LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, VI

LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

GENITIVE PLACE NAMES IN LITHUANIAN

B. SAVUKYNAS

The purpose of this paper is to examine linguistically¹ one working type of Lithuanian toponymy—genitive place names—and to establish their structural and semantic characteristics and their relationship to other structural-grammatical types of place names. To date, no structural-grammatical classification adapted to Baltic toponymy has been developed. S. Rospond’s structural-grammatical classification of Slavic toponymy, in his own view, is also applicable to Baltic toponymy². Clearly, once all the structural-grammatical and semantic types of Baltic place names are established, the differences between the Baltic and Slavic toponymic systems will become apparent. It can already be asserted a priori that individual structural-grammatical types of place names are not equally productive in Baltic and Slavic. The type of genitive place names is also much more productive and varied in the Baltic languages than in Slavic; S. Rospond calls it “z członem wyróżniającym w dopełniaczu”³.

Since the genitive of names (genetivus explicativus)⁴ is very much alive in the Baltic languages and can be used to express every place name, genitive place names have not hitherto even been regarded as a separate working type; at times, opinions have been voiced that genitive place names are merely genitives of names. We shall not engage in polemic with this view here, since genitive place names are an obvious fact in the Baltic languages and require no proof.

¹ For a long time, the settlement-history method prevailed in toponomastic scholarship, analyzing place names as “monuments of human geography” (“les fossiles de la géographie humaine”), as “historical sources” (“Geschichtsquelle”). Today, it is increasingly giving way to the purely linguistic study of place names. Place names are now viewed primarily as formations with a specific grammatical and semantic structure; their linguistic analysis draws on structural-grammatical classification, which identifies the working types of a national toponymic system. Once the morphological stratigraphy of these types has been established, their history, chronology, and geography can also be traced. Such a linguistic analysis of the toponymic system of an ethnically homogeneous area can provide a sound basis for subsequent historical study of that system’s range.

² Stanisław Rospond, Klasyfikacja strukturalno-gramatyczna słowiańskich nazw geograficznych, Wrocław, 1957, p. 49.

³ Ibid., p. 48.

⁴ J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, t. I. Vilnius, 1957, p. 585.

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Although the type of genitive place names is not numerous in Lithuanian compared with place names formed in other ways, it encompasses names of settlements, water bodies, and land features, for example:

a) settlement names: Lauko Sodà village (Žarėnai), Romãinių Kaimėlė village (Raudondvaris), Vaineikių Mėdsėdžiai (Darbėnai);

b) water-body names: Alsėdžių ežeras (Alsėdžiai), Drėvės upis (Linkuva), Mažrimo upė (Skuodas), Šilo ežeras (Dusetos);

c) land-feature names: Adomėlio lieknas (Biržai, Meilūnai village), Asių kalnėlis (Šimonys), Asmino kalnas (Plateliai)⁵.

The Latvian language also has many genitive place names: Aņģu purvs (35), Apiņu kalniņš (37), Dugas mežs (234), Dūrbēs ezers (240), Ēndzelina muiža (273), Gāndra Ūōzuola laņka (299), Gaūra upe (304), Guļbju ciems (337) Strauta upe (258)⁶.

The Old Prussian language, too, once had genitive place names: Sawlis-kresil (243), Gawsis-lauks (243), Tlokun-pelk (183), Treon-kaymyn-wey-sigis “trium villarum pratum” (185)⁷. As the Old Prussian examples recorded in documents from the 13th–14th centuries show, genitive place names have existed in the Baltic languages since ancient times. Other Indo-European languages can also confirm that this is not a new working type in toponymy⁸.

Toponomasts have shown that, for instance, in Slavic⁹ and Germanic¹⁰ toponymy the oldest stratum consists of topographic (or physiographic) place names derived from appellative terms denoting various features of the earth’s surface, such as river, lake, pool, marsh, hollow, stream, depth, garden, hamlet, yard, village, and the like, or the physical-geographical properties of those features: deep, long, narrow, steep, boggy, wet... It should be noted that such topographic terms often serve as the second component of genitive place names: Paežerių ežeras (Vilkaviškis), Adomėlio lieknas (Biržai).

Later, after the topographic types, other semantic types of place names developed: cultural, ethnic, possessive, patronymic, occupational, and diminutive.

The structural-grammatical stratigraphy of place names is much more complex than the semantic stratigraphy, since any working type may have a highly varied semantics, with forms that cannot be dated uniformly (topographic, cultural, ethnic, possessive...). Therefore, generally speaking, when discussing the stratigraphy of toponymy-

⁵ In writing the second component with an uppercase or lowercase letter, the established spelling rule is followed here; see Lietuvių kalbos rašybos žodynas, Kaunas, 1948.

⁶ J. Endzelīns, Latvijas PSR vietvārdi, I daļa, 1. sējums, Rīgā, 1956 (The numeral in parentheses indicates the page).

⁷ G. Gerulis. Die altpreussischen Ortsnamen, Berlin und Leipzig, 1922 (The numeral in parentheses indicates the page).

⁸ See F. Solmsen. Indogermanische Eigennamen als Spiegel der Kulturgeschichte, Heidelberg, 1922, p. 67 and W. Steinhauser. Die genetivischen Ortsnamen in Österreich, Wien und Leipzig, 1927.

⁹ Stanisław Rospond, Structural-Grammatical Classification of Slavic Geographical Names, Wrocław, 1957, p. 34;

¹⁰ Wilhelm Schmidt, Deutsche Sprachkunde, Berlin, 1959, p. 270.

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By stratigraphy, it is not meant that a layer of place names began and completed its formation within a particular period of time peculiar to it alone. In the stratigraphic sequence of structural or semantic types, only the beginning of their formation is established. Once a type has emerged in the toponymic system, it remains productive for a long time, merging into the full structural diversity of place names.

Establishing a stratigraphic sequence for genitive place names is very difficult, especially since they have varied meanings and are by no means all products of the same period. If the oldest place names were name-noun nominatives, and compound two-stem names arose from word groups (including genitive ones), then it should be assumed that genitive place names, though they came into use later than nominative ones, nevertheless predate compounds with a possessive meaning (see pp. 10, 11). Secondary, adjectival place names must also have arisen after the nominatives and before the compounds; they are semantically related to genitive ones, since both have an attributive meaning. Adjectival forms could be derived directly from common nouns, for example: Beržid stream (Baisogala) (: beržas ‘birch’); Siliū meadow (Pasvalys) (: šilas ‘pine forest’); Dūmb-lis lake (Kapčiamiestis) (: dūmblas ‘mud’)¹¹, and from proper names, e.g., Old Prussian Muntileitis dum̃mis (where the first component is a possessive adjective derived from the personal name Muntil¹², cf. Greek Ἀχιλλῆος δρόμος ‘Achillean (= of Achilles) road’. As we shall see, genitive place names, too, are derived from common nouns and proper names.

According to the second component, genitive place names can be divided into two semantic groups: metaphorical and topographic.

Metaphorical genitive place names

are formed from an appellative used in a transferred meaning in the nominative (the second component) and an indeclinable modifier (the first component), e.g.: Vilko Kinis vs. (Tverai), Jaučio Dėjimas ‘part of Lake Suosa’ (Viešintos), Būlio Kaktà vs. (Lūžgaliai village, Klaipėda district).

Also to be mentioned here are those genitive place names whose second component is a topographic term used in a topographic, but now transferred, meaning, e.g.: Lankos Laukas village (Plungė), Krōku Lankà lake (Šilutė), Mańgalo Kálnas hill (Varniai), Vilko Miškas forest (ibid.). It is apparent that these names once denoted features described directly by their topographic term, but after settlements were later established in those places, they too began to be called by those names.

Topographic genitive place names

have a first component of varied origin and meaning; accordingly, three groups of these place names can be distinguished: toponymic, anthroponymic, and appellative.

Toponymic genitive place names

are formed from a topographic term and an indeclinable modifier expressed by the genitive of another place name, indicating the feature’s local subordination to or proximity to another feature (here expressed by a place name in the genitive). In terms of meaning, these place names can also be called locative, since the toponi-

¹¹ All these place names are, grammatically, adjectives in the compound nominal category.

¹² Georg Gerullis, Die altpreussischen Ortsnamen, Berlin un Leipzig, 1922, p. 244.

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The distinctive feature here is the indication of the object’s location, e.g.: Akmenių ežeras (Lazdijai) — “a lake situated in Akmeniai”; Alsėdžių ežeras (Plungė) — “a lake situated in Alsėdžiai”.

Sometimes such locative genitive place names may have a possessive meaning if they denote the property of an entire village, e.g.: Jo-vaišių pievos (Leipalingis) — meadows that belonged to the peasants of Jova iškiai village.

A distinct group of genitive place names consists of the names of inhabited places formed from the genitives of other settlement names and from special terms denoting a particular type of settlement, such as, for example, in southern Lithuania, hut “a small hut,” and in Samogitia, forest-clearance settlers “inhabitants settled in a forest clearing,” and so on; for example: Plaskūnų Būda (Kruonis), Klėriškių Būda (Žiežmariai), Daukšių Mėdsėdžiai (Mosedis), Vaineikių Mėdsėdžiai (Darbėnai), Beržnotonių Kaimelė, Romānių Kaimelė (< village “village”) (Raudondvaris); compare the names of neighboring villages: Plaskūnai, Klėriškės, Vaineikiai, Daukšiai, Romāniai, Beržnotoniai. These place names may have either a locative or a possessive meaning, but this can be determined only after establishing the origin of each one.

In anthroponymic genitive place names, the first component is a non-agreeing modifier in the genitive of a personal name, e.g.:

Adomėlio lieknas (Biržai), compare the nickname Adomėlis;

Būrbos kalnas (Varniai), compare the surname (=pvd.) Būrba;

Baukio ežeras (Užpaliai), compare the surname Baukys;

Derkinčio upalis (Seda), compare the surname Derkinītis;

Dūdōs upius (Svėdasai), compare the surname Dūdā;

Gedmino ežerālis (Alsėdžiai), compare the surname Gedminas;

Mažrimo upė (Skuodas), compare the surname Mažrimas;

Paukščio ežeras (Alsėdžiai), compare the surname Paukštys.

Anthroponymic genitive place names most often have a possessive meaning. The first component is the genitive of the personal name (surname, nickname or, sometimes, given name) of the former owner of the place they designate; for example, the former owners of Baukio ežero, Dūdōs upiaus were Baukys and Dūdā.

Anthroponymic genitive place names may also have a commemorative meaning, when a place is named after a person associated with it. In such place names, the personal name in the genitive has this same meaning, as, for instance, in street names: Būgos gatvė, Kęstučio gatvė. Without knowing the history of a place, it is almost impossible to distinguish commemorative place names from possessive ones! Only in some such place names, when their origin is easy to surmise, do we clearly perceive the commemorative meaning, e.g.: Birūtės kalnas (Palanga), Gedimino kalnas (Vilnius), Švento Jōno upėlis (Surviliškis).

In appellative genitive toponyms, the first component is the genitive form of an appellative,

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usually having a simple attributive meaning, that is, describing some feature of a place. For example, in the toponym Liepų kalnas (Jonikaičių village, Pagėgiai), the genitive indicates a characteristic feature of that hill—it is overgrown with linden trees; Apynių raistė (Skiemoniys) is a place where many hops grow; Versmių upelis (Kuktiškės) has many springs (= sources).

In other appellative genitive toponyms, a l o c a t i v e meaning can also be discerned, for example: Daubos šaltinis (Budrikų village, Ž. Naumiestis)—a spring located in a hollow; Kapų ežeras (N. Radviliškis)—a lake situated by the graves.

Still other appellative genitive toponyms have a p o s s e s s i v e meaning: in them, the genitive indicates that the place belongs to a person designated by an appellative referring to that person’s occupation or some other characteristic, for example: Kunigo upėlis (Birštonas), Klebūno upė (Mosėdis).

Possessive toponyms formed with an appellative genitive are also difficult to distinguish from m e m o r i a l ones, since, for instance, Kunigo upėlis may have been so named not because it flowed through a priest’s field, but because the priest was connected with it in some other way. A clearly memorial meaning is found, for example, in Ūbago brasta (Čivonių M village, Veisiejai)—a beggar drowned there.

Having reviewed the structural and semantic types of Lithuanian genitive toponyms, they can be represented graphically as follows:

Parallel forms such as Liepų kalnas/Liepkalnis hill (Jonikaičiai, Pagėgiai district) and Lauko Sodą/Lauksodis¹³ village (Telšiai) show that genitive toponyms develop into compound ones; this is not some toponymic law, but a general tendency in Lithuanian word formation.

¹³ The form Laúksodis is used by people relatively rarely; it occurs more often in official documents.

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It should be assumed that genitive word groups precede compound words of the same kind; cf. akies mirksny... (Margarita Theologica... per Simona Waischnorą... Karaliaučiuje, 1600, p. 185) and the modern Lithuanian akimirksnį.

The means of expressing possession in modern Lithuanian are quite varied: the genitive of quality (genetyvus possessivus), possessive adjectives (adjectiva possesiva), and compounds with possessive meaning. All these derivational types are also found in place names: Šilo ežeras (1. Pasvalys, 2. Dusetos), Šilinis ež. (1. Dusetos, 2. Linkmenys), Šiležeris (Užpaliai)¹⁴, Adómo kálnas (Darsūniškis), Adominė pv. (Suvernų k., Kin-tai), Adómkalnis (Užpaliai). The parallel forms Šilo ežeras/Šilinis ež. (Dusetos), Ríkio upė/Rikinė up. (Karklininkų k., Klaipėda) suggest that, just as the genitive of quality is probably earlier than possessive adjectives (cf. the folk-song phrase aukso žiedas and the modern-language auksinis žiedas ‘gold ring’), genitive place names are likely earlier here as well. Place names of the Adómo kálno type may likewise be earlier than those of the Adó-makalnio type. The view that compounds arose from inflected or asyndetic word groups is entirely convincing, particularly in light of such facts from the history of Lithuanian as the example cited above, akies mirksny... and akimirksnį.

In many cases, genitive place names may also be archetypes of certain nominative place names with possessive meaning. In Spruogis’s dictionary, the river in the Tirkšliai area, Vaidótas, is also called Бо̂угатынусь/Ваугатына, and the latter form could only have arisen from the genitive river name *Vaidoto upė (or upis). For a time, it seems, both forms—the genitive compound and the compound word—were used side by side, since the present form Vaidó-tas alongside the related older Бо̂угатынусь can only be explained as an elliptical genitive converted into a nominative. We see the same process of conversion to the nominative in appellatives, when, for example, the form traūko žolė gives rise to the compound traūkažolė and the elliptical form traūkas¹⁵.

Ellipsis of genitive place names is not uncommon in other Indo-European languages either¹⁶. In Baltic languages, in cases of ellipsis the genitive usually becomes a nominative: *Vaidoto upė>Vaidótas, or it is incorporated into a compound word: Бо̂угатынусь. Place names of clearly anthroponymic origin and thus with possessive or commemorative meaning, such as Dáujotas up. (Gruzdžiai), Dómantas up. (Varniai), Vaidminas up. (Laižuva), Vózgautas up. (Stačiūnai), are most likely elliptical genitives of quality converted into nominatives. Their conversion to the nominative may also have been influenced, to a greater or lesser degree, by the analogy of parallel use of nominative place names and their genitives, as in Palangà/Palangos miestas, Dubýsa/Dubýsos upė.

¹⁴ All three of these place names express a local relation of possession.

¹⁵ P. Skardžius, Lietuvių kalbos žodynų daryba, Vilnius, 1941, p. 400, 558.

¹⁶ W. Steinhauser, Genitive Place Names in Austria, Vienna and Leipzig, 1927, and Stanislaw Rospond, Structural-Grammatical Classification of Slavic Geographical Names, Wrocław, 1957, p. 48.

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Clearly new are genitive place names such as Paežerių ežeras (Vilkaviškis), Ažuožerių ežeras (Anykščiai), whose origin can be represented as follows:

The genitive place-name type remains productive today. This method is used especially extensively in the formation of microtoponyms.

In conclusion, genitive place names are in some cases earlier than nominative ones; this is an old productive type not only in Lithuanian but also in the toponymy of other Baltic languages, most likely inherited from Proto-Baltic.

LITHUANIAN GENITIVE TOPONYMS

B. SAVUKINAS

Summary

In Lithuanian, as in other Baltic languages, a genitive type of toponym formation occurs. Names of this type consist of a topographic term and a modifier in the genitive case. This type encompasses names of settlements, hydronymy, and microtoponymy, e.g.:

1. Settlement names: Laiko Sodà (village); Vaineikių Medsėdžiai (village);

2. Hydronymy: Alsėdžių ežeras (lake), Mažrimo upė (river);

3. Microtoponymy: Adomėlio lieknas (marsh), Asių kalnelis (hillock).

In Baltic languages, the determinative genitive (genetivus explicativus) is frequently used; it can express any nominative toponymic name. Until now, names used in the determinative genitive have often not been distinguished from genitive names. This paper examines genitive toponyms (hereafter GTs) structurally and semantically, as well as their relationship to other structural types of Lithuanian toponymy. As Slavic and Germanic toponomastics attest, the oldest stratum of toponymy consists of topographic names derived from common nouns denoting geographical features or from

16. Kalbotyros klausimai VI.

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adjectives denoting specific features of these objects. Here it should be noted that such topographical terms often occur as second components in genitive toponyms, e.g.: Raežerių ežeras. Thus, genitive toponyms are determinative topographical place names, whose determination varies semantically and does not belong to a single period. It is difficult to establish a stratigraphic sequence for genitive toponyms. Therefore, when top toponymic stratigraphy is discussed, this should not be taken to mean that any particular layer of toponymy arose only in one period characteristic exclusively of it. In the stratigraphic sequence of structural and semantic types, only the emergence of a type is determined.

If nominative names are the most ancient, while compound, two-stem names arise from word groups (including genitive ones), then it may be assumed that genitive toponyms came into use later than nominative names, but earlier than compound names. Secondary adjectival names arose later than nominative names, but earlier than compound names. These adjective-type toponyms are semantically related to genitive ones, since both types contain a determinative meaning. Just as adjective-type names are formed from common nouns Šilia (meadow), Beržia (stream), Dūblis (lake) and proper names (e.g. Munileitis dummis), so genitive toponyms are formed from both common and proper nouns.

By their second component, genitive toponyms can be divided into two groups: metaphorical and topographical (physiographic).

Metaphorical genitive toponyms consist of a nominative common noun used metaphorically (the second component) and any genitive functioning as a modifier, e.g.: Vilko Kinis (farmstead), Būlio Kaktà (meadow).

This group also includes genitive toponyms whose second component is still a topographical term, but one already used metaphorically, e.g.: Lankos Lāukas (village), Krōkų Lankà (lake).

Genitive toponyms with a topographical first component may have various origins and meanings; accordingly, they are divided into toponymic, anthroponymic, and appellative types.

In toponymic genitive toponyms, the first component is a genitive modifier denoting the local subordination or proximity of a place. In terms of meaning, we call these local, since toponymic determination here is expressed by indicating the place where something is situated; e.g.: Akmėnių ežeras “a lake situated in the village of Akmėniai.”

Such names may also have a possessive meaning if they denote collective ownership, e.g.: Jovaišių pievos “meadows belonging to the peasants of the village of Jovaišiai.”

A special group of genitive toponyms consists of names of settlements formed from the name of an adjacent populated place and from terms,

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denoting settlements of a particular type, e.g.: Daukšių Mėdsėdžiai ‘the outlying settlement of the village Daukšiai’, Romāinių Kaimelė ‘a small village that split off from the village Romāiniai’.

In toponymic compound names, possessive and locative meanings cannot be distinguished without knowledge of the place’s history.

In anthroponymic compound names, the first component is the genitive of a personal proper name, e.g.: Derkinčio upalis ‘Derkin tis’s little river’; cf. the surname Derkinītis. Most often, these names have a possessive meaning. Sometimes they have a commemorative meaning (e.g.: Birutės kalnas ‘Birutė’s mountain’); the genitive then has the same meaning as, for example, in street names (K. Būgos gatvė ‘K. Būga Street’).

In appellative compound names, the first component is the genitive of a common noun, most often functioning as a modifier, e.g.: Liepų kalnas ‘a mountain where linden trees grow’. In some compound names, locative meanings can be identified, e.g.: Daubos šaltinis ‘a spring situated in a ravine’. Other appellative compound names have a possessive meaning: in them, the genitive of an appellative denotes a person to whom the place belonged, e.g.: Kūnigo upėlis ‘the priest’s little river’. Without historical data about the locality, it is impossible to distinguish possessive and commemorative meanings in these toponyms. The commemorative meaning is clearly evident in the name Ubago brasta ‘the beggar’s ford’, since it is known that a beggar drowned there.

Both means of expressing possession in Lithuanian— the possessive genitive (genetivus possessivus) and possessive adjectives (adjectiva possessiva)—also occur in toponymy (Adōmo kalnas ‘Adam’s mountain’, Adominė ‘Adam’s meadow’). Possession, both in appellatives and in toponyms, is also expressed by compound names, e.g. Adōmakalnis ‘Adam’s mountain’.

The existence of double forms denoting the same object (Silo ežeras/Silinis, Rikio upė/Rikinė) suggests that possessive adjectives appeared here later; cf. aukso žiedas in folk songs and auksinis žiedas in modern colloquial speech.

Compound names such as Adōmo kalnas are most likely older than compound names of the type Adōmakalnis. Appellatives also attest to this: in „Margarita Theologica“ (1600), we still find akies mirksny, whereas in modern language the form is akimirksnis.

In many cases, compound names may be archetypes for certain nominative names with a possessive meaning. Such compound names are clearly of anthroponymic origin and have a commemorative or possessive meaning; they are nominalized elliptical genitives, e.g. the river names Daujotas, Vōzgautas, Dōmantas. In some cases, compound names are older than nominative forms. In Lithuanian, as in the other Baltic languages, they represent an ancient word-formation type of toponymy, which may have been inherited from Proto-Baltic.

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GENITIVE PLACE NAMES¹ IN LITHUANIAN

B. SAVUKYNAS

S u m m a r y

As in the other Baltic languages, Lithuanian has a genitive formation type of place names (hereafter PN). PN of this type are formed from a topographic term and an attribute in the genitive. They include settlement, water-body, and field names, for example:

1. Settlement names: Laūko Sodā (village), Vaineikių Mėdsėdžiai (village);

2. Water-body names: Alsėdžių ežeras (lake), Mažrimo upė (stream);

3. Field names: Asių kalnėlis (hill), Adomėlio lieknas (marsh).

In the Baltic languages, any nominative PN can also be paraphrased by an attributive word group with a genitivus explicativus. However, these word groups are often not sufficiently carefully distinguished. Here we present a structural and semantic study of genitive PN, taking account of their historical relations to other PN formation types.

Slavic and Germanic place-name research attests that the oldest stratum consists of topographic PN that developed from appellative terms or from adjectives denoting specific properties of these objects. It should be noted here that such topographic terms often constitute precisely the second component of genitive PN, for example: Paėžerių ežeras “the lake of the village of Paėžeriai”. Accordingly, genitive PN are d e t e r m i n a t i v e t o p o g r a p h i c a l PN, in which the determination is of varying semantics and did not, however, originate at the same time. It is therefore also difficult to establish a stratigraphic sequence for genitive PN, and one should by no means assume that any stratum of PN developed in a period characteristic only of that stratum. In the stratigraphic sequence of structural and semantic types, only the formation of a stratum is determined. If nominative PN form the oldest stratum, and compound two-stem PN go back to word groups (including genitive ones), it must be assumed that genitive PN entered use later than nominative ones, but in any case earlier than compounds. Secondary adjectival PN may also have arisen after the nominative ones but before the compounds. Adjectival PN are semantically related to genitive ones, since both have attributive meaning. Just as adjectival names derived from appellatives—Silià (meadow), Beržià (stream),

¹ Here, “place names” is understood to mean all names of localities.

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Dumblis (lake) — and are derived from proper names (abbr. Mun tileitis dummis), genitive place names can also be formed from appellatives and proper names.

According to the second component, genitive place names can be divided into two semantic groups: metaphorical and topographical (physiographic).

Metaphorical genitive place names are formed from a metaphorically used nominative of an appellative (the second component) and a genitive (the first component), which functions as an attribute, e.g.: Vilko Ki nis (single farmstead), Būlio Kaktā (meadow).

This category also includes genitive place names in which the second component is a topographical term already used metaphorically: Lankōs Laukas (village), Krōkų Lankā (lake).

Genitive place names with a topographical component can have different origins and meanings; accordingly, they are divided into three groups: toponymic, anthroponymic, and appellative.

Toponymic genitive place names have as their first component a genitive attribute denoting the local subordination or proximity of a place. In terms of meaning, we call them local place names, since here the toponymic determination is conditioned by reference to a place, e.g.: Akmėnių ežeras “a lake situated in the village of Akmėniai.”

These place names may also have a possessive nuance when they denote the property of a collective, e.g.: Jovaišių pievos “meadows that belonged to the farmers from the village of Javaišiai.”

A distinctive group of toponymic genitive place names consists of settlement names formed from the name of another settlement and a settlement term, e.g.: Daukšių Mėdsėdžiai “the forest settlement of the village of Daukšiai (now itself a village),” Romāinių Kaimelė “a small village as a settlement of the village of Romāiniai.”

Here, the possessive and local meanings cannot be distinguished without historical knowledge.

In anthroponymic genitive place names, the first component is the genitive of a personal name, e.g.: Derkinčio upālis “Derkintis Stream”; cf. the family name Derkin tis. Anthroponymic genitive place names most often have a possessive meaning. Sometimes they also have a commemorative meaning (e.g.: Birūtės kalnas “Birutė Mountain”); the genitive then has the same meaning as, for example, in street names: Būgōs gatvė “Būga Street.”

In appellative genitive place names, the first component is the genitive of an appellative, which most often functions as an attribute, e.g.: Liepų kalnas “a hill on which linden trees grow.” Some appellative genitive place names have a local meaning, e.g.: Daubōs šaltinis “a spring situated in a ravine.” Other appellative genitive place names have a possessive meaning; the genitive—

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The appellative denotes in these place names a person to whom the place belonged, e.g.: Kūnigo upėlis “Priest’s Brook.” Without historical knowledge of the locality, possessive and commemorative meanings cannot be distinguished in such place names. The commemorative meaning is clearly present in the place name Ūbago brastà “Beggars’ Ford,” because it is known that a beggar drowned there.

Both means of expressing relations of possession in Lithuanian—the possessive genitive and the possessive adjective—are also found in place names, e.g.: Adōmo kālnas “Adamsberg,” Adominė “a meadow that belonged to Adam”; compounds with a possessive meaning are also attested, e.g.: Adōmakalnis “Adamsberg.”

The existence of double names for the same feature (e.g.: Šilo ežeras/Šilinis, Rikio upė/Rikinė) allows us to infer that possessive adjectives are a later development. Compare also: aukso žiedas in folk songs and auksinis žiedas in contemporary colloquial speech.

Genitive place names such as Adōmo kālnas are also probably older than compounds of the type Adōmakalnis. Appellatives also point to this. In the Margarita Theologica (1600), one still finds akies mirksny, whereas in contemporary language the form is akim irksnis.

In several cases, genitive place names could also have served as archetypes for some nominative place names with a possessive meaning (in the broader sense).

Place names that are evidently of anthroponymic origin and therefore have possessive or commemorative meanings, such as Daujotas, Vōzgautas, Dōmantas (river names), are nominativized elliptical genitives.

In some cases, genitive place names are older than nominative ones. In Lithuanian, as in other Baltic languages, they are an ancient type of place-name formation, which may have been inherited from Proto-Baltic.