RASUOLĖ VLADARSKIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

THE USE OF CASES IN COMPOUNDS WITH VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS

Lithuanian is a verb-oriented language, yet nouns are derived from verbs, and compounds with these nouns are used instead of verbal expression. Linguists’ recommendations often cite verbal abstract nouns as an unsuitable form of expression where an idea can be expressed more fluently using verbs. In administrative language, the use of verbal abstract nouns with the suffix -imas (-ymas) causes the most problems; for example, the dative of abstract nouns expressing a purpose with a nuance of intended use is considered inadmissible (KP S1: 49, 50). However, Lithuanian cannot do without verbal abstract nouns, especially in administrative and scholarly language, since these spheres of language use more often deal with generalized actions and abstract matters.

This article examines compounds with nouns denoting actions¹ (verbal abstract nouns). This subject was chosen for two reasons: action-denoting nouns are nouns most often derived from verbs; additionally, owing to the specific nature of administrative language, such nouns are especially frequent there and raise certain practical questions of usage. The aim of the article is to discuss the structure of compounds with verbal abstract nouns and examine cases of case usage in these compounds relevant to administrative language. The article focuses primarily on derivatives formed with the most productive suffix -imas (-ymas).

STRUCTURE AND MEANING OF COMPOUNDS WITH VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS

The structure and meaning of Lithuanian nominal compounds are described in The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language, The Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian, and in the works of Jonas Balkevičius, Vitas Labutis, and Jurgis Pakerys. In examining compounds with verbal abstrac-

¹ Nenagrinėjami būtinųjų predikatyvų raiškos atvejai; apie juos žr. Pakerys 2009:125–145.

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t nouns, it is first emphasized that most are derived from corresponding verbal compounds, but express different relations². Verbal compounds express objective relations, whereas the corresponding nominal compounds express attributive relations (LKG 1976: 17), cf. to check documents – checking of documents; employees participate – employee participation. However, it is acknowledged that compounds with verbal abstract nouns, in addition to an attributive meaning, also carry further nuances. Vitas Labutis characterizes the meaning of such compounds as “a peculiar attributive-descriptive meaning with a more deeply felt subjective, objective, or some circumstantial nuance” (Labutis 2002: 91). In The Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian, compounds with verbal abstract nouns are discussed in the section “Subordination,” which considers the expression of objects, subjects, and circumstances (DLKG 2006: 512, 514–515, 517, 519, 526, 555). When verbal compounds become nominal compounds, the meaning of their dependent constituents remains similar.

In contemporary Lithuanian, verbal abstract nouns most often form compounds with the genitive. This is because most Lithuanian verbs are transitive, and nouns derived from them take the genitive case; that is, the accusative of a dependent constituent in a verbal compound becomes the genitive in a nominal compound, cf. to approve the budget – approval of the budget; to use resources – use of resources; to limit armaments – limitation of armaments; to allocate work – allocation of work. This marks the direct object of the compound.

The nominative of a verbal compound also becomes the genitive in a nominal compound, e.g.: companies split up – splitting up of companies; employees participate – employee participation; capital moves – movement of capital; the tax decreases – decrease in the tax; regions cooperate – cooperation among regions. Here the genitive has a subjective meaning—it denotes the agent performing the action expressed by the compound.

If a verb governs the genitive, the case remains unchanged when the verb is made into a noun: job search (to seek work), lack of democracy (to lack democracy), shortage of residents (to be short of residents), food shortage (to lack food), tax avoidance (to avoid taxes), loss of citizenship (to lose citizenship), rejection of a proposal (to reject a proposal), non-observance of the law (to fail to observe the law). The genitive is also used in compounds whose

² Straipsnyje nesigilinama į diskusiją dėl sintaksinių ryšių tipų (žr. Vaskelaitė 2003: 143–158; Pakerys 2006: 127–133).

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The main constituents are nouns derived from negative transitive verbs, e.g.: failure to approve the report (not to approve the report), non-proliferation of weapons (not to proliferate weapons), non-application of customs duties (not to apply customs duties).

Ambiguities can arise when it is unclear which shade of meaning the genitive has—objective or subjective—for example: inspection by customs — customs inspects or inspects customs; funding by the community — the community funds or funds the community.

Nouns denoting actions form constructions with the dative when the verbs from which those nouns are derived govern the dative: return to the recipient (return to the recipient), notification to the press (notify the press), belonging to a territory (belong to a territory), consent to trade (consent to trade), management of a service (manage a service). The object is marked by the dative. This case may also be used in such noun phrases whose head is derived from a verb that does not govern the dative, e.g.: respect for human rights (respect human rights), hatred of the enemy (hate the enemy), support for the family (support the family), impact on the environment (affect the environment), harm to the environment (harm the environment).

Verbal abstracts form constructions with the instrumental in cases where the corresponding verb governs this case: provision with housing (provide with housing), exchange of currencies (exchange currencies), food poisoning (be poisoned by food), staff exchange (exchange staff), exercising one’s rights (exercise one’s rights), disappointment with the system (be disappointed with the system), sale by mail (sell by mail), satisfaction with one’s work (be satisfied with one’s work), trust in the state (trust the state), relying on conclusions (rely on conclusions), monitoring with video cameras (monitor with video cameras). The instrumental may mark an object (exchange of currencies) or an instrument (labeling with labels).

The locative of the dependent constituent locative also remains unchanged when a verbal phrase is converted into a nominal one, e.g.: working at a job (to work at a job), participating in an event (to participate in an event), storing in a warehouse (to store in a warehouse), migrating in a city (to migrate in a city), teaching at a workplace (to teach at a workplace), adapting at school (to adapt at school), advertising in a store (to advertise in a store), checking on roads (to check on roads), farming in hilly areas (to farm in hilly areas). The locative denotes a specific place, area, or sphere.

Verbal abstracts can form constructions with prepositions, which remain as in the corresponding verbal construction, e.g.: protection against fraud (protect against fraud), exemption from punishment

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(exempt from punishment), work at a conveyor belt (work at a conveyor belt), dispute over justice (argue over justice), retirement (retire), needs-based training (train according to needs), sale at auction (sell at auction), appointment to a position (appoint to a position), distribution by age (distribute by age), notification about an investment (notify about an investment).

To sum up, a verbal abstract most often takes a genitive (into which the accusative and nominative of a verbal construction are converted); such a construction may have a subjective, objective, or, rarely, circumstantial shade of meaning. The dative object of a verbal construction remains unchanged in a noun phrase, but sometimes the accusative or other cases of a verbal construction may become the dative in a noun phrase. The locative remains unchanged; the instrumental and prepositional constructions generally do not change.

GOVERNMENT PATTERNS OF VERBAL ABSTRACTS

When discussing the use of verbal abstracts, a question often arises: with words in which cases should they be used? In the Grammar of the Lithuanian Language, it is stated that a large proportion of nominal phrases linked by government are derived from corresponding verbal phrases, and that when the form of the head changes, the form of the dependent element in most cases remains unchanged, cf.: longs for knowledge – longing for knowledge; devoted oneself to the family – devotion to the family; opposed the order – opposition to the order; argued with the parents – argument with the parents.

However, in certain cases the form of the dependent element in a verbal phrase and the corresponding nominal phrase does not match; for example, verbal phrases are formed with the accusative, while nominal ones use the genitive, cf.: cuts down a tree – cutting down a tree (LKG 1976: 16). This formulation leaves unclear whether the certain cases in which the form of the dependent element in a verbal phrase and the corresponding nominal phrase does not match are limited to the accusative changing into the genitive, or whether there may be other cases as well.

Other such cases become apparent in the discussion of nominal phrases with a genitive, although the change in government is not emphasized here and the conditions under which it might occur are not described; this is nevertheless clear from the examples given. In the Grammar of the Lithuanian Language, it is stated: “The genitive can also denote an indirect object of an action, e.g.: Birutė’s song (cf. sing-

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about Birutė and a song about Birutė), a war song (cf. sings about the war), the father’s assistant (cf. helps the father), a representative of the nation (cf. represents the nation), manual labor (cf. works with one’s hands)” (LKG 1976: 205). The object dative can likewise be expressed with certain nouns derived from transitive verbs, and less often from other types of verbs, e.g.: love for parents, respect for a person, sympathy for parents, attention to a child, hatred of the enemy (LKG 1976: 206). A genitive with an adverbial meaning also occurs in place of other forms of expression: air combat, classroom noise, forest sounds, environmental impacts. Thus, the examples show that verbal nouns can take cases other than those of their base words only when they are formed with a suffix other than -imas (-ymas) or by means of ending-based derivation. It is true that in Jonas Jablonskis’s book Cases and Prepositions one can find examples in which verbal phrases with prepositions correspond to nominal genitive phrases, e.g.: He climbed over the fence then, went to the city. That climbing of the fence, that going to the city will haunt him for a long time (Jablonskis 1957: 572), but such expressions are rare in present-day usage.

In the Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian, the ability of verbal nouns to take nouns in certain cases is described in the account of how objects, subjects, and circumstantial meanings are expressed. This can be summarized as follows: when a verbal phrase is converted into a nominal one, the genitive remains unchanged, the accusative of the verbal phrase becomes genitive, and it may also become another form (the examples given are the same as in LKG) (DLKG 2006: 512). Nouns derived from verbs that govern the dative, as well as from some verbs that govern other cases, are associated with the dative case (DLKG 2006: 514–515). Nouns derived from verbs associated with the instrumental take the instrumental of the object (DLKG 2006: 517), while verbal abstracts take the same forms of words expressing circumstantial meanings as the corresponding verbs (DLKG 2006: 555).

PROBLEMATIC CASES OF GOVERNMENT IN VERBAL ABSTRACTS

The principle of syntactic transformation from a verbal phrase into a nominal phrase was formulated very clearly by Vitas Labutis: “In addition, the word denoting the affected entity (object) takes the genitive case with an abstract noun (most often with the suffix –imas, –ymas) derived from an accusative-governing verb [...].

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When we derive an abstract noun from a verb that requires an object or an adverbial expressed in another case, the case dependent on that noun is the same as with the base verb.” (1995: 13–14). In principle, this approach is followed when correcting case use in noun phrases.

When a noun is formed without the suffix -imas, the base verb’s government may either be retained or the genitive may be used. For example, Europos žodyne lists the following phrases with the word prekyba: knygų prekyba, meno kūrinių prekyba, ginklų prekyba, as well as prekyba produktais, prekyba moterimis, prekyba vaikais, prekyba žmonėmis, prekyba žmonių organais. The examples show that the instrumental is more often used when the object is a person, since the semantic nuance of the genitive—subjective or objective—may be unclear. This, however, is not a rule that is followed strictly. Terminų banke lists the terms prekyba augalų apsaugos produktais, prekyba laukiniais gyvūnais, although augalų apsaugos produktų prekyba, laukinių gyvūnų prekyba would also be possible.

The Kalbos patarimų booklets list numerous nonstandard cases of case use in deverbal noun phrases, e.g.: pasipiktinimas kam, pasitikėjimas kam, prisitaikymas kam, skundas apie ką, rūpestis apie ką, atsiskaitymas dėl ko, poveikis į ką, įtaka į ką, spaudimas į ką, tikėjimas į ką (KP S1, S2). These errors, however, are no longer very relevant in edited administrative language.3

When discussing the standardness of verb-abstract phrases, it must first be emphasized that problems arise with phrases containing nouns derived from verbs whose government is used incorrectly.

The government of the verb atitikti and the noun atitikimas derived from it has been corrected most often. The history of correcting this verb phrase dates back to the work of Jonas Jablonskis; later, this error in the use of the dative was also mentioned in Viktoras Kamantauskas’s Trumpame kalbos netaisyklingumų ir barbarizmų žodynėlyje (1928) and in Kalbos patarėjuje (1939). The correct government of the verb atitikti is regularly reiterated in normative and instructional language publications; this error in the use of the dative has been included in the List of Major Language Errors, approved by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language

³ The use of the aforementioned phrases was checked in the legal acts search database of the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania—in legal acts drafted in Lithuania and translations of European Union documents. Only a few instances of incorrectly used phrases were found.

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Commission. At present, however, mistakes are more often made in using a phrase with a verb abstract than with a verb (see Vladarskienė 2004 for more details). This is also illustrated by the case in which the same document uses a verb with the accusative but a noun derived from it with the dative: The draft law complies with the requirements of the State Language Law and other legal acts. [...] The draft’s compliance (= conformity) with the provisions of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and with European Union documents (Explanatory note, 2010-10-07).

Such expressions, particularly characteristic of administrative language, are regularly corrected but, as can be seen, remain relevant. Forming a noun phrase causes uncertainty because both the agent and the object of the action have to be indicated, and both are marked by the genitive. Document drafters did not accept linguists’ proposal to place the agent genitive before the verb abstract and the object genitive after it; this expression did not catch on because it was cumbersome and stylistically awkward, cf. projekto atitikimas nuostatų. Another proposed variant, atitiktis kam, has, however, become established in usage. It was based on cases described in Lithuanian grammars in which the object dative can be used with certain nouns derived from transitive verbs without the suffix -imas: gerbti ką, gerbimas ko, bet pagarba kam.

Another case that raises questions about usage is the phrase with the verb abstract atstovavimas. Here, too, there may be a connection with the nonstandard government of the verb atstovauti, since those who incorrectly use atstovauti ką may use the incorrect form ko atstovavimas.

In Vitas Labutis’s view, if one says atstovauti valstybei, then one should also say atstovavimas valstybei. The expression valstybės atstovavimas would be appropriate if the meaning were that one state represented some group of states, union, or community (Labutis 1995: 14). Here the author recalls the possible subjective meaning of the genitive in a noun phrase, as discussed in grammars. Vytautas Būda takes a different view: while acknowledging that atstovavimas regularly requires the dative, he also accepts the genitive in Lietuvos piliečių reikalavimų atstovavimas (Būda 1996: 15). It should be noted, however, that only a genitive that can be understood as having an exclusively objective nuance is acceptable—that is, any possibility of ambiguity must be ruled out.

Documents use phrases with this verb abstract in both structural forms. Sometimes, even within the same sentence, the noun is used with the genitive, whereas the verb form (participle) is used with—

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Dative: Clause 25 of the Procedure for the Representation of the State in Public Limited Liability Companies and Private Limited Liability Companies introduced a requirement that entities representing the State in a company must nominate enough candidates for the supervisory board or board at the general meeting of shareholders to ensure that the ratio of their number to the number of members of the supervisory board or board is not lower than the proportion of votes conferred by the shares held by the State (Valstybės žinios, 2007–02–03, No. 14–524). Such usage confirms the tendency to use the genitive with a verbal abstract, irrespective of the verb’s government, while also rejecting the possibility that the phrase is regularly derived from a non-standard verbal phrase.

In phrases with the word representation, shades of meaning are important, since the genitive can have both a subjective and an objective descriptive meaning. Where it is important to distinguish these meanings strictly in a phrase, the subject (who represents) should be marked by the genitive, and the object (whom they represent) by the dative, for example:

Attention should also be paid to the representation of women in leadership positions in the sports sector (European Commission White Paper, 2007–07–11); An analysis of the composition of councils and senates at research and higher education institutions shows that the representation of women here is significantly lower than that of men (Valstybės žinios, 2008–06–12, No. 67–2537); although the object is not stated, it is implied: women represent certain groups of people;

The representation of some political parties (= Representation of some political parties) in this institution does not ensure equality among all political parties and other participants in political processes (Explanatory Note, 2009–04–28); At present, the representation of national minorities is not provided for on the LRT Council (= representation of national minorities) (Explanatory Note, 2007–09–26); when the object of representation is specified, the genitive is ambiguous and unsuitable.

The phrase crime against whom should be discussed separately. It is given in Language Advice as unsuitable for describing a type of crime when the object of the crime cannot be the recipient of the action; for example, crimes against finances is corrected to financial crimes. It is noted, however, that this phrase may be used when the object of the crime is understood as its recipient (KP S1 40). Pranas Kniūkšta, discussing the specific needs of administrative language, notes that “it is convenient to describe the nature (content) of a crime in the code everywhere with one general formula; therefore, the use of the dative construction is extended, following the pattern of a crime against a person (crime against a human being)

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and the content of other crimes is formulated in the same way: crime against nature (a transitional degree) and crime against life (the object of the crime)” (Kniūkšta 2005: 33–34). This is presumably why the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language’s Consultation Bank also accepts the dative construction crimes against finances. Dative constructions have become established in legal language, primarily in the Criminal Code of the Republic of Lithuania, for example: crimes against children and families; crimes against human health; crimes against public security; crimes against public order; crimes against intellectual property; crimes against the financial system; crimes against the economy and business order. From this code, such formulations spread to other legal acts as well, and terms with the dative are also found in the European Glossary, for example: crime against the environment; crime against the tax system; crime against property; crime against peace; crime against international law; crime against state security; crime against humanity; admittedly, types of crime are also expressed here by adjectives: economic crime, computer crime. The dative in these noun phrases is justified by the government properties of the verb.

It must be acknowledged that the genitive is the predominant case in phrases with verbal abstracts, and as a result it is sometimes used instead of another form of expression:

instrumental, for example, railway communication (to travel by rail, cf. communication by rail), road traffic (to travel by roads, cf. traffic on roads), in such a phrase the descriptive meaning is foregrounded, while the connection with the base verb becomes less important;

prepositional constructions – by analogy with phrases such as life insurance, property insurance, loan insurance, property insurance, there also appeared Accident Insurance Rules (= Rules for Insurance against Accidents), despite the fact that this phrase should indicate not what is insured, but what it is insured against.

When a phrase is not considered a term, the government of the base verb should be retained, for example: For the purposes of exchanging information and experience (= exchanging information and experience), the Directorate-General for Transport and Energy will regularly hold meetings of European coordinators (European Commission Decision, 2009-07-22); The owner or owners of the earlier registration and the applicant [...] shall take appropriate measures to agree on the joint use of information (= use of information) (Special Edition, 2004-12-30, No. 1, Council Directive).

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Linguists’ corrections show that the government of derivatives with the suffix -imas (-ymas) is clearly distinguished from that of other derivatives. When nouns are formed with the suffix -imas (-ymas), verb government usually has a major influence on the structure of the noun phrase: the accusative of the object and the nominative of the subject become genitives, while the other cases usually remain unchanged. Other possibilities are considered errors. When a noun is derived from a verb using other suffixes or by means of inflectional derivation, the principles of syntactic transformation are not as strict.

The examples examined show that language users, even when they know how to use verbal phrases correctly, often become confused when forming noun phrases from them—the tendency to use the genitive is becoming pronounced.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The most common case in a phrase with a verbal abstract is the genitive; it replaces the nominative and accusative of a verbal phrase and, in rare cases, prepositional constructions. Such a phrase can denote subject, object, and sometimes adverbial relations.

2. The dative of the object in a verbal phrase remains unchanged in a noun phrase, but in rare cases the accusative or other cases of a verbal phrase may become the dative in a noun phrase. The instrumental and locative remain unchanged, and prepositional constructions generally do not change either.

3. Where there is uncertainty about a verb’s government, it also occurs in phrases with verbal abstracts. Language users who are not very familiar with the regularities governing the transformation of verbal phrases into noun phrases tend to use genitive phrases in ambiguous cases.

4. Verb government usually determines the structure of phrases formed from nouns derived from verbs with the suffix -imas (-ymas): the accusative and nominative become genitives, while the other cases usually remain unchanged. When nouns are derived from verbs using other suffixes or by means of inflectional derivation, changes in government are less regular; in some cases, irrespective of the government of the underlying verb, the dependent constituent of the phrase may take the genitive or dative form.

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LITERATŪRA

B a l k e v i č i u s J. 1963: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

B ū d a V. 1996: Atstovauja kam ar ką. – Gimtoji kalba 10, 14–15.

DLKG 2006: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Red. Vytautas Ambrazas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

J a b l o n s k i s J. 1957: Rinktiniai raštai. I tomas. Sudarė J. Palionis, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

K n i ū k š t a P. 2005: Administracinė kalba ir jos vartosena, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

KP S1: Kalbos patarimai. Kn. 1. Sintaksė: 1. Linksnių vartojimas. Sud. Rita Miliūnaitė, teksto aut. Vitas Labutis, Aldonas Pupkis ir Jonas Šukys, vyr. red. Aldonas Pupkis. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003.

KP S2: Kalbos patarimai. Kn. 2. Sintaksė: 2. Prielinksnių ir polinksnių vartojimas. Sud. Rita Miliūnaitė, teksto aut. Aldonas Pupkis ir Jonas Šukys, vyr. red. Aldonas Pupkis. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003.

L a b u t i s V. 1995: Valstybės atstovavimas ar atstovavimas valstybei? – Gimtoji kalba 8–9, 13–14.

L a b u t i s V. 2002: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.

LKG 1976: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 3. Sintaksė. Vyr. red. Kazys Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mokslas.

P a k e r y s J. 2006: Veiksmo pavadinimo konstrukcija lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje. – Daiktavardinio junginio tyrimai. Axel Holvoet, Rolandas Mikulskas (red.), Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla.

P a k e r y s J. 2009: Būtinių predikatyvų žymėjimas lietuvių kalbos veiksmo pavadinimo konstrukcijose. – Gramatinių funkcijų prigimtis ir raiška. A. Holvoet, R. Mikulskas (red.), Vilniaus universitetas, asociacija „Academia Salensis“, 125–145.

V a s k e l a i t ė R. 2003: Lietuvių kalbos daiktavardiniai junginiai sintaksinių ryšių požiūriu. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 48, 143–158.

V l a d a r s k i e n ė R. 2004: Žodžių atitikti, atitikimas vartosena teisės aktų kalboje. – Specialybės kalba: sistema ir vartosena. Lietuvos teisės universitetas: Mokslinės konferencijos darbai, Vilnius, 2004 m. lapkričio 26 d., 118–122.

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THE USE OF CASES IN ABSTRACT PHRASES OF VERBAL NOUNS

S u m m a r y

The aim of the article is to discuss phrases with verbal nouns denoting actions and describe the problematic uses of cases observable in the official administrative discourse. The focus of attention is on derivatives containing the most productive suffix, i. e. -imas (-ymas). The analysis of verb phrases and respective noun phrases has shown that the names of various actions most often occur in phrases with the genitive case. This case form replaces the nominative and accusative cases, sometimes even prepositional constructions, of the primary verb phrase that expresses relations between the verb and subject, object and sometimes adverbials. The dative case of the primary verb phrase is usually preserved though in certain cases the dative of the noun phrase originates from the accusative or other cases of the verb phrase. The instrumental and locative cases as well as prepositional constructions usually do not change.

Language users are not familiar with the patterns of transformation of word phrases from nominal to verbal and, in dubious cases, they tend to prefer phrases with the genitive case. It is important to bear in mind though that when nouns are derived from verbs with the suffix -imas (-ymas) the combinability of the verb largely determines the structure of the noun phrase. Hence, the accusative and nominative of the object of the verb becomes the genitive of the noun phrase while the other cases usually do not change in such transformations. When a noun is derived from a verb by adding other suffixes and inflections, the patterns of syntactic transformation are not very strict.

RASUOLĖ VLADARSKIENĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

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