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Daiva Murmulaitytė

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ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XLII (2000)

Daiva MURMULAITYTĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas, Vilnius

DERIVATIVES IN ENTRIES FOR BASE WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIAN

The Introduction to the DLKŽ (p. VIII) states that, to save space, some derivatives “are placed in a single entry, usually with the base word.” In this way, action nouns with the suffix -imas/-ymas, abstract nouns derived from adjectives with the suffixes -umas and -ybė, agent nouns with the suffixes -tojas, -a, -ėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė, adverbs with the suffixes -(i)ai, -yn, and verbs derived from ideophones with the suffix -telėti are presented.

1. Statistical data

1.1. General overview

A computer-based extraction of nouns with the suffixes mentioned above from the DLKŽ shows that about 45% of all nouns in the Dictionary are listed in entries for base words¹. Most of these are action nouns formed with the suffix -imas/-ymas. About 99% of them are listed in entries for base verbs; only about 1% are headwords of separate entries². About 98% of property nouns with the suffix -umas and about 50% of derivatives with the suffix -ybė have no separate entries. Entries for base verbs also include most agent nouns derived with the suffixes -tojas, -a (about 98%), -ėjas, -a (about 92%), and -ikas, -ė (about 75%).

The Dictionary’s Introduction also states that “such a derivative noun, if it also has a new, distinctive meaning, is listed as a separate headword” (p. VIII). The DLKŽ contains fewer such derivatives with the suffixes mentioned above than non-headword abstract nouns derived from verbs and adjectives and agent nouns; compare: about 2% for the suffixes -umas and -tojas, -a, about 8% for -ėjas, -a, and about 25% for -ikas, -ė.

¹ In one or two cases, the headword of an entry and a derivative are related but have no direct derivational connection, e.g., priverstinai and priverstinumas. Alternatively, an entry may include several derivatives with the same affix that differ morphologically. For instance, in the entry for the noun čiuožikas, -ė, “skater,” a zoological term with no feminine counterpart is given: čiuožikas, “an insect of the order Hemiptera that jumps on the surface of water (Gerris).” Likewise, in the entry for graužikas, -ė, “one who gnaws, a gnawer,” there is a plural zoological term, graužikai, “an order of mammals with continuously growing incisors (Rodentia).” ² For more on this, see Murmulaitytė 1995: 56; 1997: 124–125.

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The only exception consists of names of properties with the suffix -ybė, about half of which are presented in separate entries. Comparing the data on derivatives with the affix examined in this study and derivatives with the suffix -umas, it is clear that derivatives with the suffix -ybė naming properties are more concrete, while derivatives with the suffix -umas more often denote pure adjectival abstractions. It should be borne in mind, however, that there are considerably more of the latter in DLKŽ: the Dictionary contains 338 derivatives with the suffix -ybė (4 of them are given twice—in the entries for the base adjectives and separately), and 1904 derivatives with the suffix -umas, of which 1888 are based on adjectives and participles; the others are formed from nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and adverbs.

1.2. Derivatives presented with usage examples

About 4.7% of the derived nouns entered in the entries for base words are presented with usage examples (if we exclude approximately 16,500 action nouns with the suffix -imas/-ymas, almost all of which are presented in the entries for base verbs, and only about 3% of which are illustrated in such cases, the overall share of non-headword derivatives with illustrations rises considerably, to about 13%). A total of 283 derivatives with the suffix -umas are presented with usage examples, accounting for about 15% of all non-headword derivatives with this suffix (e.g., aklumas: color blindness (daltonism); dažnumas: frequency dictionary (linguistics); electrical, thermal, sound, and light conductivity. Clay’s permeability to water. ‖ fig. The street’s permeability; nuotakumas: Those fields have no drainage capacity, etc. Statistics for derivatives with other affixes in this respect are as follows: 19, or about 11%, of non-headword derivatives with the suffix -ybė are given with examples (e.g., neliečiamybė: territorial inviolability, as well as reikšmybė: necessitative participle (grammar), etc.); 48, or about 8%, of non-headword derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a (e.g., palaikytojas, -a: supporter and backer of an idea); 32, or about 14%, of non-headword derivatives with the suffix -ėjas, -a (e.g., užtarėjas, -a: He is my advocate and protector); 6, or about 5%, of non-headword derivatives with the suffix -ikas, -ė (e.g., degikas, -ė: brick burners).

1.3. Derivatives presented with definitions

A few non-headword derivatives in DLKŽ are presented with definitions. These include 7 derivatives with the suffix -umas, e.g., induktyvumas physics, “the ability of an electrical circuit to produce magnetic flux”; kanceliariškumas “formalization of office work and its procedures (often excessive)”; 3 derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a, e.g., kalbėtojas, -a 1. “one who speaks, talks”; 2. “one who delivers a public speech”; and 1 derivative with the suffix -ėjas, -a—padėjėjas, -a “assistant.” They make up a very small share of all non-headword derivatives—about 0.05%. Non-headword derivatives with the suffix -imas/-ymas are not defined in DLKŽ.

1.4. Derivatives presented with terminological labels

Some derivatives formed with the affixes under discussion have terminological labels in DLKŽ. Overall, there are very few—just 0.4%—but the statistics for derivatives with different suffixes vary considerably in this respect. For instance, only 20 derivatives with the suffix -imas/-ymas (out of more than 16,500, or 0.12%) are terms, e.g., atgimimas 2. history “Renaissance”; įstatymas 2. law “legal norms of the highest state authority

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act.” Terms formed with the suffix -ikas, -ė account for as much as 8.48% of all derivatives with this suffix (14 of 165 sememes³, e.g., ėjikas, -ė 2. sport “race walker”; švilpikas 1. zoology “a fairly large burrowing rodent with fur (Marmota)” (it should be remembered that, overall, there are about 100 times fewer derivatives with this affix than verbal action nouns with the suffix -imas/-ymas). Statistical data for derivatives with other suffixes are as follows: 6.73% of derivatives with the suffix -ybė have terminological labels (26 of 408 sememes), e.g., aplinkybė 2. grammar “a secondary sentence constituent indicating the place, time, etc. of an action”; 3. law “a factor affecting the nature of a crime”; lygybė 4. mathematics “a relation indicating that its members are equal”; 1.88% (5 of 266) of derivatives with the suffix -ėjas, -a, e.g., gynėjas, -a 3. sport “a defensive player”; pjovėjas zoology “a weevil, a plant pest (Otiorrhychus)”; 0.78% (15 of 1922) of derivatives with the suffix -umas, e.g., modalumas 1. linguistics “the speaker’s attitude toward the relation of linguistic content to reality”; pilnapadiškumas medicine “a foot-sole deformity”; and 1 derivative with the suffix -tojas, -a (out of 623, or 0.16%)—liudytojas, -a 2. law “one who gives testimony in another person’s case.”

It should be noted that only terms explicitly labeled as such in DLKŽ have been counted here. Some derivatives lack such labels even though they are terms in particular fields, e.g., the derivative vilkikas 1. “a tractor or other machine that tows other machines”; 2. “a vessel that tows other vessels” could be marked with the abbreviation tech. (cf. stūmikas tech. “a vessel that pushes barges; antonym vilkikas”); legal terms that are likewise unlabeled include gynėjas, -a 2. “one who officially defends an accused person in court, a lawyer”; teisėjas, -a 1. “an official who adjudicates cases in court”; and medical terms nėštumas, sergamumas, etc.⁴.

It is clear that almost all terms with labels are headwords. However, a few are also included in entries for base words (which contradicts the statements quoted from the Introduction to DLKŽ that derived nouns with new, distinctive meanings are entered as separate headwords), e.g., the entry for the adjective induktyvus, -i includes induktyvumas physics; the entry for the noun išverstakis, -ė includes išverstakumas medicine; and the entry for the participle esamas, -a—

³ In discussing terms, the sememe is taken as the statistical unit, that is, an individual meaning of a derivative, since in some cases the same polysemous derivative is a term in several fields (e.g., aprašymas 2. literature “a work in which something is described”; 3. law “the compilation of an inventory of property”; valentingumas 1. chemistry “the property of an atom of combining with a certain number of other atoms”; 2. linguistics “the ability of a linguistic unit to combine with others, combinability”) or also has non-terminological meanings (e.g., laitkinimas 1. history “the earliest period of human history, when people lived by gathering food, hunting, and fishing”; 2. “crudeness of manners, lack of culture”).

⁴ Incidentally, examination of derivatives with the suffix -ybė showed that most names for words and expressions derived with this suffix from nouns, and denoting linguistic or dialectal phenomena, are not labeled as linguistic terms. There are 21 such derivatives in the dictionary in all; only 5 (baltarusýbė, barbarýbė 3, lenkýbė, sovietýbė and ukrainietýbė) are labeled linguistics; the other 16 (anglýbė, aukštaičiųbė, dzūkýbė, latvýbė, lietuvýbė 2, makaronýbė, prancūzýbė, rytietýbė, rusýbė, slavýbė, suvalkiečýbė, tarmýbė, vakarýbė, vokietýbė, žargonýbė and žemaičiųbė) are not so labeled.

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in the entry—esamybė phil., in the entry for the noun stūmikas, -ė—stūmikas tech., etc. Cases are not uncommon in which non-headword derivatives, in addition to their ordinary meanings, may also have terminological meanings, but DLKŽ does not provide the latter (although usage examples sometimes indicate them), e.g., išlaikymas: Fotografavimas su išlaikymu; rentabilumas: Įmonės rentabilumas; teisingumas: Teritorinis, dalykinis teisingumas. Bylos teisingumas; neliečiamybė: Teritorinė neliečiamybė, etc. Apparently, such nouns should be presented in separate entries, distinguishing several lexical meanings—one that coincides with the derivational meaning, and others that are terms in particular fields.

2. Polysemy of derivatives

The computerized version of DLKŽ (hereafter DLKŽ(k)) makes it possible to sort words according to whether they have one meaning or more. However, this method cannot establish the true ratio of monosemous to polysemous words: the statistical data provided by the computer are quite approximate, since non-headword derivatives, which are usually presented without definitions in the entries for base words, are also regarded as monosemous. Examining the derivatives with the suffixes -imas/-ymas, -umas, -ybė, -tojas, -a, -ėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė from this perspective, it would appear that about 99% of them in DLKŽ are monosemous, while approximately 1% have 2–5 meanings (if derivatives with the suffix -imas/-ymas are excluded, of which only 0.5% are polysemous, the ratio of monosemous to polysemous derivatives would be about 97%: 3%). About 70% (or about 80%, excluding derivatives with the suffix -imas/-ymas) of the derivatives have two meanings, and about 20% have three. There is only one five-meaning noun with the suffix -imas: the noun sprendimas⁵.

Clearly, these statistics do not show the true ratio of monosemous to polysemous derivatives in DLKŽ, since the non-headword derivatives mentioned above make up the majority of the nouns examined; consequently, the percentage of monosemous derivatives in DLKŽ(k) is greatly inflated.

When a derivative is presented in the entry for a polysemous base word and has neither a definition nor a usage example, it is natural to assume that it, too, is polysemous, i.e., that it may be based on any of the base word’s meanings and thus have as many meanings as its base word. In any case, it would be a transpositional derivative, i.e., each time the lexical and derivational meanings of the derivative would coincide (since it is neither defined, explained, nor illustrated, nothing can be inferred about any other, more specialized meanings of the derivative). For example, in the entry for the verb

⁵Given that DLKŽ avoids excessive subdivision of meanings, and that some typical meanings or shades of meaning are even combined under a single sense (see Introduction §25 1) and 2), p. XI), the noun vežimas might also be regarded as having five meanings, at least in part, if its second meaning, “usually a horse-drawn vehicle, a cart; the amount it can hold” (i.e., the name of an implement and the figurative metonymic meaning formed on its basis), were understood as two separate sememes.

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In the entry for gręžti, 1. “to make a hole by turning a pointed object (e.g., a drill)”; 2. “to wring water from wet clothing by twisting”; 3. “to turn, direct,” the derivatives with the suffixes -ėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė, -imas, and -imasis are listed; apparently, they may be considered to have three meanings, i.e., each may be based on all the meanings of the base verb. Alternatively, in the entry for the verb minėti, 1. “to say a name, name someone while speaking”; 2. “to keep in mind, not forget”; 3. “to honor with events or otherwise (an anniversary, a jubilee),” the abstract noun minėjimas listed in the entry may be motivated by all three meanings of the base word and may therefore also have three meanings.

If one of the meanings of a base word has become terminological, the derivative motivated by that meaning should generally be marked accordingly as well, but this is usually not reflected in the Dictionary; for example, the derivative minkštėjimas listed in the entry for the verb minkštėti, 1. “to become soft, softer”; 2. figurative “to become more tender”; 3. linguistics “to be pronounced softly (of consonants),” is not marked with the abbreviation ling., just as the noun linksniavimas listed in the entry for the verb linksniuoti, 1. grammar “to inflect by case”; 2. figurative “to mention frequently in speech,” is not marked gram. Incidentally, these examples show that this way of presenting derivatives does not formally indicate that a derivative also has a figurative meaning; compare also the entry paslỹsti, ~sta, ~do, 1. “to slip on a slippery surface”: Koja ~do, ir nuvirtau. 2. figurative “to lose one’s virtue”: ~dės jaunuolis. ~dimas.

The same applies to stylistic labels such as colloquial, derogatory, pejorative, etc.; for example, baūbti, ~ia, ~ė, 1. “to bellow or moo in a deep voice”: Jautis ~ia. 2. derogatory “to sing or shout in a deep voice.” ~imas.

Sometimes the polysemy of a derivative is indirectly indicated by usage examples. For instance, in the entry for the adjective pažangus, -i, 1. “advanced, concerned with progress”: Pažangus žmogus, pažangus judėjimas, pažangi spauda; 2. “doing well at school”: Pažangus mokinys, its abstract noun pažangumas is illustrated by two examples—pažiūrų pažangumas and mokinių pažangumas—which show that the derivative is based on two meanings of the base word and therefore, like the latter, also has two meanings. However, only a small proportion of non-headword derivatives in DLKŽ are accompanied by usage examples. Moreover, the polysemy of these derivatives is not formally marked, and the first, second, etc. meanings are not distinguished (the fact that several usage examples are given does not in itself show that a word is polysemous—they may illustrate one and the same meaning). The computer treats such words as monosemous.

On the other hand, a derivative cannot always be based on all the meanings of its base word. For instance, the verb laužti has 5 meanings in DLKŽ: 1. causative of lūžti 1; 2. “to crush with flax breakers”; 3. “to press, weigh down”; 4. “to ache, hurt”; 5. “to change direction.” At the end of its entry are listed agent nouns with the suffixes -ėjas, -a and -ikas, -ė, as well as an abstract noun derived with the suffix -imas. The latter, apparently, may also be based on all the meanings of the base verb. Agent nouns, however, are not formed from laužti, meaning 4, “to ache, hurt”: Menka sveikata – krūtinę skauda, nugarą laužia. This meaning of the verb differs syntactically from the others—

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niu ir semantiniu valentingumu (Sližienė 1994: 377–388)⁶. LKŽ VII 196 laužikas, -ė turi tik dvi reikšmes: 1. „kas ką laužia, plėšia“: Tau gana girtuoklių, kasų laužikų iš.; 2. „linų mynėjas, laužėjas“, o pamatinio veiksmažodžio reikšmių nurodoma net 16 (LKŽ VII 201–202).

The derivative presented in the article for Dègti, degikas, -ė ‘one who fires’ is illustrated by the example Plytų degikai ‘brick firers’, so it does refer to the seventh meaning of the base verb, “to strengthen, harden by firing.” This agent noun may also be based on other meanings of degti, e.g., 2. “to make a fire, kindle”; 8. “to produce by firing” (cf. LKŽ II 362 degikas, -ė 1. “one who hardens by firing”; 2. see p a d e g i k a s; 3. see d e g u č i u s 1). However, degti also denotes an intransitive action or state, e.g., 5. “to wilt, dry out in the sun”; 13. figuratively “to feel intensely (shame, anger, etc.).” These sememes also differ syntactically and semantically in valency from those listed earlier, e.g., they do not require an accusative object, etc. (Sližienė 1994: 172–173); agent nouns are not formed from them.

The examples given show that a non-headword derivative does not always have as many meanings as its base word. This depends on the semantics and syntactic valency of the base word, as well as on the derivational category (derivational meaning) of the derivative itself, and so on. For instance, names of actions and properties, i.e. verbal and adjectival abstracts, can apparently be based on all the meanings of base verbs and adjectives (at least in theory)⁷. In this respect, the formation of agent nouns is more restricted: for example, derivatives with the suffixes -tojas, -a, -ėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė are generally formed from transitive verbs (LKG I 318, 320, 321; DLKG 105, 106), while their base words may also have intransitive meanings. In such cases, the derivative has fewer meanings than the base word.

Sometimes the illustrative examples point to a meaning of a derivative that cannot be derived from the meanings of the base word given in DLKŽ. This happens because the Dictionary gives not all meanings, but only those in more frequent use, or because the definitions are worded differently. For instance, the verb patarnáuti has three meanings in DLKŽ: 1. “to help with minor household chores”; 2. “to serve for a while”; 3. “to stand on the hind legs.” Yet none of these could motivate the meaning of the agent noun patarnáutojas, -a, illustrated by the example viešbučio patarnáutoja. ‘hotel attendant.’

⁶Incidentally, this can be inferred from usage examples in DLKŽ, but not every meaning in the dictionary is illustrated.

⁷ Another question is whether all the meanings of such abstracts are used sufficiently often in standard language, or whether they depend on context; in the latter case, they are hardly likely to be recorded in a standard-language dictionary. For example, ėjimas, derived from eiti 20. “to be shown”: Šiandien teatre eina „Skirgaila“. ‘Skirgaila is playing at the theater today.’ LKŽ II 1109–1110 has a separate entry for ėjimas; most of the meanings of this noun are presented not by explanation or description, but simply by indicating the base verb and the particular meaning on which the derivative is based in each case. Incidentally, this mode of presentation can also be found in DLKŽ, most often in entries for adjectives with the suffixes -inis, -ė and -iškas, -a, e.g.: alkūninis, -ė 1. → a l k ū n ė 1; 2. → a l k ū n ė 5, meškiškas, -a → m e š k a 1, 2, šautinis, -ė → š a u t a s (šauti 1), cf. also leidžiamas, -a → l e i s t i 1, baladótis 1. → b a l a d o t i 1.

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LKŽ XV 880 formulates the first meaning of the verb as “to perform work while meeting someone’s needs.” In both dictionaries, the first meaning of the verb is illustrated by the same usage examples: patarnauja prie stalo, kuo galiu tamstai patarnauti? ‘serves at the table; how may I serve you?’ and others; thus, the same action is being discussed, but defined differently. However, the formulation in LKŽ more clearly motivates the occupational noun viešbučio patarnautojas ‘hotel attendant’, because it emphasizes that this agent meets someone’s needs, rather than simply helping with any minor household chores.

Thus, not all non-headword derivatives can be considered monosemous, nor can it be claimed that they have as many meanings as the base word (especially since DLKŽ may not include all the meanings of the base word). Consequently, nothing can be inferred from this way of presenting derivatives—in base-word entries, without definitions and usually without usage examples—about their number of meanings, semantic structure, semantic relation to the base word, and so on.

3. Definitions of transpositional derivatives

Entries for base words generally include transpositional derivatives formed with the affixes under discussion, i.e. those whose lexical and derivational meanings coincide. As noted, they are usually not defined in any way, and examples with definitions are very rare. When a derivative is given a separate entry, in addition to exceptional lexical meanings (specialized, lexicalized as terms, simply made more specific, and so on), it often includes the meaning that coincides with its derivational meaning. DLKŽ presents these lexical meanings in quite varied ways. Drawing on the methods of explaining word meanings discussed in the Dictionary’s Introduction (pp. XII–XIII), the derivatives in question can, in this respect, be tentatively divided into several groups.

I. Cross-reference method of defining meanings

1. Using the arrow (→) symbol:

a) only the base word of the derivative is indicated, e.g.: teisingumas 1. → t e i - s i n g a s, kilnybė 1. → k i l n u s, mėgėjas, -a 1. → m ė g t i 1, ėjikas, -ė 1. → e i t i, rašytojas, -a 1. → r a š y t i. In this way, the meanings of derivatives formed with all the affixes examined may be explained, except for action nouns with the suffix -imas/-ymas;

b) the base word and derivational category are indicated, e.g.: atradimas 1. → a t r a s t i (action), baisūmas 1. → b a i s u s (quality), patarėjas 1. → p a t a r t i (agent). Most often, action nouns are presented in this way; there are only isolated examples from other derivational categories.

Note. In the Introduction to DLKŽ (§32, p. XIII), when listing the cases in which the arrow symbol is used, no mention is made of names of qualities or agents. Derivatives in these derivational categories whose meanings are presented in this way are indeed rare.

2. Using the abbreviation žr. (‘see’) directs the reader to a more widely used derivational variant in the standard language (DLKŽ Introduction §29), e.g.: jaunýbė 2. žr. j a u n y s t ė, savūmas žr. s a v y b ė 1.

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II. Definitional-explanatory method

1. The definition gives the derivational meaning of the derivative, and its wording uses the base word, e.g.: bėgikas, -ė 1. “one who runs”, puolėjas, -a 1. “one who attacks”, žadėtojas, -a 1. “one who promises”, nešvarybė “that which is unclean”. This is most characteristic of agent nouns.

2. The definition consists of the base word and the name of the derivational category, e.g.: išdykybė “the quality of being mischievous”, neigiamybė “a negative quality”; cf. I. 1. b).

3. The definition uses derivational synonyms—derivatives with other suffixes and endings formed from the same base words—e.g.: išdykimas “mischievousness”, aukštybė 1. “height”, geradarybė “good deed”, labdarybė “charity”, nežinomybė “the state of not knowing, uncertainty”, tolybė “distance, remoteness”; cf. I. 2. Characteristic of names of qualities.

4. It is defined by cognate derivatives formed from other base words, e.g.: dievybė 1. “divinity”, paslaptýbė “mysteriousness”, savižudybė “suicide”. Characteristic of names of qualities.

Word meaning may also be conveyed by combining several variants of the definitional-explanatory method, e.g.: atradėjas, -a “one who discovers something, makes a discovery” (II. 1 and II. 3), galimybė “that which is possible, possibility” (II. 1 and II. 3), vertybė “value, worth” (II. 3 and II. 4), and so on.

The semantics of the derivatives under consideration may be explained otherwise in DLKŽ as well. For instance, it has been observed that definitions of names of qualities often include abstract nouns derived from the verbs turėti and būti, e.g., suinteresuotumas “having an interest”, neštumas “being pregnant, a state of pregnancy”; cf. also the differing definitions of synonymous derivatives—mažavertiškumas “having little value” and menkavertiškumas “low value” (LKŽ VIII 13 – “low value; mažavertiškumas”), pilnateisiškumas “full entitlement” and visateisiškumas “having all rights”.

This brief overview did not aim to register all possible ways of defining the meanings of the derivatives examined or to provide precise statistical data. It would be difficult to say anything more precise on this issue or to look for regularities (for instance, that one method of explaining meanings is more characteristic of derivatives in some derivational categories and another in others), because the numbers of derivatives in different derivational categories vary greatly in DLKŽ (cf. about 16,500 derivatives with the suffix -imas/-ymas, compared with 152 with the suffix -ikas, -ė); in some cases, generalization is also difficult because of the lack of data. Nevertheless, it is clear that there is no general system for presenting the meanings of transpositional (headword) derivatives, and the Dictionary does not strictly adhere to any one of the methods listed. For consistency, perhaps methods I. 1. a) and II. 1 should be abandoned, and only I. 1. b) used. Definitions should also not be given in a single word, since following this route from one word to another can mean that several entries are read, and ultimately one returns to the entry whose meaning one originally wanted to establish; thus, tautology has not been avoided in the Dictionary.

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4. Specialized agent nouns

Derivatives with the suffixes -tojas, -a and -ėjas, -a denote persons both by their occasional work, an action of short duration or performed only once, and by their permanent work, business, or profession (LKG I 317, 320). Derivatives with the suffix -ikas, -ė only occasionally name persons by their profession (LKG I 320). The DLKŽ contains about 100 better-known, more widely used names of professions with these suffixes: 40 with -tojas, -a, 36 with -ėjas, -a, and 20 with -ikas, -ė. These make up about 9.11% of all derivatives formed in this way: derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a account for 6.42%, while those with the suffixes -ėjas, -a and -ikas, -ė account for 13.53% and 12.12% of derivatives, respectively⁸.

In the DLKŽ, profession names are presented in three ways:

1) in separate entries, i.e., with definitions and (usually) usage examples—about 23%: about 15% of derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a (e.g., gydytojas, -a “medical specialist”: The doctor examined the patient. Consult a doctor), about 28% of derivatives with the suffix -ėjas, -a (e.g., siuvėjas, -a “sewing specialist”: A seamstress of linen garments. A tailor of men’s clothes. To train as a tailor), and about 30% of derivatives with the suffix -ikas, -ė (e.g., bėgikas, -ė 2. “athlete in running events”);

2) in the entries for base verbs (without definitions)—about 77%: about 85% of derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a, about 72% with -ėjas, -a, and about 70% with -ikas, -ė:

a) with usage examples—about 32% of all non-headword derivatives: about 38% with the suffix -tojas, -a (e.g., išjodinėtojas, -a: Horse trainer), about 35% with -ėjas, -a (e.g., rišėjas, -a: Bookbinder (bookbinder)), and about 14% with -ikas, -ė (e.g., kūrìkas, -ė: Furnace stoker (stoker));

b) without usage examples—about 68% of all non-headword derivatives: about 62% with the suffix -tojas, -a (e.g., programuotojas, -a), about 65% with -ėjas, -a (e.g., virėjas, -a), and about 86% with -ikas, -ė (e.g., šerikas, -ė).

These statistics show that most of the profession names examined do not have separate entries; they are generally neither defined nor explained or illustrated. However, such derivatives are nominative: their derivational and lexical meanings do not coincide, i.e., they do not simply name an agent according to the action that person performs, but additionally indicate that this is the person’s regular occupation. For example, gynėjas, -a 1. “one who defends”; 2. “one who officially defends an accused person in court, a lawyer”; 3. sports “defensive player.” Only in the first meaning is this a transpositional derivative, a non-specialized agent noun (such forms are usually simply included in entries for base verbs). The second and third meanings have additional semantic features and have become terms (although the second is not marked as a legal term), so this noun is rightly given a separate entry.

⁸ These relative figures may somewhat contradict LKG’s claims: the percentage of profession names formed with the suffix -ikas, -ė is higher than that of derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a (cf. 12.12% and 6.42%). However, it should be borne in mind that the DLKŽ contains almost four times fewer derivatives with the suffix -ikas, -ė than derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a, which, incidentally, are almost all listed without definitions in entries for base words. Derivatives with the suffix -ikas, -ė more often have specialized meanings; about 1/4 of them are presented in separate entries.

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In dictionaries of other languages, derivatives that have become names of professions are likewise entered as headwords (cf. LVV 7), whereas derivatives that are not particularly widespread and are “easily formed”—that is, non-specialized derivatives of productive and regular word-formation types—are generally omitted (Ожегов 1988: 9–10).

Thus it is clear that a considerable number of the derivatives listed in articles for base verbs also have specialized meanings and are terms in particular fields (e.g., lecturer, -a, rescuer, -a, installer, -a, programmer, -a, supervisor, -a, driver, -a; carver, -a, baker, -a, barber, -a, cutter, -a, dancer, -a, supplier, -a, spinner, -a, translator, -a, cook, -a; rider, -ė, loader, -ė, caster, -ė, carrier, -ė, feeder, -ė and many others), but this is not reflected in DLKŽ. The fact that such derivatives are names of professions is sometimes indicated by usage examples (e.g., shaver, -a: He made his living as a shaver, 2 draughtsperson, -a: He works as a draughtsperson) or by terminological labels (e.g., weightlifter, -a: weightlifter (sports)). In one case, a non-headword name of a profession even has a definition—welder, -a “a worker or specialist in metal welding.”

Sometimes names of professions (or derivatives with other specialized meanings) denoting people engaged in analogous or closely related activities, formed with the same suffixes, are treated inconsistently in DLKŽ (see table):

When names of professions are headwords in separate entries, they are provided with definitions. These are worded in quite varied ways: the words specialist are used in definitions (see the definitions of the derivatives weaver, -a, doctor, -a, sewer, -a), worker (welder, -a), officer (interrogator, -a, employee, -a, judge, -a 1.), or it is stated that the person earns a living through that activity (washer, -a), and so on. Sometimes the first meaning of such a word in DLKŽ is identical to its word-formation meaning; it is also

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presented inconsistently; cf.: adviser, -a 1. → a d v i s e (agent), writer, -a 1. → w r i t e, attacker, -a 1. “one who attacks”⁹.

For some names of professions, DLKŽ lacks terminological labels, e.g., defender, -a 2, interrogator, -a, assessor, -a (compound term Court Assessor), judge, -a are not marked with the abbreviation law; the 7th meaning of the derivative walker, -ė is marked sports, whereas runner, -ė 2, skater, -ė 2, swimmer, -ė 2 lack this label (not to mention non-headwords sailor, -a, rower, -a, rider, -ė, thrower, -ė and others); the second meaning of the derivative blower, -ė, “one who plays a wind instrument,” is not marked music, etc.

5. Terms

Various inconsistencies in the presentation of terms in DLKŽ have already been discussed and written about (Žilinskienė 1995; 1997, Gudavičius 1997, and others). This time, the aim was to draw attention to some questions not yet addressed and consider how to avoid such inconsistencies in a new dictionary of Standard Lithuanian.

It should be noted at the outset that not all terms and terminologized meanings in DLKŽ are marked with the relevant abbreviations. This applies to folk terms, derivatives formed from terms, and other specialized vocabulary used more broadly than “pure” terms. In the computerized version of DLKŽ, this vocabulary is additionally marked with “invisible” labels (as distinct from “visible” labels already present in the Dictionary). These are necessary for data analysis; otherwise, the computer could not retrieve all terms from a given field. For example, the words treatment, bleeding, paralysis, sprain, illness, runny nose would not be retrieved together with other medical terms, since their entries have no abbreviation med.; in that case, the list of medical terms would be incomplete.

5.1. This time, the focus was on linguistic terms. DLKŽ contains 294 entries in all with the abbreviations lingv. or gram. These may mark an entire headword (whether monosemous or polysemous), some of its meanings, or a phrase containing the headword. In another 221 entries, these labels are “invisible.” It may therefore be assumed that DLKŽ marks only about 57% of all the linguistic terms and other specialized vocabulary in this field that it contains.

These terms (515 in all¹⁰) were compared with those listed in the “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” (hereafter KTŽ). About 82% of the DLKŽ terms that are marked were also found in KTŽ.

⁹ The entry seller, -a “one who sells”: Vegetable, ice-cream seller would benefit from a more precise definition (cf. LKŽ IX 409—“one who sells to customers”); nevertheless, a seller usually means not just anyone who once decides to sell some item they no longer need, but someone who makes a living from it.

¹⁰ Thus, DLKŽ contains words with at least one terminologized meaning, or words that together with other words form compound linguistic terms. In other words, this figure indicates that the Dictionary contains 515 entries presenting linguistic terms and other specialized vocabulary in this field, marked or unmarked with the abbreviations lingv. and gram. Instances where the aforementioned labels occur in illustrative examples were not considered on this occasion and were not included in the statistics.

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Of those whose labels are “invisible,” only about 50% have them in the KTŽ, and only about 40% are marked gram. However, it should be borne in mind that the KTŽ gives by no means all terms, but only the more important and more frequently used ones; for example, it does not define verbs, although asmenuoti, laipsniuoti, prieveiksmėti, and so on, are undoubtedly linguistic terms. Nor does it include names for linguists by individual disciplines or branches of science (e.g., baltistas, germanistas, dialektologas, etimologas, leksikologas, leksikografas, taip pat klasikas, sintaksininkas, žodynininkas ir pan.), even though the names of the disciplines and branches themselves are included (baltistika, germanistika, dialektologija, etimologija, leksikologija, leksikografija, and so on).

When compiling a dictionary of the standard language, ideally one would have all the terminology dictionaries (for the fields whose abbreviations are used in the DLKŽ) and check whether the terms, terminologized word meanings, and word combinations included in the DLKŽ are marked appropriately. However, terminology dictionaries have not yet been written for all fields. On the other hand, perhaps there is no point in looking in the DLKŽ for every word found in large terminology dictionaries (e.g., those of physics, medicine, or polytechnics), or in checking every word listed, say, in a textile terminology dictionary, if the DLKŽ contains only three terms from this field (Žilinskienė 1997: 46). Clearly, it will not be possible to do this systematically—at least for now, while there is no computerized terminology bank and terminology dictionaries themselves are lacking. Meanwhile, it might be possible to check at least the terms in smaller dictionaries (e.g., those of linguistic terminology). In the future, when using a computerized terminology bank, such checking might perhaps be partly entrusted to a computer, so that it could compile a register of words occurring in both the DLKŽ and a terminology dictionary for a particular field. This register would help ensure that the terms in the DLKŽ are properly handled and presented in the new standard-language dictionary, and help avoid various inconsistencies.

Meanwhile, one could make use of the aforementioned “invisible” terminology labels, which make it possible to extract from the DLKŽ colloquial terms, words derived from terms, unmarked terms, and the like. With a list of words consisting of terms and words that are not marked accordingly but nevertheless have specialized meanings, one could also correct many obvious inconsistencies in the DLKŽ and make some labels “visible.” In other cases, if a word is absent from a terminology dictionary for a given field but its meaning is clearly terminologized (as shown by both its definition and usage examples), it may be left with an “invisible” label. For example, the following might be such cases: džūkuoti 1. “to speak in some Dzūkian dialect”; 2. “to retain Dzūkian features while speaking in a non-Dzūkian way”; garsynas “system of speech sounds”; priešdėletas, -a “having a prefix”; išversti 7. “to render a text or speech in another language” (whereas versti 11. means “to render a text in one language in another language”; vertėjas, vertimas, it seems, should be marked with “visible” labels; the latter derivative is also listed in the KTŽ). In any case, the final word on this matter should belong to terminologists and specialists in the relevant fields.

5.2. The standard-language dictionary should omit obsolete, no-longer-used or rarely used, highly specific terms (e.g., garsamokslis lingv., psn. “fo-

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netika,” perhaps also kryptininkas gram. “current inessive of direction”) and word combinations with terminological meanings (e.g., nebūvelis, -ė straipsnyje pateikto veiksnio vardininkas nebūvelis). These words are not listed in the KTŽ, and the word kryptininkas is also absent from the LKŽ.

5.3. The Introduction to the DLKŽ, §36 (p. XII), states that “complex terms or other complex names whose meaning does not depend, or depends only in part, on the meanings of their constituent elements […] are placed after all the meanings of the word, following a triangle sign (△), and are explained in parentheses.” It would be natural to expect this rule to be followed strictly at least for complex terms. However, this is by no means always the case. For example, in the entry for jungtis “joining, connection,” some word combinations are given together with usage examples and their fields of use are indicated: kištukinė jungtis (tech.), kremzlinė, raumeninė jungtis (anat.), anglies atomų jungtys (chem.). The word combination sudurtinio tarinio jungtis, however, is given after the triangle sign, marked with the abbreviation gram., and explained.

Slightly digressing from linguistic terminology, it is worth noting that the complex terms denoting military ranks jaunesnysis leitenantas and vyresnysis leitenantas are presented inconsistently. In both cases, they are included alongside other, non-terminologized word combinations and sentences. Jaunesnysis leitenantas appears in the entry whose headword is the positive-degree adjective jaunas, -a. Only one meaning is given: “having little age; younger than others, antonym s e n a s [old].” This would suggest that the military rank is somehow related to a person’s age. The second complex military term is included in the entry whose headword vyresnis, -ė is a comparative form and has two meanings: 1. “having more years”; 2. “higher in rank or position.” Yet the word combination vyresnysis leitenantas, which illustrates the second meaning, is not marked with the abbreviation kar., which is used for jaunesnysis leitenantas.

The KTŽ (p. 124) contains two linguistic terms with the adjective minkštasis – minkštasis gomurys ir minkštasis priebalsis (soft palate and soft consonant). The DLKŽ gives only the latter—as an illustration of the eighth (terminologized, marked with the abbreviation lingv.) meaning of the adjective minkštas, -a. The definition of this meaning, “pronounced before front vowels,” shows that it could not be illustrated by any other example; hence, this is a definition of the whole word combination, not of the adjective alone. Incidentally, as is appropriate in the case of terms, the adjective in this combination is pronominal (definite), i.e., the adjective minkštas, -a, when used in its eighth meaning, has no indefinite form and thus differs from its other meanings.

Cf. also nosinis, -ė 2. lingv. “pronounced through the nose”: -iai priebalsiai (m, n); 3. lingv. “traditionally written with a small tail below”: -ės balsės (letters bearing the mark of the lost nasality—ą, ę, į, ų). In the latter case, one could say that nosinės balsės (“nasal vowels”) has two definitions in the DLKŽ; the word combination’s presentation suggests that it is merely an illustration of a terminologized meaning, rather than a complex term, since the latter are marked with a special triangle sign.

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For consistency, soft consonant and the other compounds mentioned could be listed after the triangle symbol at the end of the entry, as broad vowel (linguistics: “pronounced with the tongue relaxed, for example, a”) in the entry for the adjective platùs, -i, liquid consonants (linguistics: l and r) in the entry for the adjective sklandùs, -i, or the grammatical term indefinite pronouns (grammar: “those that indicate an object, number, or quality only in general terms, e.g., anyone, somebody, a dozen or so, somewhat”), for which a separate entry is devoted to the headword indefinite.

Thus, in a general-language dictionary, abbreviations indicating the fields of use of terms should be given only immediately before the simplex term, the marker for a terminologized meaning, or the compound term, which should always be distinguished from other combinations by a triangle symbol. Perhaps the field-of-use labels should be omitted from the illustrative examples.

5.4. It was mentioned that derivatives with certain suffixes (-imas/-ymas, -umas, -tojas, -a, -ėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė and others) are usually included in the entries for their base words, without definitions or usage examples. If such a derivative has become a term or has been formed on the basis of a terminologized meaning of the base word, it should be given a separate entry, containing not only the headword but also its definition and usage examples. If the derivative is transpositional (i.e., its lexical meaning, compared with that of the base word, has no semantic increment and coincides with its derivational meaning), the base word should be indicated, with the particular meaning that motivates the derivative precisely specified. Thus, linguistic terms such as conjugation, adjectivization, nominalization, inflection, accentuation, grading, adverbialization, transcription, and so on, should be given in separate entries. In some cases, several meanings of such terms should be distinguished; for example, in the case of the word translation, the action itself and its result should be defined.

Using a computer program to analyze the DLKG and keeping the points mentioned above in mind, terms could be presented much more consistently in a general-language dictionary than they are in the DLKG.

6. Drawbacks of presenting words as non-headwords

6.1. When some derivatives in the DLKG are presented in the entries for other (usually base) words, their semantics—the number and hierarchy of meanings, semantic relationships with the base words, and so on—are not made clear, since almost all (about 99%) of these derivatives are presented without definitions. It should be recalled here that as many as 45% of the nouns in the DLKG are not headwords.

6.1.1. The polysemy of derivatives is not reflected in the DLKG. Consequently, it is also impossible to establish the actual proportion of monosemous to polysemous words in the Dictionary.

6.1.2. There are more terms in the DLKG than are labeled as such, and it is impossible to know precisely what proportion of the Dictionary’s vocabulary they constitute.

6.1.3. It is impossible to determine how many derivatives (and, in general, how many words included in the DLKG) are used figuratively.

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6.1.4. The dictionary does not show the full stylistic diversity of derivatives and, more generally, of the words it contains.

6.1.5. Even in those rare cases when non-headword derivatives are illustrated, dictionary users can perceive their polysemy only after studying the entire entry for the base word in considerable detail, since this is not shown formally.

6.2. The syntactic relations of such derivatives are not shown, since they are usually not illustrated—DLKG lacks usage examples for about 95% of non-headword nouns.

6.3. Users, especially those with a weaker command of Lithuanian, may sometimes find it difficult to locate the word they need, because not all words in DLKG are listed alphabetically. The entries in the dictionary are arranged in this order, but they may contain several words in boldface—the headword(s) and one or more of its (their) derivatives. In addition, non-headword derivatives are usually given only by their ending; that is, the word is not shown in full, but in a segmented form, and segmentation does not always follow morpheme boundaries (although this would be preferable when an entry contains words with the same root), e.g.: drau-dimas, kei-tikas, kei-timas, kei-timasis, pabr-igzimas, paskl-idimas, paskl-aidymas, pliur-škimas and so on.

6.4. Some derivatives are given twice in the dictionary—in entries for base words and as separate entries (when they have acquired more specialized meanings). There are 35 such derivatives with the suffix -imas/-ymas (e.g.: akėjimas, apsiauvimas, maišymas, pasimãtymas and so on; see Murmulaitytė 1997: 123, 125, 126 for more), 1 with the suffix -umas (teisingumas), 4 with the suffix -ybė (bendrybė, gardybė, tolygybė, vertybė), and 2 adverbs with the suffix -ai (apskritai, riestai). This duplication is difficult to notice because of the aforementioned segmentation of derivatives and the non-alphabetical listing of some of them.

6.5. For the reasons mentioned, some identically spelled words in DLKG are located far apart, and only when reading computer-generated word lists, in which all words are given in full and alphabetically, does one notice that the dictionary contains unmarked homonyms and homographs. There are about 40 pairs of such derivatives with the suffix -imas/-ymas, e.g., saldimas (: saldūs, -i) and saldimas (: salsti), uogavimas (: uogauti) and uogavimas (: uoguoti) and so on (for more examples and a more detailed classification, see Murmulaitytė 1997: 126–130); there are 4 pairs of derivatives with the suffix -umas: trūkumas (: trūkti) and trūkumas (: trūkis, -i), dvišakumas (1. “the point where two branches join”; 2. “crotch”) and dvišakumas (the abstract noun of the adjective dvišakas, -a), as well as glūdimas and glūdimas, mažumas and mažumas; and there is 1 pair of adverbs with the suffix -iai: stačiai (: status, -i) and stačiai (: stačias, -ia).

A review of agent nouns formed with the suffix -ikas, -ė shows that some have become zoological or botanical terms and have no feminine counterparts, e.g., 1 plaukikas zool. “a water bird smaller than a pigeon, with a long, thin bill (Phalaropus lobatus)”, čiuožikas zool. “an insect of the order Hemiptera that hops on the water surface (Gerris)”, kirpikas zool. “a dark brown bark beetle, a pest of pines (Blastophagus)”, as well as bėgikas, kopikas, 1 plėšikas, sėjikas, švilpikas, verpikas, graužikai, 1 plėšikai, sėjikai, verpikai, lipikas

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bot. “a sticky forest and field plant of the madder family, a garden weed (Galium)”, smaugikas bot. “a wild and ornamental climbing plant that, by twining around a tree, causes it to dry out (Celastrus)”. These terms are presented inconsistently. DLKG contains 13 pairs of derivatives with the aforementioned suffix, in which one member has a feminine counterpart while the other is masculine only. In two cases, such pairs are marked as homonyms and homographs; 11 pairs are not marked accordingly. In general, four different modes of presentation can be distinguished in this case:

6.5.1. The term is treated as a homograph of the non-specialized agent noun, and the words are presented in separate entries, e.g., 1 plaukikas zool. and 2 plaukikas, -ė, as well as 1 plėšikas zool. and 2 plėšikas, -ė.

6.5.2. The agent noun and the non-headword zoological term are given in a single entry, e.g., čiuožikas, -ė and čiuožikas zool.¹¹, as well as bėgikas, -ė and bėgikas zool.

6.5.3. The term is given in a separate entry (lipikas bot.), while the agent noun appears in the entry for the base verb (1 lipti, -a, -o – lipikas, -ė); cf. also sėjikas, -ė and sėjikas zool.¹², as well as kandikas, -ė and kandikas, kaupikas, -ė and kaupikas, skriejikas, -ė and skriejikas tech., smaugikas, -ė and smaugikas bot., švilpikas, -ė and švilpikas 1. zool., 2. (cul.?), vilkikas, -ė and vilkikas (tech.?);

6.5.4. DLKG has a separate entry for the term, while the dictionary does not give the agent noun at all, e.g., kirpikas zool.

In a dictionary of standard language, such words should be presented consistently, perhaps by choosing the first option. Otherwise, unmarked homographs appear in the dictionary, and these are especially difficult to notice when they are included in entries for base words, since in such cases usually not the whole derivative but only its ending is given.

All plural zoological terms formed with the suffix -ikas, which are names of families and orders, are non-headwords. 1 plėšikai, sėjikai ir verpikai are given in the entries for the names of the corresponding birds and moth, while graužikai is given in the entry for the agent noun graužikas, -ė (since this name for an order of mammals derives specifically from an agent noun, rather than from the name of any particular animal). However, there seems to be no strict rule even for plural terms; cf. derivatives with a different suffix: the plural term buriuotojai zool. “a family of large, ornate butterflies that glide with infrequent wingbeats (Papilionidae)” is given in a separate entry, whereas the agent noun buriuotojas, -a is given in the entry for the base verb.

6.6. When several words with the same root are given in one entry, at first glance this seems to provide at least some opportunity to study the lexicon of DLKG and

¹¹ In LKŽ II 162, these words are presented according to the first option: 1 čiuožikas sm. zool. “a water bug (Hydrometra)” and 2 čiuožikas, -ė smob. “one who skates, slides”.

¹² This dictionary entry also contains the plural non-headword zoological term sėjikai ‘a family of the order Charadriiformes, which includes the lapwing, plover, etc. (Charadriidae)’.

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derivationally. However, this possibility is very remote, since such a presentation by no means reveals all derivational relations:

a) although the introduction to the DLKŽ calls dictionary entries nests when explaining the method of presenting words, they do not contain all the cognate words belonging to a true derivational nest;

b) not all non-headword derivatives are presented in the entries for their base words; for example, the names of properties primityvumas and priverstinumas are listed in the entries for the adverbs primitytinai and priverstinai, while baigiamybė, baigiamumas and sprogstamumas are listed in entries whose headwords are pronominalized adjectival participles baigiamasis, -oji and sprogstamasis, -oji;

c) entries for base words most often include derivatives formed according to regular, productive derivational patterns, for example, verbal abstracts with the suffix -imas/-ymas and adjectival abstracts with the suffix -umas. However, the true regularity and productivity of these patterns is not evident in the DLKŽ, and statistical data would be inaccurate, because the Dictionary does not contain all possible derivatives formed according to these patterns. For instance, action nouns with the suffix -imas/-ymas can practically be formed from every verb, but the Dictionary has about 16,500 of them, compared with about 19,200 verb infinitives.

On the other hand, a standard-language dictionary should, of course, include only the most frequently used words, so one should not expect to find the abstract noun with the suffix mentioned above in the entry for every verb. Nevertheless, the DLKŽ includes bepročiavimas, garsiavimasis, pragudrėjimas, vadinėjimas, etc., as well as property nouns prisiskaityliškumas, kraštutiniškumas (would the more frequently used kraštutinumas not suffice?), pašaipingumas, and agent nouns išvykautojas, pašarautojas, etc. It is unlikely that the frequency counts of these rather unusual derivatives would be high in a frequency dictionary or corpus.

Conclusions

In a standard-language dictionary, derived nouns formed with the suffixes mentioned above should be presented according to certain principles.

1. Perhaps derivatives without specialized meanings that are listed in entries for base verbs should be omitted altogether.

2. Nouns with specialized meanings should be presented in separate entries.

3. When a derivative has specialized meanings and is assigned a separate dictionary entry, a separate sememe should also be given for transpositional, non-specialized derivatives, i.e., those whose lexical and derivational meanings coincide (in the DLKŽ, they are most often listed without definitions or usage examples in entries for base words). Such sememes can be presented uniformly in terms of form—by specifying the base word and derivational category. If nouns can be based on only some of the meanings of the base verbs or adjectives, this should also be indicated by identifying the meanings of the base words that motivate the derivative.

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4. Atskirais straipsniais galėtų būti pateikti ir šiaip specialesnes reikšmes įgiję, bet ryškesnių semantinių grupių (tokių, kaip asmenų pavadinimai pagal profesijas ar pan.) nesudarantys vediniai – krikštytojas, išganytojas; baudėjas, rėmėjas, -a, steigėjas, -a, stebėtojas, -a, vartotojas, -a; smogikas ir kt.

5. Perhaps the more common nonstandard meanings of some derivatives should also be indicated, e.g., bālìntojas ‘bleach’, išjungėjas ‘switch’, pakrovėjas ‘loader’, and so on. For example, in Latvian, such nouns, used to name both a person and a device or machine, are standard, and therefore LVV lists them in the same entry as separate meanings of a polysemous derivative (kulējs, skaitītājs). The Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian could do the same, except that the meaning ‘instrument of action’ should be marked nonstandard.

6. All terms belonging to specific fields should be marked with the appropriate abbreviations.

7. If the motivating meanings of the base word are figurative or bear stylistic labels such as colloquial, derogatory, or similar, the corresponding meanings of the derivatives should also be marked.

Tad išvestinio daiktavardžio, kuris, be kitų reikšmių, tarkim, gali žymėti asmenį pagal profesiją, straipsnis žodyne galėtų atrodyti maždaug taip: vertėjas, -a dkt. (1) 1. lingv. „kas verčia tekstą“; 2. → v e r s t i 1 (veikėjas); 3. → v e r s t i 7 (veikėjas); 4. → v e r s t i 8 (veikėjas); 5. → v e r s t i 15 (veikėjas); kiekviena reikšmė, be abejo, iliustruotina vartosenos pavyzdžiais, kurie gali paaiškinti vedinį, nevartant žodyno ir neieškant atitinkamos pamatinio žodžio reikšmės. Šiuo atveju nurodytos visos reikšmės, kurias pateikia LKŽ XVIII 877. Ar visos jos būtinos bendrinės kalbos žodyne, dar reikėtų svarstyti. Tačiau akivaizdu, kad vertėjas, -a turi gerokai mažiau reikšmių nei jo pamatinis veiksmažodis versti, ir šito negalima sužinoti iš DLKŽ, nes išvestinis daiktavardis šiame žodyne nei apibrėžiamas, nei iliustruojamas, o tiesiog įrašytas daugiareikšmio (17 reikšmių) pamatinio veiksmažodžio straipsnyje.

Received 1999 02 03

LITERATŪRA IR ŠALTINIAI

DLKG – Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian, Vilnius: Science and Encyclopedia Publishing House, 1996.

DLKŽ – Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian, Vilnius: Science and Encyclopedia Publishing House, 1993.

DLKŽ(k) – computer version of DLKŽ.

Gudavičius A. 1997: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas leksikos sistemiškumo požiūriu. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 37, 33–39.

KTŽ – Gaivenis K., Keinys S. Kalbotyros terminų žodynas, Kaunas: Šviesa, 1990.

LKG – Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1, Vilnius: Mintis, 1965.

LKŽ I–XIX – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 1–2, Vilnius: Mintis, 1968–1969; 3–6, Vilnius: State Publishing House for Political and Scientific Literature, 1956–1962; 7–9, Vilnius: Mintis, 1966–1973; 10–15, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976–1991; 16–17, Vilnius: Science and Encyclopedia Publishing House, 1995–1996; 18–19, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopedia Publishing, 1997–1999.

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LVV – Latviešu valodas vārdnīca, Riga: Avots, 1987.

Murmulaitytė D. 1995: Priesagos -imas vedinių pateikimas „Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne“. – Lituanistica 2 (22), 55–67.

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**PRESENTATION OF DERIVATIVES IN THE ENTRIES OF THEIR BASE WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY OF MODERN LITHUANIAN (DABARTINĖS LIETUVIŲ KALBOS ŽODYNAS)**

Summary

The article focuses on the derivatives with the suffixes -imas/-ymas, -umas, -ybė, -tojas, -a, -ėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė, which are presented in the entries of their underlying words. In most cases they have neither definitions nor illustrations, so the user cannot get sufficient information about their semantics and usage. Besides, due to the chosen mode of their presentation, they appear in the Dictionary as unmarked homographs and homonyms.

Thus, in the new Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas), it is more reasonable to present only part of these derivatives. Only the derivatives which have specialised meanings or are technical terms would be presented in separate entries. The others need not be presented in this Dictionary because of their regular derivation and closeness in their lexical and derivational meaning.

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