plough] A. Juška’s dictionary. No objects are so very necessary to a carpenter and craftsman as his implements and the tools of his trade S. Daukantas. Only etymology explains the motivation: “;to be; in the past the root bū- may also have had the meaning of the suffixed verb, cf. German bauen, Old High German būan ‘to live, cultivate, plant’ from *bhū-” (Skardžius 1943: 193). But why is the most important meaning of bauen—“to build”—not added here? Mostly more recent sources—dictionaries and writings—show another side of the meaning: Ancient musical instruments L. Ivinskis. We have both sheet music and instruments—just tell us how we should sit down? J. Balvočius–Gerutis. The instruments are being raised J. Brodovskis’s dictionary. A long-distance viewing device L. Ivinskis. Soon two doctors appeared (– physicians) with their instruments Tiesos prietelius (1880). The implements are for extinguishing S. Daukantas, of death (– death) M. Valančius, of torture S. Gimžauskas, of luxury S. Gimžauskas. A rare subsense is “a component of a disassembled object”: He took all the parts of the millstone apart Kuršėnai.

A similar but very rare word, būklas, is quite different from the also rare 1, “place of being, dwelling, residence,” in the dictionary of K. Sirvydas, Panevėžys, Vaižgantas; it means 2 (more frequent būkla 3., būkle 7.), “device, instrument” LKŽ I₁ 1941: Adynykas (– a clock) a marine device is useful at sea; its courses show sailors how they should steer the vessel L. Ivinskis. Apskleistuvė—a device with which we cover ourselves from rain or sun L. Ivinskis.

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In more recent writings, pabūklas is entirely haphazard, but fairly diverse, e.g.: <...> the class teacher said that we should buy drawing notebooks, pencils and erasers. <...>. Such sadness pierced my heart that all the equipment slipped from my hands NŽA 2013 5 357 (J. Aistis). Hey, troika (– a team of three, a small sleigh), <...>! <...>? <...>. The horse, and the unwise means of travel, <...> N. GogR V 1954 288 (trans. M. Miškinis). <...> transport-equipment accidents often occurred B. RailKA 1991 405.

Thus DŽe 2006 pabūklas 1. “implement, device, tool” is not an authentic usage—it is dial.

Military pabūklai are large weapons S. Šalkauskis. It is odd that in KarŽ 1919 pabūklas still does not mean that: pabūklai, implements – орудия, приспособления, инструменты, pabūklas deng­tukui pakelti – приборъ для подъема клапана. But already in RLŽ 1924 орудие means not only implement, weapon, device; instrument, tool; but also cannon, mortar.

Although in SinŽ 1980 the dominant synonym įrankis 1 is defined as “a device with which one works,” prietaisas there is the dominant term in another synonym series, and is defined in a thoroughly unsatisfactory way as “a special adaptation.” LKŽ X 1976 is better: 1. “a certain more complex tool, installation, apparatus.” Prietaisas and prietaisa, as well as prita(s)ymas 2. mostly in the Aukštaitian dialect: Ajagi, what devices they have nowadays: a tractor comes up against a huge stone, bumps it and hauls it to Kuktiškės as freight. Where are my little hammers—all the devices for sharpening scythes? Veliuona. So these are devices—they hang [the clock], and go on their way Pilviškiai. Carry me, lad, across the Nemunėlis, without a boat, a raft, or a little craft Zapyškis. I have no devices at all for stuffing sausages Skirsnemunė. The seemingly clear motivation—“to adapt something to something”—is not borne out by the examples. In fact, it is quite different—cf. prita(i)syti 8. “to install, equip”: Get some little carts made for the children Sudeikiai. A mill was fitted into that ditch Vepriai. The bear hunters have attached sticks with wheels—and throw them Degučiai, taisyti 11. “to fasten, insert”: They fit scythes onto short handles Čedasai; and 17. “to make, produce an object”: They used to make birchwood spoons from the base of a birch Biržai (LKŽ XV 1991). The true motivation of prietaisas is exactly like that of our unfortunate borrowing nočna “tool, implement,” whose source is LKŽ VIII 1970 – Polish naczynie: naczynić “to make.” In living speech, a shift in motivation is already beginning—1. ‖ “that which is adapted for something”: Prytaisai for shrouds or pillow ends are almost the same thing Palanga.

Therefore, an įtaisas, whose motivation is clear and free of the present-day ambiguity, was needed: 1. “that which is installed; a device, apparatus” (also įtaisa, in written sources also įtais(is),

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įtaisynys) LKŽ IV 1957: Medui košti įtaisų neturiu Ėriškiai. Neturim nė įtaisų audimui Kairiai. Tai geras įtaisas, kad rašant nereikia į rašalą vilgyt Marijampolė. Anksti bandyta terminizuoti: Bėgių kelias ir visi jo įtaisai VĮ 1924. Ėmusis po pusšimčio metų plačiau ir konkrečiau pasižvalgyti skirt ybės apyčiuopom gan netiksliai pagautos: „Prietaisas yra sudėtingesnė už įrankį priemonė <...>.“ „Nuo prietaisų reikia skirti įtaisus, kitaip sakant, mašinų ar prietaisų detales“ (Lukšys 1973: 70,71). Ir užsimojus sistemiškai norminti prietaiso sąvokos ribų nerasta (Dragūnevičius, Klementavičius 1984: 11). Dar po 15 metų prietaisas – angl. ir pranc. instrument – apibrėžiamas tiksliai, nors sąvoka sudėtinga: „vientisas įtaisas dažniausiai kartu su kitais įtaisais ir energijos šaltiniu, naudojamas matavimams atlikti ir jų rezultatams apdoroti“ (Valiukėnas, Smilgevičius 1999: 8). MetrŽ 2006 pabaiga pakeista – vietoj „naudojamas <...>“ – „atliekantis tam tikras funkcijas“. Ir kai kurie aparatai (aparatas – „tam tikras technologines, technines ar kitokias funkcijas atliekantis vientisas kompaktiškas įtaisas, dažniausiai naudojamas buityje, namų ūkyje, medicinos ar kitoje srityje“) vadinami prietaisais, pvz., buitiniai elektriniai prietaisai (dulkių siurbliai, keptuvai, orkaitės, lygintuvai ir kt.) (Valiukėnas, Smilgevičius 1999: 7–8). Toks prietaisas gana artimas įtaisui – angl. device, unit, pranc. dispositif, unité – „užbaigtas gaminys (– priemonė) tam tikrai technologinei, techninei ar kitokiai funkcijai atlikti“(Valiukėnas, Smilgevičius 1999: 7; MetrŽ 2006). Po viso šito DŽe 2006 aiškinimai – prietaisas – tech. „įtaisymas, veikiantis sudėtingų fizinių reiškinių pagrindu, aparatas“; įtaisas – tech. „kas įtaisyta; koks įrenginys (ppr. nesudėtingas)“ – atrodo paklydę tarp mokslo ir aiškumo siekio.

Prietaisas 1. ‖ “a body part, organ” Skirsnemunė; also prietaisa 1. ‖ body parts Vydūnas, internal organs J. Balvočius–Gerutis, įtaisas 1. / plant structures or organs: flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots LT II 3 1914 431 (K. Grinius) did not enter the general lexicon, let alone terminology, any more than did a term such as padargas.

In spoken language, the principal meaning of įrengti—1. “to prepare, equip (a house, cottage, room)”—expanded in written usage, and į r e n g i m a s has had the meaning 3. “device, mechanism” since VĮ 1924 (LKŽ X 1976). The abstract noun in –imas is familiar in spoken language as a concrete thing (prison, threshing barn, weaving, plowing, kneading; getting dressed, putting on shoes, eating, drinking, picking, pouring), or simply as a concrete entity rather than an action (gathering, meeting, encounter, date); and in written language it has a meaning characteristic of scientific termin-

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nijai kaip galinti būti nedistinktyvi netinka, todėl įrengimas, buvęs PolŽ 1959, likęs PolŽ 1984, gana seniai keistas, pvz., riedmenų įrengties daiktai, paskui įsitvirtino du skirtingi – įrenginys „kas įrengta; įrengtas mechanizmas ar šiaip kas“ (!) LKŽ IV 1957, „tam tikros paskirties, dažniausiai stacionariai įrengtas, sudėtingas aparatas“ ir įranga „įrenginių, aparatų, prietaisų, įtaisų ir kitokių techninių priemonių visuma, laiduojanti <...> funkcijų atlikimą“(Valiukėnas, Smilgevičius 1999: 8). TechEnc II 2003 įrenginio nėra (kaip ir instrumento, įtaiso; III 2006 nėra padargo, IV 2010 – prietaiso, nors yra prietaisų skydelis!..), yra įranga –1. „technologinio proceso pagalbinės priemonės (įtaisai, įrankiai, štampai, modeliai, presavimo formos) apdirbimo, surinkimo ir kontrolės operacijoms atlikti“ ir 2. „vieno gamybinio ar technologinio proceso visi įrankiai, prietaisai, įtaisai“ TechEnc II 2003, dar ir kompiuterio techninė įranga IV 2010. DŽe 2006 įrenginys (ko be tech.?) ir įranga tech. aiškinama gana tiksliai ir suprantamai. SinŽ 1980 kaip šnek. (iš tikrųjų tarm.!) minėtas niekada neįsiteriminės, nors apibūdintas „galėtų tikti“ (Dragūnevičius, Klementavičius 1984: 7) žem. įkaboklis „įrankis, įnagis; prastas įrankis; prietaisas“, t. p. įkabuklis Ariogala (LKŽ IV 1957, t. p. LKG I 1965: §649), čia nepraleistinas dėl sisteminio priešdėlio į- (in-). Juoba kad SinŽ 1980 nepateiktas, tik A. Dragūnevičiaus ir A. Klementavičiaus susirastas įstrakalas „įrankis, instrumentas“ Seda, Mažeikiai (LKŽ IV 1957), t. p. variantai įstrakalis Veliuona, Subačius į- (in-) turi ne iš kilmės, o iš analogijos – yra perdirbiniai iš vak. dz. strakuolis, strakuòlas, strakòlis, strakòlas, ¹stràkalas, žem. stràkalis „tvoros lentelė, pagalys“ (kai kurių naujesnių žodynų strakuoliai „statinių tvora“) LKŽ XIII 1984, štrakuõlis, štrakuõliai, štrakìėlai LKŽ XV 1991, šie – iš astrakòlas / aštrakòlas, astrakõlai, astrakuõliai, astrakòlina, taip pat aštrakuõlė, aštrakuõliai „kuolų tvora“, o tai yra slavybės – plg. brus. астрако́ліна (LKA I 1977: 60). Ernsto Fraenkelio lietuviška jų etimologija –: straigti, straigyti „smeigti, besti, sreigti“ (LEW 1955–1965) yra netikra, tinka tik žodžiui straigas 1. „tvoros virbas iš eglėšakio, žiogrìs, statinis“, 2. „plonas pagalys, kartelė, smaigas“ LKŽ XIII 1984. LKŽ visos šios svetimybės nepažymėtos (beje, svetur šaknis dyge, tik labiausiai sulietuvinti raštu aštrakuolis „aštrus kuolas“, aštriatuorė² 1968). Tokios pat kilmės kaip įstrakalas ir gausūs kitų reikšmių perdirbiniai – ištrikulis „pagalys žabų vežimui ar kam kitam (pvz., perdžiūvusiai statinei) sveržti“ Pabaiskas, Taujėnai, ištrikolis „ratelis, ant kurio kabinamos nytys“ Rietavas, ištrakuolis „virvelė, ant kurios suvertos nyčių kilpos; srūstis“ Dauk-

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technical terms (also instrakuõlis Marijampolė, instrakolis Stakliškės, Seirijai, instrakojis S. Gimžauskas, ištrikuolis Švėkšna, ištraukulas K. Milkus’s dictionary), ištrakas “a tie on which the warp threads are strung” Alytus, istrakulas—simply “a certain part of a loom” in old dictionaries of Lithuania Minor (also istrakulas A. Kašarauskas), even istradlȧkas “a poor implement, garment” Šatės (LKŽ IV 1957).

These technical terms are wrongly treated as synonyms of p r i e r e n g m ė and p r i k y š l a i (Dragūnevičius, Klementavičius 1984: 11). Pr ierengmė refers to a cottage (Daugai), prikyslai to clothes (Šakyna, Joniškis, Kupiškis), LKŽ X 1976.

kibyklas 3. usually plural, “various parts of a tool or implement; objects piled up disorderly; junk” (LKŽ V 1959) has not entered any synonym series or debate (also kibinklas 3. usually plural, “junk, household clutter” LKŽ V 1959, Pakruojis; pakib yklai “unneeded objects that merely take up space” LKŽ IX 1973, Lukšiai): I brought in the loom, but I can’t find any of the kibyklas (that is, the footrests, shafts, beaters, wedges...) Gelgaudiškis. Now you’ve piled all the kibyklas across the path! Gelgaudiškis [cf. 4. “a broken, dilapidated object”: There’s only a kibyklas left of that bridge; it’s barely passable Gižai (also kibykla “broken object, junk” Bartninkai)], 5. usually plural, “steps used in building a house” Žvirgždaičiai, Raseiniai (also kibyklė Skriaudžiai), LKŽ V 1959. There seems to have been an attempt to make it a term—2. “mechanism”: Differential pulleys are very often used in various kibyklai Raštai.

P a d e r m ė s 7. The sentences do not clearly demonstrate the meaning “implement” (Skirsnemunė, Ramygala), LKŽ IX 1973.

SinŽ 1980 gives p r i e m o n ė in a figurative sense!—“a method, action for achieving some purpose” (syn. įrankis, įnagis, instrumentas). Priemonė is more clearly motivated by its meaning 4. “knowledge, wisdom, intelligence” (also priemonia 2., priemoni s 4.); cf. also priemone “understanding, consideration” (also priem onis), priemanus “knowledgeable, capable” LKŽ X 1976. The most widespread meaning of priemonė is 1. “an implement, device or some other object needed when doing something”: He hasn’t brought back any tools for the hay. There’s no tool to get us going Biržai. The Lowland form prymonis is cited from Jablonskis: “The thief had tools and entered the house through the roof.” Jablonskis himself has means of learning. The meaning of priemonė in spoken language has no clearly defined contours. Hence the figurative meaning 2. “a method, means, action used to attain a particular goal” is also broad: means of word formation, means of artistic expression... In technology, priemonė has not become a technical term because of its broad meaning (nor has there been a

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(specific needs). Precisely for this reason, it can serve as the ideal defining and descriptive term for all other terminologized synonyms, as well as a generalizing term: technical devices, work implements. Unfortunately, today this role—quite needlessly and incorrectly—is filled by tool: The most important thing is to make the machine a productive and convenient tool for human labor M and G 1977 11 17. A machine, an apparatus in the hands of a doctor, is becoming as commonplace, necessary, and indispensable a tool today as the stethophonendoscope or scalpel has been until now T 1981 209 4.

SinŽ 1980 gives as synonyms for tool, marked colloq. (actually dial.), implements and rykạ. Neither is a technical term.

Rykas 1. “vessel,” LKŽ XI 1978 (mostly from Lithuania Minor), is only an ethnographic synonym of vessel in standard language. Rykas 2. “implement, tool, instrument; requisite”: The harrow and the plough are the implements of farming Smalininkai. Known from K. Donelaitis: So take up the implements made for that purpose / and quickly and merrily muck out the fragrant dung. Common in the lexicography of Lithuania Minor: field implements, implements of life, work implements, things (—of war, of the army), implements, firefighting implements F. Kurschat’s dictionary. Household implements P. Ruigys’s dictionary. Sacred implements, profane things J. Brodowski’s dictionary. In a specialized meaning, F. Kurschat’s dictionary has wind instrument, writing implements. The same lexicography also gives the submeaning “weapons,” and J. Bretkūnas gives “sail”; 3. “things.” In DŽe 2006, rykas 1. “vessel” should be marked ethnogr., while 2. “tool, implement, requisite” should be marked dial.

Rakandas 1. “kitchen implement, vessel; tool,” LKŽ XI 1978, but there is no clear illustration of the meaning “tool.” There is, however, rakamañdai “tools, devices” in Girdžiai and Veliuona, and Samogitian rakybolas, rakibolas 1.: The carpenter packed up his rakybolas and left Plungė. It is absent from standard language. Rakandas 2. “piece of furniture” in Naumiestis and Viekšniai; 3. “old, unnecessary object, bulky item.” DŽe 2006 has conflated these meanings into one: “piece of furniture (often old, broken, unnecessary).”

2. Perhaps the most problematic issue in this microsystem is the terminologization of implement and the disappearance of this term. Having taken “names of machines, devices, and appliances” as “one of the richest strata of technical terminology” (Dragūnevičius, Klementavičius 1984: 3), they do not even mention implement.

The terminologization of implement took place in two fields—ethnography and technology. Ethnographic literature mentions A. Vitauskas’s article Ancient Agricultural Implements and Their Manufacture (the journal Gimtasis kraštas, 1939, No. 1). Two major works, published 25 and 43 years later, uncritically adopted and repeated his

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term: plowing implements—plough, ard, žuobris, rezokas LEtn 1964 52, 53, 54; implements for working the soil—wooden frame harrows LEtn 1964 56. Its actual meaning there is special manure-handling implements—wooden two-tined forks with iron prongs, forks with bent tips for turning manure out of a cart (Samogitian verteklis, of the kapsai dialect kanabekas), two-tined forks for spreading manure (Samogitian kapstyklės) LEtn 1964 67; harvesting implements—sickle, half-scythe, and scythe LEtn 1964 67; threshing implements—flail, or thresher LEtn 1964 80, although the sėtųvė is not a sowing implement LEtn 1964 62, but a rykas. A later-era single-horse-drawn device, known by various terms: ruliu, bliukiu, blukiu, trikuliu, velenu, volu, is likewise called a threshing implement LEtn 1964 82. The account concludes with traditional primitive agricultural implements—a single-furrow plough, wooden harrows, a simple rake, a scythe or sickle, <...> a wooden threshing machine or simple flail, a wooden winnowing sieve or even a primitive old-fashioned shaking winnower LEtn 1964 86. Pranė Dundulienė’s teaching resource Lithuanian Ethnography, which also uses the retrospective-reconstructive method and additionally archaeological material, begins with her account: The oldest tillage implements, <...>, were <...> hoes LEtn 1982 37. Yet there is no progress—horse-drawn (or ox-drawn) implements are no different: Lithuanian plowing implements are divided into two groups. The first comprises <...> single-tooth ards; the second, <...> single-tooth žuobriai, double-tooth ploughs, <...> ploughs LEtn 1982 37. And both together: The main implements of slash-and-burn agriculture were stone, later metal, axes, curved-tip knives, hoes, spruce-branch harrows, and sickles LEtn 1982 33. The implements here are not limited to tillage: wooden threshing rollers—intermediate implements between flails and machines LEtn 1982 53. Intermediate implements are indeed implements, yet they are still absent from the terminology: machines and more advanced tools LEtn 1982 36; agricultural machines and tools LEtn 1982 55; even heavy, modern implements and machines drawn by heavy horses LEtn 1982 57. Implements occur only together (as equivalents?) with machines: imported agricultural implements and machines LEtn 1982 53; agricultural machines and implements LEtn 1982 55.

Such distorted use of tool is also known from periodicals of that time: agricultural work tools NKn 1978 11 20; plowing tools NKn 1978 11 21; skimming with mouldboard implements or ploughs T 1981 200 1.

In ethnography, implement, long neglected, nevertheless became established. In technology, by contrast, as machines proliferated, implements were turned into machines.

In 1954, an English translation (trans. S. Lukėnas, M. Lukošius, ed. A. Čižas) of K. A. Polevickis and A. N. Karpenko’s book Agricultural Machines and Implements. was published.

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Implements here were undoubtedly influenced by the original – Сельскохозяйственные машины и орудия. Chapter I – Soil-Tillage Machines and Implements 7 (the order already changes!) begins with An Overview of Plows and Other Soil-Tillage Implements 7, but then comes Classification of Modern Soil-Tillage Machines and Implements 11. Plows 11, cultivators 11, harrows and cultivators 12, drags 12 and rollers 12 are defined here as “i.e., implements <...>”; only rotary tillers and other machines 12 stand apart, although elsewhere rotary tillers too are “these implements” 70. The other chapters deal almost exclusively with machines (including even the horse-drawn transverse rake 213), although a grain cleaner 402 and grain-cleaning equipment 399 also appear. Although the chapter is titled Special Machines and Implements 419, it contains few implements – only the subsection Machines and Implements for Planting Protective Forests in Fields 501 (e.g., digging plows 507) and Machines and Implements for Constructing Ponds and Pools 515. At the end is a Russian–Lithuanian Brief Glossary of Agricultural Mechanization Terms (611–644), but it has no entry for орудие.

PolŽ 1959 орудие – tool, weapon, means: work tool, means of production, antiaircraft gun; in the supplement – soil-tillage implement.

ALŽŪTŽ 1977 implements and agricultural implements – agricultural implements. Incidentally, ALKŽ 1975 implement – 1. tool; means, usually plural implements, equipment, while agricultural implements means agricultural inventory; LAKŽ₂ 1991 implement – 1. instrument; implement, agricultural implements – agricultural implements / equipment.

ŽŪMechŽ 1983 орудие – implement; tool: soil-tillage implement; horse-drawn implement, disc implement, but hand tool.

PolŽ 1984 орудие – 1. implement: soil-tillage, horse-drawn, disc; 2. tool: hand; 3. weapon: <...>; 4. means: fishing, production; and орган – organ, device, implement: work implement, work device; operating organ, operating device; regulating device, control device. Incidentally, RLKŽ II 1983 орудие – 1. tool, instrument, implement: сельскохозяйственные орудия – agricultural implements (while LRKŽ 1988 farm implements – хозяйственная утварь).

The structure of bilingual dictionaries is ill-suited to distinguishing meanings. Encyclopedias ought to do so, but they too lump them together. In the Soil Tillage entry, no distinction is made: The soil is worked Δ with implements and machines: plows, cultivators, harrows, drags, rollers, rotary tillers LTE XII 1984. Here, perhaps only a rotary tiller would be a machine, but according to the classification it too would count as an implement, since Δ implements are pulled by horses, oxen, buffaloes, and tractors. Further on, under mulching Δ are mentioned special agricultural implements: flat-footed cultivators, rotary harrows, and seed drills that sow into stubble. There is also an entry Agricultural Machines, with a statement that says nothing

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by way of definition: “machines used to perform agricultural work”; yet among those listed are soil-tillage (harrows, rotary tillers, cultivator, leveller, plow, drags, roller), plant protection (duster, sprayer), harvesting (<...>, grain reaper, <...>, rake, <...>, mower, hay tedder) – certainly not all of these are machines, but there are no entries for agricultural or soil-tillage implements. Another encyclopedia attempts to make distinctions, but creates even more confusion. The machine and implement rental station, established in 1941, was “<...> an agricultural enterprise that <...> rented horses and implements to farms” – horse-drawn plows, harrows, seed drills, reapers, horse-drawn rakes TLE III 1987. The TLE IV 1988 entry Soil Tillage begins with sticks and hoes; the oldest plowing tools were ards, followed by spruce-branch harrows, called šakočiai or smuikai; later, the plowing tool was the wooden plow. Yet none of these are classified as implements (not even iron factory-made harrows or cultivators), but nor are there any machines here. There is, however, an entry Agricultural Machines – including plows, drags, hay rakes, horse rakes, hand-cranked threshing machines!.. Nearby is the entry Agricultural Machinery Manufacturing, where among items produced in the second half of the nineteenth century, straw cutters, threshing machines, fuchtels, plows, only actual machines are interspersed – horse-powered threshing machines, threshers – and finally everything is lumped together: simple agricultural machines and implements (horse-powered threshers, horse-powered threshing machines, plows, horse rakes, threshing machines, fuchtels, gyvatukai), with even plow-type potato planters included here. The entry Agricultural Mechanization again omits implements, defining it as “the replacement of existing manual agricultural tools by machines and mechanisms.”

The regional MLE II 2003 entry Machines also refers to “agricultural work,” while MLE III 2006 has no entry Implements. Only the entry Metalworking and Machine-Building Industry mentions agricultural machines and implements (threshers, reapers, winnowers, rollers, plows), as well as agricultural implements manufactured in East Prussian machine factories: a two-furrow plow, a fodder chopper, a grain thresher. Likewise, the entry Metal Products and Their Manufacturers mentions various machines (for threshing and cleaning grain, reapers and mowers, hay rakes, axles, plows, iron harrows, and other field-crop machines).

It was the specialized encyclopedia’s duty to make a clear pronouncement. It tried to do so, but timidly and by compromise, and even took a step aside: it made implement have two meanings: implement 2. “a machine p a r t, a s s e m b l y or c o m p o n e n t that directly performs a technological operation” ŽŪE II 2003 (Vytautas Gerulaitis). This is anti-terminological, and moreover it is unclear what purpose it serves or what it means – would, say, a wheel, steering wheel, brake, half-shaft count as implements? Incidentally, the term assembly (узел) does not appear in V. Gerulaitis and S. Lukėnas’s ŽŪMechŽ 1983, nor even in PolŽ 1984; it appears only in TechEnc III 2006, as 1. “(in machine building) a group of parts joined

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…into a single unit for carrying out particular functions (e.g., reducers, couplings, bearings, drives)”; although it had appeared much earlier in the normative dictionary – ¹assembly 4. tech. “a part of a mechanism assembled from components” DŽ₃, 1993.

Implement definition 1 has one well-known flaw—“an implement for working the land and household use, a cart, a sleigh”—and, despite good intentions, an undefined compromise statement: “By tradition, Δ are sometimes also called simple agricultural machines without rotating parts, e.g., a plough, a harrow” ŽŪE II 2003. In fact, in this encyclopedia plough is “a metal ploughing implement <...>” ŽŪE III 2007, and harrow is “an implement <...>” ŽŪE I 1998. The definition of agricultural machinery here is essentially tautological—“machines used to carry out agricultural work”—but the listed types of undercarriage—wheeled, tracked, half-tracked ŽŪE III 2007 (Antanas Sakalauskas) confirm only the distinction of the plough and harrow from machines—their recognition as implements.

That is something, at least. And it is not the only instance. Of considerable importance are usage recommendations that have a certain administrative normative force: (agricultural) implements – English agricultural implement – French outil agricole – German landwirtschaftliches Gerät EurŽ 2004; tractor plough – “a machine (implement) for ploughing soil” LietRTermB, although the recommended definition of cultivator—“an agricultural implement for loosening and levelling the soil, destroying weeds, and incorporating mineral fertilisers”—was replaced by the approved one: “a machine for loosening the soil and destroying weeds. It may have fertiliser-incorporation devices” LietRTermB.

The distinction criterion—the presence or absence of rotating parts—is unclear, because the term itself is nowhere defined; neither ŽŪMechŽ 1983 nor PolŽ 1984 (орган ir часть) provides a definition, nor does TechEnc IV 2010. Even a linguist can distinguish that a motor is needed to drive wheels, tracks, and the like—to turn them; that the propeller blades of a helicopter are turned by the motor via the propeller, whereas the blades of an autogyro rotate by themselves in the air (so the former may be described as operating by rotation, the latter by spinning); that the rotor of hydraulic turbines is a rotating part, while that of electrical machines is a spinning part; and that a rotary furnace—“a cylindrical furnace rotated about a horizontal axis to process liquid pig iron into steel and to process non-ferrous metals”<...>—is rotated, according to TechEnc IV 2010, not so that the processing itself takes place, but simply to heat the cylinder (and its charge) evenly.

Although it is somewhat strange that to define what an implement is, one has to understand what a machine is, this is unavoidable.

Although the usage in living speech presented in LKŽ is not terminological, and even written usage is often of that kind or terminologically determined, it is better to begin with it. Machine,

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mãšina, dialectal mãšyna, also mašinas, mašinas LKŽ VII 1966 1. “a mechanism that performs some kind of work”: A threshing machine Druskininkai. They had reaping machines Kybartai. They have a rotating wool-combing machine Šatės. It is easier to sew with a treadle sewing machine than with a hand-operated one Alsėdžiai. They milk cows with machines Pumpėnai. There was a machine for threshing long-stemmed crops Darbėnai; 2. “a motorized means of transport (car, motorcycle, etc.)”; 3. “train” Eišiškės, Obeliai. Pasvalys (cf. engine driver), even 4. “stove” Švėkšna, Veiviržėnai, Pagramantis, Čekiškė, Jurbarkas, Naumiestis, Vilkaviškis, Šunskai, Kalvarija, Sasnava, Ūdrija, Krokialaukis. Also to be added here is mašinėlė – 1. typewriter, meat grinder Raštai, 2. “fire lighter” Tilžė, Klaipėda (mašinka Daugailiai), 3. “small car (automobile)”; in some places even “zipper”—mašinka. The widely used term for a horse-powered horse-gin (horse-drawn) and a threshing machine is machine; from this comes mašinbūdė, “a shed for storing machines (usually a horse-gin)” Krosna; mašinkūlė 1. “threshing machine” Raštai (mašinkūlis Tryškiai, Kairiai, Papilė), 2. “threshing time, thresh” Žagarė, Gruzdžiai (mašinlaikis Klykoli ai); mašinierius “a person who tends a threshing machine” Laižuva, Žemaičių Kalvarija; mašinuoti, mažynu o ti 1. “to thresh with a machine” Šatės, Kretingalė, Tauragė, Sintautai (mašinėti 2. Šatės, mašinavoti, mažynavoti 1. Kvė darna, Salantai, Židikai), mašin autė, mažynautė 1. “threshing with a machine, threshing” Judrėnai, Vainutas, Skaudvilė, Pagramantis, 2. “time for machine threshing” Kaltinėnai, Žvingiai [mašinuoti 2. “to separate milk with a separator, to centrifuge” Seredžius, Priekulė (mašinavoti 2. Alsėdžiai, Židikai), 3. “to mince meat with a grinder” Jurbarkas, išmašinuoti 2. ‖ “to extract (honey) by spinning” Smalininkai].

SNŽŽ 1907 has no entry for machine (perhaps it was thought self-evident), whereas mechanism is “the entire apparatus of a machine, its construction” (a similar situation obtains in SNŽŽ 1924). In TŽŽ 1936, machine is “any mechanical device by means of which energy, force is applied to perform any useful work”; the definition of mechanism is similar here too: 1. “means needed to transmit force and produce action”; 2. “the construction of a machine and the totality of its parts”. There is no science here at all.

Scientific definitions of the terms are fairly clear: machine—“a device for transforming energy, materials, and information”—energy, work, and information LTE VII 1981 (VLE XIV 2008 and TechEnc III 2006 are very similar), but LTE IV, VLE VIII 2005, and TechEnc II 2003 have no device, while the historical sections on machines mention pulleys, Archimedes’ screw, the lever, the windlass (even a windmill), which do not seem like modern devices, let alone machines. A lever may be a lever mechanism (a mechanism—“a system of bodies in which the motion of one or more rigid bodies is converted into a certain motion of other rigid

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kūnų judesiu“ LTE VII 1981) – dalbos judesys paverčiamas akmens ar rašto judesiu. Bet tada t e o r i š k a i visos aptartos technikos priemonės yra mechanizmai, o juos su mašinomis subendrina mechanizmų ir mašinų teo-rija ir jos šaka – mechanizmų ir mašinų dinamika LTE VII 1981, TechEnc III 2006. Pramonėje bendrinasi mašinų ir prietaisų pramonė, kurios „įmonės konstruoja, gamina, parengia eksploatacijai ir remontuoja įv. m a š i n a s, į r e n g i n i u s, p r i e t a i s u s“ VLE XIV 2008, tarp jų – „ž. ū. ir energetikos mašinos“, čia minima ir (1912 m.) N. Vilnios d a l g i ų gamykla, nesudėtingos ž. ū. mašinos ir p a d a r g a i. Technikos – „žmonijos veiklos medžiaginių priemonių“ rūšyje gamybos technika pirmiausia minimos mašinos ir mechanizmai, bet toliau skirstomos smulkiau tik mašinos, vienos iš jų – žemės ūkio mašinos LTE XI 1983. Šiame technikos straipsnyje teigiama: „Universali Δ klasifikacija dar nesukurta.“ Pats straipsnis rodo, kad tai, kas sukurta, yra labai netobula. Kiek paguodžia visai ne naujausio rusiško žodyno apibrėžtis: машина – 1) „м е х а н и з м или сочетания механизмов, осуществляющие определенные целесообразные движения для преобразования энергии (м а ш и н ы–д в и г а т е л и), изменения формы, свойств, состояния или положения предмета труда (м а ш и н ы–о р у д и я, рабочие машины), сбора, передачи, хранения, обработки и использования информации (напр., вычислительные машины)“ СИС 1979. Tačiau ir naujasis TŽŽ 2013 tik kartoja TŽŽ 2001 mašinos 1. apibrėžtį – „iš vieno ar kelių mechanizmų sudarytas įrenginys energijai, medžiagoms arba informacijai transformuoti, mech. darbui atlikti“.

Thus machines are not a genus of devices, but of mechanisms. The truest machines are those that transform energy—engines (engine, motor – “a m a c h i n e that converts some form of energy into mechanical work” LTE XII 1984) or mechanisms with engines. This idea is also supported by the second meaning of machine: “automobile.” I would venture to add that mechanisms for converting the energy of living beings—human or animal—are theoretically not classifiable as mechanisms of machines, since physics does not speak of such a kind of energy. Even a fairly substantial mechanism, a b i c y c l e, is therefore not called a machine; even a motorized one is merely a mechanism with a machine—an engine. Машины-орудия are mechanisms, or implements—not only horse-drawn but also tractor-drawn. Winnowing sieves (machines) LEtn 1982 54, a sieve—a machine for the primary cleaning of grain TechEnc I 2000, are theoretically only an implement, or a mechanism. Agricultural mechanization, not machine ization. To call a mechanism, or an implement, a machine is the same as calling an oak a tree: possible, but only within limits—you would not say that acorns grow on a tree.

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Lithuanian technical scholars—terminologists and terminographers—as well as linguists and editors insightfully reduced such “machines” by simple means: they terminologized Lithuanian words and coined neologisms, for example: šienapjovė, žoliapjovė, javapjovė, lapapjovė, šiaudapjovė,... bulviasodė, daigasodė,... linarovė, kelmarovė,... poliakalė, poliatraukė,... angliakasė, žemkasė, žemsemė,... smėliapūtė, šratasrautė, šratasvaidė, šeivatrynė,... (even garvežys, although garo mašina); kuliamoja, sėjamoja, sodinamoja, tręšiamoji, siuvamoja,... grūdų valomoji, sėklų valomoji, runkelių kasamoja, linų brukamoja, kalkių barstomoji,...; mestuval, karštuval, zeltuval, šiauštuval,...; verptuvas, temptuvas, maišytuvas, plūktuvoas, rietuvas,... vamzdžių klotuvas, sniego valytuvas, šakų genet(u)vas, vandens keltuvas, akmenų rinktuvas,...; kedentuvė, šukuotuvė, pašytuvė, pluoštintuvė, dulkin tuvė,...; rūšiuoklė, kratykle. In Russian, which has in various ways influenced our terminology, we find машина PolŽ 1984, ŽŪMechTŽ 1983. English, too, has more “machines”: machine—1)—and talking machine—a phonograph, 3) a bicycle; <...>; an airplane, 4) a sewing machine, machine-gun—a machine gun, machine-tool—a machine tool [even tool—3) machine tool—1) tool, instrument, 2) implement, 4) cutter], also machinist—1) locksmith; skilled worker (metalworker or machine operator), 4) person who sews on a sewing machine; seamstress ALKŽ 1975.

It should be assumed that our excessive use of the terms machine, mechanism is strongly influenced by their metaphorical use, undoubtedly easily borrowed from major contact languages. For example: television is a machine from hell Vd 2008 4 26, the machinery of state institutions Vd 2008 4 70; market mechanisms NŽA 2007 8–9 418, mechanisms of terror NŽA 2007 11–12 566, mechanisms for manipulating consciousness Vd 2008 4 57, organizational mechanism L ir M 2005 26 2, “mechanisms” for the operation and application of power: legal mechanism, disciplinary mechanism, security mechanism NŽA 2007 11–12 548, a species’ self-preservation mechanism Vd 2008 4 57, a mechanism for strengthening the family institution Vd 2004 41 24, the kitchen of the Ralio is a complex mechanism Vd 2005 3 54. This does not promote clarity and simplicity of language or precision of concepts; if anything, it does the opposite.

The definitions in DŽe 2006 are inadequate, and not without flaws: machine—1. technical: “a mechanism that performs some kind of work”: steam m., whereas that is precisely not a work machine but an energy machine; mechanism—1. “a device for transmitting and transforming motion,” whereas in reality it is “a technical means for converting force motion into work motion or action”; 3. figurative: “internal structure, system”: language m., state m., whereas this means “the mode/manner in which a system operates”; technology—

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1. “means of human material activity (machines, devices, etc.)”; and the other items are essential components—“industrial buildings, roads, bridges, canals, means of transport and communication” LTE XI 1983, so they cannot be omitted.

CONCLUSIONS

Broad synonym groups—implement, tool; instrument; implement (padaras, padarynė, padarinys), weapon, device, appliance, installation, apparatus, equipment; įkaboklis, įstrakalas, kibyklas, pakibyklas; means, rykas, rakandas—consist mostly of words from everyday speech. Their motivation is generally clear or readily explained etymologically, though some interpretations are disputed. Nearly every item is polysemous, and the range of meanings among the synonyms is quite broad and not fully defined. Polysemy and synonymy occur even within the same dialect. Most entered the standard language; only įkaboklis, įstrakalas, (pa)kibyklas seem to have been left without a meaning. The excess of variants was fairly easily eliminated. Normative lexicography did not meet the need for differentiation. Terminologization proceeded sluggishly and took time—naturally, in step with technological progress, but also with delays—though it may be close to a final result (which also depends on the unsettled scientific classification of concepts in this field). Semantically, instrument came to be associated with music and medical technology, and weapon with military affairs. The terminologization of rykas and rakandas, whose meanings are notably varied (contrasting), may have yielded only partial results. An indefinite installation (usually collective plural įrengimai) persisted in usage for a very long time—in place of device (also not especially clear) and equipment. A very unsatisfactory feature of usage, though not noticed by everyone, is using tool instead of implement. From another direction, implement is being unjustifiably supplanted by machine, which itself is not properly distinguished from mechanism. Here one should rely on theory, not on pragmatic names for courses (or departments!...) and not on everyday speech, which, incidentally, also influences other languages (in general, not terminological usage) and is not regulated by theory. In general, the Lithuanian terminology has very sensibly reduced the use of machine, replacing it with concrete Lithuanian words whose motivation is clear (mostly neologisms). The most general word means has not been fully exploited—as a general word in lexicographic and terminographic definitions, descriptions, and summaries—perhaps because means had been an intrusive instrument of endless communist education, indoctrination, and organization, as well as a corrective “event”; but that is long past. Determinologization and the metaphorization of terms—mostly in journalistic writing, especially of instrument and, to a lesser extent, tool, mechanism—are largely cosmopolitan, uncreative, and formulaic.

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Gauta 2013-10-03

Jonas Klimavičius

Erfurto g. 56-14

LT-04107 Vilnius, Lietuva

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