Regina KVAŠYTĖ

Šiauliai University

ENGLISH IN THE ECONOMIC TERMINOLOGY OF THE LITHUANIAN AND LATVIAN LANGUAGES

1. Introductory remarks

The terminology of a contemporary language, as part of the national language’s lexicon reflecting changes in social life, is of diverse origin: alongside words native to the language, many terms borrowed at different periods are used; according to their degree of assimilation, these are usually classified as old, fully assimilated borrowings, international words, and foreignisms, or barbarisms (Gaivenis 2002: 58). In Lithuanian and the related Latvian language, most international terms are of Greek or Latin origin. However, many words from other languages, including English, have also become international (Jakaitienė 1980: 60; LK I 1995: 36; Laua 1981: 116). The linguist Juris Baldunčiks, who has studied English borrowings in Latvian in detail, acknowledges that English-origin words are often perceived as international vocabulary, so there is little resistance to their entry both into the standard language generally and into professional vocabulary. Their belonging to international vocabulary—widespread across many languages—is precisely one of the main motives for borrowing them. This is especially true of languages that do not belong to the so-called major languages, such as Latvian, Lithuanian, Czech, Finnish, and others. The entry of such words into our languages is also encouraged by the fact that they are found in major languages (Russian, German) (A 1989: 11). Lithuanian terminologists similarly explain the spread of English-origin words: “they come together with new concepts

¹ Latvian linguists disagree about the term itself—the forms anglicisms (A 1989) and anglisms (Skujiņa 1993) compete. “The letter sequence (suffix) in the term anglicisms has no semantic weight; therefore, in keeping with the requirements for terms and rejecting the unjustified influence of other languages, preference is given to the shorter form anglicisms” (NA 2002: 113). In Lithuanian linguistic terminology, the terms anglicizmas, anglizmas are used synonymously (KTŽ 1990), as is anglybė (Drotvinas 1988: 50).

31

ir kai kurios esti labai panašios į tarptautinius žodžius“ (Gaivenis 2002: 58). Pastaruoju metu rinkos ekonomikos sąlygomis ir plėtojant verslą anglų kalba anglybės vis labiau skverbiasi į nacionalines kalbas.

English-origin words—international words, and, in nonstandard usage, foreignisms of English origin—entered Lithuanian and Latvian at different times and for different reasons; therefore, their assessment in the terminology of economics and related fields² cannot be uniform. The Latvian terminologist Valentīna Skujiņa emphasizes that, because of national distinctiveness, English borrowings (especially English-origin terms) enter Latvian not the category of internationalisms³ but that of words borrowed from another specific language, just like borrowings from Russian, German, or any other national language. Such words in Latvian are usually translated unless there are special additional reasons to borrow them (Skujiņa 1997: 241). It is observed that those international words of English origin whose pronunciation is closer to their spelling become best established in the language system; in turn, English-origin words whose pronunciation differs greatly from their spelling perform the functions of international words only conditionally. These principles apply not only to the lexicon of the standard language but also to terminology. English-origin words have spread—and continue to spread quite rapidly—in the economic terminology of both Lithuanian and Latvian, especially in spoken usage.

2. International terms borrowed via English

There are cases in which English has acted as an intermediary in the process of borrowing terms; examples of this can also be found in economic terminology. Among the terms borrowed from English earlier, fully assimilated and established as international terms in both Lithuanian and Latvian

² Hereafter referred to collectively as economic terminology.

³ In Latvian linguistics, the term internacionalisms is widely used, while in Lithuanian the terms internacionalizmas and internacionalybė are Lithuanian synonyms for tarptautinis žodis, ‘international word’ (KTŽ 1990). Incidentally, it is claimed that in Lithuanian the term internacionalizmai “had already begun to displace the usual term tarptautiniai žodžiai” (Klimavičius 2001: 16).

32

included primarily are economic terms of Latin or Greek origin that entered via English (although some sources treat them as borrowed directly from the classical languages): Lithuanian kapitalas (English capital < Latin capitalis ‘principal’) TŽŽ 2001 – “an investment in production by investing in physical capital (e.g., enterprises, institutions, equipment, tools) and intellectual capital (e.g., general education, vocational training) <...>” AĮVTŽ 2000 [older dictionaries of foreign words, for example SNŽŽ 1907 and STŽŽ 1923, indicate that this is a word of Latin origin; incidentally, the term was often explained by the Lithuanian equivalent turtas ‘property’ (L 1915; LL 1922)] – Latvian kapitāls (German Kapital, English capital < Latin capitale ‘property’), while the homonym is the adjective kapitāls from Latin capitalis ‘principal’ (SV 1999); Lithuanian eksportas (English export < Latin exporto ‘I carry out’) TŽŽ 2001 – “the sale of goods, services, and fixed capital to foreign countries <...>” AĮVTŽ 2000. The word appears in various Lithuanian dictionaries from the early twentieth century, but in some lexicographical sources it is matched by the Lithuanian derivatives išgabenimas (L 1915) or išvežimas (SNŽŽ 1907). Pranas Skardžius (LTŽA 1973) proposed dispensing with this international word and instead using descriptive constructions prekių išvežimas į užsienį; į užsienį išvežamosios prekės ‘the transport of goods abroad; goods transported abroad’ or the suffixal derivative išvaža. The Latvian dictionary of Anglicisms (SV 1999) notes that the term Latvian eksports first appeared in a volume of an encyclopedic dictionary published in 1891⁴, although illustrative examples show it was used much earlier (A 1989); Lithuanian importas (English import < Latin importo ‘I carry in’) TŽŽ 2001 – “the purchase of goods, services, and fixed capital from foreign countries <...>” AĮVTŽ 2000. In Lithuanian, this international word, incidentally considered to be directly of Latin origin, was already included in the 1907 dictionary of international words (SNŽŽ 1907) and in other dictionaries of later years (STŽŽ 1923; TŽŽ 1936). Nevertheless, in the trade correspondence dictionary published in 1938

⁴ The encyclopedic dictionary Konversācijas vārdnīca was published in separate installments. Its first publisher was J. Dravnieks. From 1891 to 1898, 27 installments appeared in Jelgava; from 1904, the dictionary was published in Riga: Konversācijas vārdnīca 1–99, 1904–1921; Latviešu konversācijas vārdnīca 1–21, 1921–1940.

33

this term is absent from the trade correspondence dictionary—it is replaced by the Lithuanian įvežimas ‘import’ (PKŽ 1938). In P. Skardžius’s view, it could also be rendered by native expressions prekių įvežimas iš kitų kraštų, įvežamosios prekės ‘bringing goods in from other countries; imported goods’ or the suffixal derivative įvaža (LTŽA 1973). Latvian imports (SV 1999), like the antonymic term eksports, appeared in the 1891 dictionary (A 1989). These international words of Latin origin, which came via English, also have native-language equivalents in Latvian: eksports – izvedums ‘export’; imports – ievedums ‘import’. Dictionaries of terms from the past decade show that Latvian equivalents are also used as terms or as components of compound terms: ievedums; ievedmuita ‘import duty’, izvedums; izvedmuita ‘export duty’ (ELDO 1995; ESV 2000). New compound terms are also spreading in Latvian economic terminology: ieveduma ierobežošana ‘import restriction’, ieveduma kvota ‘import quota’, ieveduma pievienotās vērtības nodoklis ‘import value-added tax’, izvedsubsīdija ‘export subsidy’, izveduma kvota ‘export quota’, izveduma un ieveduma cenu attiecība ‘terms of trade’ (ESV 2000). The most recent explanatory dictionary of Latvian economic terms even notes a tendency to abandon terms of foreign origin: eksports žr. izvedums ir imports žr. ievedums ‘export, see izvedums, and import, see ievedums’ (ESV 2000). Similar processes are taking place in Lithuanian terminology—alongside the terms eksportas, grynasis eksportas, importas (RETŽ 1994; BBBTŽŽ 1994; MTŽ 2002), importo muitas ‘import duty’ (ETŽ 1994), eksporto / importo kvota, eksporto / importo licencija AĮVTŽ 2000, Lithuanian equivalents įvežimas, išvežimas are also used, though much less frequently (BBBTŽŽ 1994). Lithuanian-origin terms įvežimas ir išvežimas ‘import and export’, or forms of the corresponding verbs įvežti, išvežti ‘to import, to export’, are also found in explanations of concepts in some laws (IVSŽ 2000).⁵

English also serves as an intermediary when certain terms derived from classical languages are brought into current use, for example, Lithuanian auditas (Latin auditus ‘hearing’) TŽŽ 2001 – “an official examination of an independent company’s accounting records and financial statements

⁵ Literal translations of Latvian terms are indicated by single quotation marks.

34

and presentation of conclusions. The main purpose of an audit is to assess whether the financial statements show the true state of the company’s operations and whether these statements have been prepared in accordance with the applicable regulatory acts on bookkeeping and accounting. An audit is conducted under an agreement between the audit firm and the economic entity (client). The results of the audit are recorded in an audit report, which also presents a conclusion on the accuracy of the financial statements” AĮVTŽ 2000, auditor “a person who has auditor qualifications, a licence and the right to conduct an audit, and who works for an audit firm registered in the Register of Enterprises of the Republic of Lithuania” AĮVTŽ 2000. In the early 20th century, these words had a range of Lithuanian equivalents: audit – review, examination of accounts; auditor – inspector, reviewer of accounts L. 1915; auditor 1. “until the end of the 18th century, an examining magistrate and prosecutor in Lithuanian military courts”; 2. “in old schools, a senior pupil”; 3. “in canon law, an examining judge who conducts an investigation in a case but does not himself pass judgment” TŽŽ 1936. In present-day language, audit (accounting) means inspection, review, audit DALKŽ 2000; in terminology dictionaries, audit – review ETŽ 1994, audit (also accounting inspection / control / review) (BBBTŽŽ 1994). Latvian economics specialists do not agree on whether this term needs to be borrowed: some are inclined to admit the Anglicism into their language, while others propose using only the long-established term, also of Latin origin, review, arguing that it refers to the same phenomenon: audit, see revīzija; auditors, see revidents; auditorfirma, see revidentfirma ESV 2000. In the English–Latvian dictionary, the equivalents of this word are (of accounts, reports) inspection; review ‘inspection (of settlements, reports); review’ AĮLV 1997. The Terminology Commission of the Latvian Academy of Sciences has provided an official explanation of the differences between these terms, stating that the terms revīzija and revidents are used in Latvian in their traditional meanings, whereas the terms audits and auditors, borrowed from English in the 1990s, designate processes and an agent distinct from, though partly related to, review and reviewer: an audit is “a process initiated by an institution, company or individual by inviting a competent specialist (auditor) to determine the state of the institution’s, company’s or individual’s economic activity, possible shortcomings, and so on, and to obtain advice on improving the situation; an audit is conducted by listening to the necessary information or gathering it from documents, etc.; the purpose of an audit

35

– to prevent an institution, company or natural person from going bankrupt, economic activity from declining, and so on, and to eliminate possible obstacles in good time” (TJ 3, 21–22), while an auditor is “a person invited, as a highly competent specialist, to inspect the activities of a particular institution or official in order to establish the situation or refine the programme of activities for the near future” (Kirite 1995). Raita Karnīte, director of the Institute of Economics and chair of the Economics Terminology Subcommittee of the Latvian Terminology Commission, sees the Anglicism as unnecessary and equivalent to the term revīzija: “there is no reason to translate and explain these terms differently; revīzija and audits are synonyms, equally suitable for describing one and the same process <...>. Accordingly, auditor is translated as revidents jeb⁶ auditors, that is, a person who is entitled to conduct a revision or an audit” (TJ 8, 20). It is worth noting that in Russian this term was first recorded in an explanatory dictionary of late-20th-century vocabulary with the meaning “an independent examination of a company’s financial statements, conducted by qualified specialists (auditors)”; the term for the person performing this work, auditorius, had already appeared in other Russian dictionaries of the previous decade (ТСРЯ 2000).

Through English as an intermediary, terms of classical language origin have entered the economic terminology of both Lithuanian and Latvian; some of them are now established and beyond question, while the usage of others is still being refined.

3. International terms of English origin

Some widely known and used economic terms recognized as international have been borrowed directly from English and adapted to Lithuanian or Latvian, i.e. they conform to the norms of Lithuanian or Latvian: Lithuanian boikotas (English boycott) TŽŽ 2001 – “the complete or partial termination of economic relations with a partner (a state, company, organization or individual), refusal to buy certain goods and to work with a particular one

⁶ In Latvian, jeb always links only words of equal status, that is, absolute synonyms.

36

products, participate in events, communicate” AĮVTŽ 2000 (recorded in SNŽŽ 1907; STŽŽ 1923; SNŽŽ 1924; TŽŽ 1936) – Latvian boikots, recorded in SV 1999, appeared in a Latvian encyclopedic dictionary in 1904, while derivatives of the word occur in texts as early as the late 19th century (A 1989); Lithuanian čekis (English cheque, check) TŽŽ 2001 – “a monetary document under which a bank must pay money from a person’s current account, and a receipt confirming that the customer has received it; a document for transactions and payments, credit, and also cashless settlements, whereby cheque claims are mutually offset and settled <...>” AĮVTŽ 2000 (cf. 1. “a written order in the prescribed form directing a bank to pay or transfer to another account a certain sum of money from the current account of the person signing the cheque”; 2. “a cash-register slip stating the amount received for goods or paid to the till” TŽŽ 2001). In older sources the form of this word was čekas, “a note issued by a bank with which a person can withdraw from another bank the money deposited in the first bank” SNŽŽ 1907, or čekas SNŽŽ 1924, while čekis appears in L 1915, TŽŽ 1936, PKŽ 1938 – Latvian čeks (SV 1999). J. Baldunčiks notes that the first meaning of this term appeared in a Latvian dictionary of international words as early as 1886, while the second was recorded in 1934 (A 1989); Lithuanian dempingas (English dumping, “throwing down”) TŽŽ 2001 – “in international trade in goods, in order to gain a better foothold in other countries’ markets, goods are sold abroad at a lower price than at home, although such pricing policy is prohibited” AĮVTŽ 2000. Lithuanian dempingas is also used in the sense of “selling currency or securities at a rate below the market rate, usually with the aim of driving down the price” TŽŽ 2001 – Latvian dempings is used only to describe the sale of goods (SV 1999; A 1989). Some older Anglicisms have different grammatical categories in Lithuanian and Latvian, for example, their grammatical gender differs: Lithuanian banknotas (English bank-note) TŽŽ 2001 – “credit money signs issued by a country’s issuing national (central) bank, serving as substitutes for metal money as means of circulation and payment” AĮVTŽ 2000 – Latvian banknote (English bank note) SV 1999. In Lithuanian the term is recorded in dictionaries from the early 20th century – STŽŽ 1923, TŽŽ 1936 – but a feminine form also existed: banknota L 1915, LL 1922. In the Latvian dictionary of international words, this word had appeared by 1878 and was first recorded in 1850 (A 1989).

37

The economic terminology of both Lithuanian and Latvian includes names for realia borrowed directly from English that have long since become part of the lexicon: international terms adapted to Lithuanian or Latvian and widely used, with no equivalent in the respective native language.

4. Anglicisms and other foreign words of English origin

Words of English origin in Lithuanian and Latvian economic terminology, especially names for new phenomena and realia, have become more numerous in recent years. Anglicisms denoting new concepts, if they are not international words, are treated cautiously in both Lithuanian and Latvian terminology. When these new names are judged to be foreign words (attitudes towards foreign words are essentially the same in both languages), suitable equivalents are sought for them, first of all in the native vocabulary, since what is named by a new borrowing is not always truly new: sometimes no new word is needed to name it. “During the decade of independence, the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language put up a certain barrier to new international words—genuine ones, more often spoken—through Resolution No. 42, ‘On the List of New Foreign Words Not to Be Used’, later incorporated into the general List of Major Language Errors (LKKN 1998: 130–132); one special work should be noted—VKNS 1998—as well as extensive terminography and numerous articles” (Klimavičius 2001: 16). Some phenomena related to the consequences of language contact in both related languages had already been discussed earlier (Kvašytė 1996).

Many Anglicisms for which Lithuanian or Latvian substitutes are proposed are names of agents. However, not all of them can be assessed as unequivocally negative. For example, Lithuanian brokeris (English broker) TŽŽ 2001 – “a person who does not hold ownership rights to the goods. Their main function is to bring buyer and seller together and help them reach an agreement” AIVTŽ 2000, cf. “a stock-exchange intermediary (agent) who acts between buyer and seller, the insured (policyholder) and insurer, shipowner and char-

⁷ To make it easier to navigate the Lithuanian and Latvian examples, the Anglicisms are presented first, while their substitutes and usage variants are discussed in the text.

38

tuotojo“ TŽŽ 2001. Neretai kaip anglybės atitikmuo minimas skolinys iš vokiečių kalbos makleris (vok. Makler) ŠETĖŽ 1991, „biržos tarnautojas – biržos sandorių tarpininkas“ MTŽ 2002. Žodį brokeris greičiau būtų galima laikyti suaktualintu, o ne nauju skoliniu, nes jis fiksuotas daug senesniuose šaltiniuose, bet aiškinamas kaip tarpininkas, makleris TŽŽ 1936. Kai kuriuose šaltiniuose brokeris gretinamas su žodžiu agentas, o apibrėžtyse sakoma, kad tai „prekių biržos dalyvis, tarpininkaujantis užmezgant kontaktą tarp pardavėjo ir pirkėjo. Skirtingai nuo agento, brokeris nedalyvauja ilgalaikiuose prekybiniuose santykiuose su pirkėjais bei pardavėjais ir dirba pagal įsipareigojimus“ RETŽ 1994. Taip trumpai aiškinama ir dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: brokeris „biržos tarnautojas – pirkėjo ir pardavėjo tarpininkas“, makleris – „biržos sandorių tarpininkas“ DŽ 2000. Vis dėlto įvairiuose terminografijos šaltiniuose kalbamų veikėjų pavadinimų vartojimas nepasižymi nuoseklumu: brokeris – „biržos agentas“, o vertybinių popierių / fondų / kapitalų biržos brokeris žr. finansinis makleris; makleris – broker (biržos) JAV; dealer; šnek. jobber; biržos makleris – stock jobber (ppr. atliekantis operacijas savo rizika); finansinis makleris – stock(-)broker; salės makleris – floor trader BBBTŽŽ 1994. Ir kituose žodynuose termino makleris atitikmuo ne visada būna broker, o, pavyzdžiui, jobber ETŽ 1994. Pastebėtina, kad jau 1915 m. žodyne kaip broker atitikmenys minėti mekleris; faktorius, o jobber – mekleris; perpirklis L 1915. Latv. brokers pirmas žodžio paminėjimo pavyzdys – iš 1908 m. šaltinio, o ekonomikos terminų žodyne jis fiksuotas 1975 m. (A 1989). Pagal įstatymuose vartojamo termino apibrėžtį, tai – „licencijuotas fizinis asmuo, kuris vertybinių popierių rinkoje atlieka tarpininkavimo sandorius“ LTV 1999. Tačiau latvių kalboje taip pat žinomas terminas mākleris SV 1999. Forma mākleris latvių kalboje fiksuota jau Georgo Mancelio 1789 m. žodyne, 1935 m. prekybos terminų žodyne vokiečių kalbos termino Broker atitikmuo yra mākler(s), o Makler – mākler(s), starpnieks ‘tarpininkas’ VLTT 1935. Žodis mākler(s) su pažyma kap. (t. y. „susijęs su kapitalistine santvarka, kapitalistine visuomene“) pateikiamas ir bendrinės latvių kalbos žodyne reikšme „prekybos ir biržos sandorių tarpininkas“ LieLkŽ 1995. Naujausiuose žodynuose aptikta nemažai sudėtinių terminų, kurių pagrindinis dėmuo yra minėta anglybė: apdrošināša-

39

nas brokers; muitas brokers; biržas brokers LTV 1999, biržas māklers NL 1993. Latvių dokumentų kalbą reglamentuojančiame leidinyje siūlomi net trys kalbamos anglybės atitikmenys, diferencijuojama jų reikšmė: broker – starpnieks ‘tarpininkas’; mākleris (pvz., biržoje); agents (pvz., draudime) (NA 2002 112). Tai, kad minėtoji anglybė neprilygsta tikriesiems tarptautiniams terminams, patvirtina kitų kalbų atitikmenys, plg. angl. broker, vok. Makler, pranc. courtier; agent, rus. брокер ESV 2000. Naujausiame žodyne ir anglų, ir vokiečių kalbos skoliniui siūlomas latviškas pakaitas starpnieks ‘tarpininkas’ ESV 2000. Latvių anglybių žodyne fiksuotas ir panašios semantikos dūrinys billbrokers (variantas billbrokers) (angl. bill-broker) „vekselių makleris“ A 1989, enciklopediniame žodyne 1928–1929 m. ir 1975 m. ekonomikos terminų žodyne billbrokers (vekselu mākleri) ET 1975. Latvių kalboje nemažai rūpesčių dėl paties termino formos pasirinkimo: brokers ALV 1997, PV 1995, NL 1993 ar brokeris. Terminologijos komisijos nutarimas reikalauja normine pripažinti formą brokeris ETVU 1997, ELDO 1995. Varijuoja ir forma: māklēnis PV 1995, BTV 1999, ETVU 1997, JTVU 1997 ar māklers ET 1975. Šių terminų pagrindu latvių kalboje atsiranda naujų darinių, pavyzdžiui, māklerāts „biržos maklerių grupė (skyrius), kuris veikia kaip biržos struktūrinis vienetas“ LTV 1999.

In dictionaries of economic terms, Lithuanian dileris (English dealer) is common, defined as “a member of a stock exchange (an individual or firm), a bank that buys and sells securities, currency, and precious metals” AĮVTŽ 2000, dileris BBBTŽŽ 1994, prekybos agentas / dileris ŠETEŽ 1991. Nevertheless, the latest dictionary of Lithuanian international words records this word as not recommended for use: economics, not recommended, “trade intermediary, sales agent; company representative” TŽŽ 2001. In an English dictionary of 1915, dealer is rendered as distributor; merchant, trader L 1915. Contemporary language standardizers propose the equivalents intermediary, sales agent, and sometimes company representative VKNS 1998, for this Anglicism. According to an English–Lithuanian dictionary, it is a polysemous word: 1. “trader, merchant,” 2. “(drug) dealer,” 3. “intermediary, sales agent,” 4. “card dealer” DALKŽ 2000. Russian dictionaries of the past decade record the word дилер, whose definition is very similar to that of брокер—that is, “a person or firm acting as an intermediary on the stock exchange or in trade between a buyer and a seller when buying or selling goods, securi-

40

binius popierius ir pan. “ TCPЯ 2000. Latv. dīlers pirmą kartą paminėtas 1975 m. ekonomikos terminų žodyne (A 1989). Terminu dīlers vadinamas „biržos tarnautojas, kuris yra fondų biržos narys ir atlieka operacijas su vertybiniais popieriais pats savo rizika, skirtingai nei brokeriai, kurie yra sandorių tarpininkai ir atlieka operacijas biržos vardu. Dileriai neturi teisės sudaryti tiesioginių sandorių su klientais, kaip tai daro brokeriai. Dilerių pelnas susidaro iš akcijų pirkimo ir pardavimo kursų skirtumo“ NL 1993. Nesutariama dėl termino formos – konkuruoja baigmenys -ers ir -eris: dīlers A 1989, NL 1993 ar dīleris BTV 1999, SV 1999.

The name for the agent, Lithuanian sponsorius (Latin sponsor “provider”) is marked as not recommended: (financial) supporter, patron TŽŽ 2001. Other Lithuanian sources regard it as a borrowing from English (English sponsor) and replace it with the Lithuanian equivalents mentioned above. English sponsor has also had Lithuanian equivalents with a different meaning, assistant, help L 1915. The derivative sponsorystė, formed with the suffix -yst- [“derivatives are based on nouns (usually names of persons) <...> very often denote the state, occupation, business, or field of activity of such persons” (Keinys 1999: 45)], or the action noun sponsoriavimas, formed with the suffix -im-, is proposed to be replaced by the terms support, patronage, benefaction VKNS 1998. This word has also been included in the latest list of foreign words whose use is not recommended (DKKS 1998). Latvian sponsors is considered a recent borrowing from English—the dictionary of Anglicisms gives illustrative examples from the 1980s (A 1989). It is recorded both in the dictionary of standard Latvian (LLVV VII(2) 1991) and in terminology dictionaries. The proposed Latvian equivalents are pabalstītājs, labdēvis ‘supporter, benefactor’ ELDO 1995; see finansiālais pabalstītājs ‘financial supporter’ ESV 2000. However, Latvian usage shows that speakers more often choose a morphologically similar derivative from the same root but with a different prefix, atbalstītājs ‘supporter’. It is worth noting that Russian dictionaries of the past decade also record this Anglicism (TCPЯ 2000).

The Anglicism Lithuanian menedžeris (English manager) is widespread in economic terminology BBBTŽŽ 1994. To replace this term, a suffixed equivalent, vadybininkas, was chosen, based on the term vadyba (see below, menedžmentas). It was also proposed that this person be called head, administrator, director VKNS 1998. This

41

taip pat nėra naujų atitikmenys – angl. manager – ir valdytojas L 1915. Latv. menedžeris savo ruožtu keičiamas terminais vadītājs ‘vadovas’, pārvaldnieks ‘valdytojas’ ELDO 1995. Pastaruoju metu plinta nauji sudėtiniai terminai, kuriems reikia rasti priimtinus ir tikslius atitikmenis, pavyzdžiui, angl. marketing manager latvių kalboje siūloma keisti dūriniu komercdirektors ‘komercijos direktorius’ (NA 2002 112). Apskritai dūrinių darymas yra labai dažnas, latvių kalbai ypač būdingas atitikmenų kūrimo būdas.

English-origin loanwords are also numerous among economic terms that could provisionally be called a group of processes and abstract concepts. Some of them are related to the names of agents already discussed, for example, Lithuanian management (English management), non-recommended: management, ‘the organization and management of business; the entirety of its principles, methods, means, and forms’ (TŽŽ 2001). The Lithuanian form management was recorded in PKŽ 1938. Today, however, the term management is explained as ‘the science of management and leadership. It encompasses the management of social organizations and systems; the entirety of practical methods and traditions of governing a country during a given period; it is the activity of coordinating the production process in order to optimize the use of economic resources’ (AĮVTŽ 2000). In some cases, English management in compound terms is rendered by the Lithuanian term valdymas, for example: management accounting; management buy-out (ETŽ 1994). Latvian menedžments is replaced by native formations pārvaldība, vadībzinība, ‘management, management science’ (ELDO 1995; NA 2002 112), although these are often lacking in actual usage. Instead of the English loanword Lithuanian marketing (BBBTŽŽ 1994), marked as non-recommended in the dictionary of international words non-recommended, the compound marketing is proposed (TŽŽ 2001; also VKNS 1998). According to terminologist Jonas Klimavičius, already in BBBTŽŽ 1994 ‘the hybrid term marketing mix (includes: product presentation, price, place, market formation). Need it be explained that without that last item there would be nothing? Need it be explained that market formation is marketing?’ (Klimavičius 1996: 8). The term market research has a completely different meaning and, incidentally, is a very clearly motivated neologism. Management specialists do not always manage to define economic concepts clearly and precisely, for example, marketing—‘a system of market research tools and the production and commercial strategy and tactics of a company and its intermediaries, intended for distinct consumer grou-

42

to meet the needs of particular groups; “the systematic collection, accumulation, and processing of data related to marketing problems” AĮVTŽ 2000. The previously used foreignism marketingas means “the process of managing the needs of a particular market, that is, identifying actual or stimulated consumer needs and meeting that demand through related functions of production, distribution, pricing, and promotion” ETŽ 1994. Latvian mārketings ETVU 1997 is likewise used in practice, especially in spoken language, and often in announcements and advertising. Although it is more often replaced by the Latvian words tirgus ‘market’, zinība (from zināt ‘to know’), vedība (from vest ‘to lead’), the compounds tirgzinība, tirgvedība ‘marketing’ ELDO 1995, ESV 2000, and, in the latest sources, a similarly structured neologism, tirgdarbība ‘market activity’ (NA 2002 112).

The term Lithuanian lizingas (English leasing) denotes “a type of lease in which machinery, equipment, production premises, and other items are leased for a period longer than six months. Lithuanian equivalents for this term would be long-term lease and hire-purchase” (Gaivenytė 1993: 44). This is also confirmed by terminology dictionaries: lizingas, see long-term lease, “a long-term lease of equipment (usually from six months to several years)” AĮVTŽ 2000. Elsewhere it is proposed simply to replace it with lease ETŽ 1994. The Anglicism was also used in earlier times BBBTŽŽ 1994. Latvian līzings has the equivalent izpirkuma noma ‘hire-purchase’, given in many terminology dictionaries (ELDO 1995, ESV 2000—the compound izpirkumnoma), less often līzings ETVU 1997; alongside the Anglicism, the Latvian ilglaicīga noma ‘long-term lease’ is given in LieLaKŽ 1995, corresponding to the form widespread in Lithuanian economic terminology.

In both languages, the Anglicism Lithuanian barteris (English barter) ŠETĖŽ 1991, RETŽ 1994 is replaced by a native compound term: not recommended, commodity-for-commodity exchange TŽŽ 2001 (in VKNS 1998, “goods” is optional; likewise in DKKS 1998), or see commodity exchange BBBTŽŽ 1994; less often, the Anglicism is given with the explanation “commodity exchange” MTŽ 2002. The equivalent exchange [and exchange trade – barter (trade)] appears as early as PKŽ 1938, and earlier still as exchange; barter; counter-exchange L 1915. Latvian barters is rendered as (prec)mainas darījums ‘commodity-exchange transaction’ ELDO 1995, NA 2002 112–113, while the latest explanatory terminology dictionary gives the single-word compound prečmaiņa ‘exchange of goods’ ESV 2000.

43

The Lithuanian economic term overdraftas (English overdraft) TŽŽ 2001 – see sumos perviršis BBBTŽŽ 1994. Lithuanian also has other substitutes—compound terms: kredito viršijimas or banko paskola (English bank loan) ETŽ 1994. Other sources retain the equivalent kredito viršijimas: “The English use this word for an amount obtained by writing a cheque for more than the current-account balance, or for an excess over the credit granted by a bank. Thus, the Lithuanian equivalent of this term is kredito viršijimas. Otherwise, one could use the neologism viršsumė” (Gaivenytė 1993: 44). In an early 20th-century dictionary, overdraw is defined as follows: “to draw a bill for an amount exceeding the credit (at a bank); to overdraw” L 1915. Latvian overdrafts (English overdraw ‘to exceed’) NL 1993 is replaced by a term similar to that used in Lithuanian, kredīta pārsniegšana ‘exceeding credit’ ELDO 1995. However, other sources record more variants, including an anglicism: overdrafts; kredīta pārsniegšana bankā ‘exceeding credit at a bank’; parāds bankai ‘debt to a bank’ BTV 1999.

Ne mažiau aktuali ekonomikos terminijoje anglybė yra liet. holdingas ŠETŽ 1991, taip pat holdingo kompanija RETŽ 1994, „akcinė korporacija, superkanti kontrolinius vienos ar keleto kitų bendrovių akcijų paketus, kad galėtų jas valdyti ar kontroliuoti“ AĮVTŽ 2000 – „akcinė bendrovė, turinti kitų bendrovių akcijų kontrolinius paketus. Siūloma tokią kompaniją vadinti kontroliuojančiąja bendrove“ (Gaivenytė 1993: 43; taip daroma ir BBBTŽŽ 1994); plg. angl. holding – laikymas; valdymas; valdyba L 1915. Latv. holdings (angl. holding < hold „laikyti“ NL 1993) – kontrolakciju turēšana ‘kontrolinių akcijų laikymas’ ELDO 1995, o holding company – kontrolakciju sabiedrība ‘kontrolinių akcijų bendrovė’ NA 2002 112, sudėtinis terminas holdingsabiedrība, taip pat kontrolakciju sabiedrība ESV 2000. Tai dar kartą patvirtinama Terminologijos komisijos kas ketvirtį leidžiamame informaciniame biuletenyje, kur pateikti kai kurių aktualių angliškų terminų latviškieji atitikmenys (TJ 2, 25).

The new concept is also named by the Lithuanian economic term faktoringas (English factoring) TŽŽ 2001 – “the assumption (collection) of a company’s liabilities and the management of these liabilities by a factoring company. The factoring company purchases a partner’s liabilities at a price established by agreement” AĮVTŽ 2000 (cf. economic term “a settlement system that eliminates payment risk: the sale of the right to collect debts, commercial

44

operacijų vykdymas pagal įgaliojimus ir t. t.“ TŽŽ 2001). Ši anglybė fiksuota daugelyje terminų žodynų (ŠETEŽ 1991; BBBTŽŽ 1994), nors sunormintoje lietuvių ekonomikos terminijoje ją siūloma keisti sudėtiniu terminu faktorijos operacijos ETŽ 1994. Laty. faktoringas keičia darinys faktūrkreditēšana ‘faktūrinis kreditavimas’ ESV 2000, dabar dar ir faktūrdarījums ‘faktūrinis sandoris’ NA 2002 112. Terminologijos komisijos biuletenyje pateikti trys kalbamos anglybės atitikmenys: fakturēšana ‘faktūravimas’; faktūrdarījums; faktūrkreditēšana (TJ 2, 25).

For the new loanword from English, bid, which has not yet become widely established in either Lithuanian or Latvian, substitutes are currently being proposed. In Lithuanian, this is the three-word term siūlomoji pirkėjo kaina, i.e. 1. “an offer by one company to another to buy all its shares and take over its management by becoming the majority shareholder”; 2. “the desire to buy a particular commodity at the prevailing price. This may take the form of an auction, where many buyers bid for the commodity on sale, and it goes to the person offering the highest price, except where the highest price has been set in advance but no buyer offers that price” ETŽ 1994. In Latvian, the following are cited as substitutes for bid: konkursizsole; izsole ‘competitive auction, auction’ NA 2002 112; only konkursizsole TJ 2, 24. English bidding is replaced by [iz]solīšana ‘auctioning’ NA 2002 112; also TJ 2, 24. Nevertheless, it should be noted that these are not entirely new concepts: bid – proposal; offer, and bidding – proposal; invitation; summons; request; instruction; command L 1915.

The economic term borrowed from English, Lithuanian onkolis (English on call “payable on demand”) means 1. “a current account at a bank opened for the exchange of goods, securities or other assets”; 2. “an open-ended short-term bank loan that the borrower must repay as soon as the creditor demands it” TŽŽ 2001. Dictionaries of terminology record compound terms containing this element: onkolinis sandoris see įkaitinis sandoris ir onkolinė paskola see paskola iki pareikalavimo BBBTŽŽ 1994. Latvian onkolkredīts NL 1993 is proposed for replacement in the latest economic terminology dictionaries by Latvian equivalents—a compound or a two-word compound term: pieprasījumkredīts, pieprasījuma kredīts; pieprasījumkonts, pieprasījuma konts ‘loan/account payable on demand’

45

‘on demand’ ESV 2000; cf. pieprasījuma konts ‘demand account (at a bank)’ ELDO 1995. Data from the Latvian dictionary of anglicisms confirm that this is not a new word: onkolkonts ‘on-call account (at a bank)’ and onkolrēķins ‘on-call account (document)’ are already recorded in the 1911 dictionary of international words (A 1989), as well as in dictionaries of economic terminology and other dictionaries (ET 1975; PV 1995; SV 1999).

Attitudes toward English-derived foreign words spreading in the field of economics are similar in both Lithuanian and Latvian: efforts are made to find substitutes already established in the language or to create neologisms using the word-formation resources of the language itself. This process is ongoing. Incidentally, some proposals are replaced over time by better ones, if such alternatives emerge.

5. Semantic and stylistic differences among anglicisms

Terms are usually stylistically neutral, and stylistic nuances are also uncommon in international words. Some anglicisms used in economics, however, aspiring to the status of international terms, have additional expressive components. For example, the word bizness has a colloquial flavour [it is also marked accordingly in the Latvian dictionary, with the label sar. (colloquial)] (Laua 1981: 118). Such differences also lead to the insufficiently precise use of one anglicism or another. As the Latvian terminologist V. Skujiņa notes, “differences in the semantics of internationalisms across languages can be disorienting in translated texts; unfortunately, this is a fairly widespread phenomenon. For example, English business means 1) occupation, profession; 2) matter, affair; 3) trade, commerce, business; 4) trading company, firm; 5) duty, right, etc. In Latvian, by contrast, the word bizness means ‘a profitable transaction’ (LLVV 2), in which profit is pursued by any means. Accordingly, the mismatch between the meanings of the English and Latvian words (business – bizness) distorts the content of a translation if the English concept business is rendered in Latvian as bizness, thereby conflating the meanings ‘occupation’, ‘transaction’, ‘firm’ and others. For precisely these reasons, when borrowing an English term, one must carefully consider the motivation for borrowing, particularly from a semantic perspective, so that the meaning is not altered by the use of an anglicism” (Skujiņa 1997: 241–242). The view of Lithuanian lexicologist Evalda Jakaitienė regarding the relative nature of international words also accords with this position—

46

džių semantikos bendrumo (Jakaitienė 1980: 60). Terminas biznis keičiamas savos kalbos dariniu verslas, o biznesmenas – verslininkas ETŽ 1994. Jų apibrėžtys atitinka tik vieną iš anglų žodžio reikšmių: „veikla, susieta su prekių gamyba, prekyba ir paslaugų teikimu, siekiant gauti pelno“, o veikėją pavadinančiu terminu įvardijamas „asmuo, organizuojantis verslo įmonę (gaminančią produkciją ar teikiančią paslaugas) savo lėšomis ir siekiantis gauti pelno“ AĮVTŽ 2000. Šis skolinys įtrauktas ir į DKKS 1998, nors DŽ 2000 be jo įkūnų papildomų komentarų fiksuoti abu žodžiai: biznis „duodanti pelno veikla, verslas“ ir biznierius „kas biznį daro, verteiva“. Reikia manyti, DŽ 2000 jie suprantami ne kaip terminai, o paprastieji žodžiai, be to, platesnio negu šiandiena vartosenos laiko. Bandymų aiškinti arba keisti šį angliškos kilmės žodį būta jau žymiai anksčiau, pvz.: business – užsiėmimas; darbas; amatas; vertelgystė; dalykas L 1915; biznis „gudrus vertimasis kuo nors, pelningas užsiėmimas“ SNŽŽ 1924, prekyba, verslas TŽŽ 1936. Latv. bizness ir biznesmenis taip pat keičiami panašios reikšmės dariniais – būdiniu uzņēmējdarbība ‘verslininkystė’ ir vediniu uzņēmējs ‘verslininkas’ ESV 2000, nors latvių terminų žodynuose fiksuotos ir formos bizness, biznesmenis BTV 1999, ETVU 1997. Pažymėtina, kad informaciniame biuletenyje pateikta daugiau atitikmenų, vartotinų vietoj angliškos svetimybės: business – komercdarbība ‘komercinė veikla’; uzņēmējdarbība ‘verslininkystė’; darījumdarbība ‘sandorių veikla’; darījumi ‘sandoriai’, o businessman – komersants TJ 2, 24. Naujausiame rusų bendrinės kalbos žodyne žodis бизнесмен pažymėtas kaip grįžtantis į aktyvią vartoseną, turintis dvi reikšmes, antroji jų – būtent šnekamosios kalbos „apie sukčių“, o pirmoji neutralios reikšmės „verslo organizatorius; verslininkas, komersantas“ ТСПЯ 2000. Kai kuriais atvejais tarp anglų kalbos ir iš jos pasiskolinusių kalbų žodžių galima pastebėti tam tikrų semantinių ir (ar) stilistinių skirtumų – tai papildomas veiksnys, lemiantis savos ar svetimos kilmės žodžių (taip pat ir norminių terminų) pasirinkimą.

6. General conclusions

The article reviews an important part of English-origin borrowings in Lithuanian and Latvian economic terminology—their spread, changes in form, and the attitudes of lexicologists and ter-

47

minologists toward English-origin borrowings. It is clear that, particularly in recent times, they have become truly numerous in both languages, and that attitudes toward them in Lithuanian and Latvian are essentially almost identical. Classical-language terms have also entered economic terminology through English as an intermediary. Some are already well established and raise no doubts, while the usage of others is still being refined, for example, the Latvian term auditis. Both languages also have names for concepts borrowed directly from English. Likewise, international terms that have been adapted to Lithuanian or Latvian and are widely used, with no equivalents of native origin, have long since become an integral part of the language (boycott, check, banknote).

In both Lithuanian and Latvian, efforts are made to find established equivalents for English-origin foreign words or to create new terms using the word-formation resources of the respective language. These may be genuine morphological neologisms (derivatives or compounds—single-word terms), or, quite often, phrases (multiword terms). This process is ongoing: some proposals are replaced by better ones when these become available.

In some cases, certain semantic and/or stylistic differences can be observed between English and the languages that have borrowed from it, for example, the use of English business / Lithuanian biznis / Latvian bizness, particularly in spoken language.

ŠALTINIAI

A 1989 - Baldučíkš J. Anglicismi latviešu valodā, Rīga.

AJVTŽ 2000 - Martinkus B., Neverskas B., Sakalas A., Venskus R., Žilinskas V. Aiškinamasis įmonės vadybos terminų žodynas, Kaunas.

ALV 1997 - Angļu–latviešu vārdnīca, Rīga.

BBBTŽŽ 1994 - Buračas A., Svecevičius B. Lietuvių–anglų–lietuvių biznio, bankų, biržos terminų žodynas-žinynas, Vilnius.

BTV 1999 - Agamdžanova V., Laurenoviča E., Keviša I., Kraže S., Pavlovska A. Angļu–latviešu–krievu biznesa terminu vārdnīca, Rīga.

DALKŽ 2000 - Piesarskas B. Didysis anglų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius.

DKKS 1998 - Dėl didžiųjų kalbos klaidų sąrašo. – Lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimai 1977–1998, Vilnius, 124–176.

DŽ 2000 - Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys, Vilnius.

48

ELDO 1995 – Ekonomikas lietvedības un darba organizācijas termini (latviešu, krievu, angļu un vācu valodā). Sast. V. Skujiņa (aut. kol. vadītāja), Rīga.

ESV 2000 – Ekonomikas skaidrojošā vārdnīca latviski, angliski, vāciski, franciski, krieviski. Aut. kol. vad. R. Grēviņa, Rīga.

ET 1975 – Ekonomikas termini, Rīga.

ETVU 1997 – Ekonomisko terminu vārdnīca uzņēmējdarbībai (latviešu–angļu). Sast. darba gr. vad. N. Grostiņa un A. Pudula, Rīga.

ETŽ 1994 – Pasas K., Louzas B., Deivis L. Ekonomikos terminų žodynas. Vilnius.

ĮVŠŽ 2000 – Mockevičius R. Lietuvos Respublikos įstatymuose vartojamų sąvokų žodynas. Vilnius.

JTVU 1997 – Juridisko terminu vārdnīca uzņēmējdarbībai. Sast. V. Skuja, Rīga.

L 1915 – Lietuviškos ir angliškos kalbų žodynas. Sutaisė A. Lalis, Chicago.

LicLaKŽ 1995 – Balkevičius J., Baluodė L., Bojatė A., Subatniekas V. Lietuvių–latvių kalbų žodynas, Rīga.

LL 1922 – Lenkų ir lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Surengė A. Lalis, Vilnius.

LLVV 1972–1996 – Latviešu literārās valodas vārdnīca 1–8, Rīga.

LTV 1999 – Likumu terminu vārdnīca, Rīga.

LTŽA 1973 – Skardžius P. Lietuviški tarptautinių žodžių atitikmenys, Chicago.

MTŽ 2002 – Tamulėvičius J. Muitinės terminų žinynas, Vilnius.

NA 2002 – Krūmiņa V., Skujiņa V. Normatīvo aktu izstrādes rokasgrāmata, Rīga.

NL 1993 – Vēriņš Ē. Naujas lietas. Skaidrojošā vārdnīca, Rīga.

PKŽ 1938 – Salys A., Dargis L. Prekybinės korespondencijos žodynėlis. – Salys A. Raštai 1. Roma, 1979, 455–484.

PV 1995 – Latviešu valodas pareizrakstības un pareizrunas vārdnīca. Rīga.

RETŽ 1994 – Rinkos ekonomikos terminų žodynėlis. Parengė A. Norkuvienė, Šiauliai.

SNŽŽ 1907 – Svetimų ir nesuprantamų žodžių žodynėlis. Skaitytojams palengvinimas. Sudare J. Šlapelis, Tilžė.

SNŽŽ 1924 – Norkus J. Svetimų ir nesuprantamų žodžių žodynėlis, Kaunas.

STŽŽ 1923 – M. ir S. Svetimų ir tarptautiškų žodžių žodynėlis, Šiauliai.

SV 1999 – Svešvārdu vārdnīca. J. Baldunčika red., Rīga.

ŠETĖŽ 1991 – Auštrevičius P., Pupkevičius D., Treigienė D. Šiuolaikinių ekonomikos terminų enciklopedinis žodynas lietuvių–anglų–vokiečių–rusų kalbomis, Vilnius.

TŽŽ 1936 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Sud. K. Boruta, Pr. Čepėnas, A. Sirutytė-Čepienė, Kaunas.

TŽŽ 2001 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Ats. red. A. Kinderys, Vilnius.

49

VKNS 1998 – Rudaitienė V., Vitkauskas V. Vakarų kalbų naujieji skoliniai, Vilnius.

VLTT 1935 – Dravnieks E. Vācu–latviešu tirdznieciskā terminoloģija, Rīga.

ТСРЯ 2000 – Толковый словарь русского языка конца XX века. Языковые изменения, Санкт-Петербург.

LITERATŪRA

Drotvinas V. 1988: Dėl skolintinės leksikos sąvokų ir terminų. – Kalbos kultūra 54, 48–56.

Gaivenis K. 2002: Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys, Vilnius.

Gaivenytė J. 1993: Keletas mūsų ekonomikos terminijai nereikalingų angliškų skolinių. – Kalbos kultūra 65, 43–44.

Jakaitienė E. 1980: Lietuvių kalbos leksikologija, Vilnius.

Keinys S. 1999: Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, Šiauliai.

Kīrite M. 1995: Jaunākais terminoloģijā. – Labrīt. 07. 02. 1995.

Klimavičius J. 1996: Kuo prasikalto „mūsų kalbininkai“ ir rinkodara? – Gimtoji kalba 8, 5–8.

Klimavičius J. 2001: Ką Jablonskis padarė geografijai ir kas su tuo daroma. – Terminologija 8, 7–27.

KTŽ 1990: Gaivenis K., Keinys S. Kalbotyros terminų žodynas, Kaunas.

Kvašytė R. 1996: Svetimybės latvių ir lietuvių dalykinėje kalboje. – Kalbos kultūra 68, 66–70.

Laua A. 1981: Latviešu leksikoloģija, Rīga.

LK I 1995: Barauskaitė J., Čepaitienė G., Mikulėnienė D., Pabrėžą J., Petkevičienė R. Lietuvių kalba 1, Vilnius.

Skujiņa V. 1993: Latviešu terminoloģijas izstrādes principi, Rīga.

Skujiņa V. 1997: Terminu veidošanas principi tulkošanas aspektā. – Linguistica Lettica 1, 236–245.

TJ – Terminologijos Jaunumi 1–9, 2002–2004.

ANGLICISMS IN LITHUANIAN AND LATVIAN ECONOMIC TERMINOLOGY

Summary

As business increasingly integrates into the world economy, in Lithuanian and Latvian terminology the English language gains supremacy, therefore the majority of economic terms are borrowed from English. In this article, economic terms of both the cognate languages – Lithuanian and Latvian – are compared as to their origin, form and meanings. Terms borrowed from the English language earlier, i. e. fully assimilated terms whose origin of borrowing is Latin or Greek and the source of

50

borrowing is English such as kapitalas, eksportas, importas are analysed as well as terms borrowed from English directly, e. g. boikotas, dempingas, banknotas. Alongside with established and recognized terms in the contemporary Lithuanian and Latvian economic terminology many foreign words are being used. In standard terminology it has been proposed to replace them by analogues already known earlier, e.g. brokeris – makleris as well as neologisms (marketingas – rinkodara). Nevertheless in the practical usage of the Lithuanian and Latvian languages anglicisms are quite often perceived as international lexis and therefore they are acceptable.

Regina KVAŠYTĖ Šiaulių universitetas P. Višinskio g. 38, LT-76352 Šiauliai E. paštas [email protected]

Gauta 2004-10-25

51