LIETUVIŲ KALBOS MORFOLOGINĖ SANDARA IR JOS RAIDA

LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

ADVERBIALIZATION OF THE SINGULAR GENITIVE AND ADVERBS WITH THE FORMANTS -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės IN CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIAN

K. ULVYDAS

Apart from prepositional constructions, we have comparatively few examples in contemporary Lithuanian of adverbialized singular genitives that have retained a clear, indisputable case ending. This alone allows us to conclude that this case, at least when used without prepositions, shows no marked tendency toward adverbialization. Nor does J. Endzelīns, in either his “Latviešu valodas gramatika” or “Baltu valodu skaņas un formas,” mention any Lithuanian example of an adverbialized genitive retaining its ending when discussing case adverbs. Only K. Būga, reviewing A. Leskien’s “Litauisches Lesebuch mit Grammatik und Wörterbuch” (Heidelberg, 1919), observes: “We cannot, with Leskien, look for an accusative in the adverb namõn, since in that case it would be naman (<*naman+na). Namõn will derive from the genitive namõ (: namó-pi). The ending -n was added by analogy with laukàn. I know the form namõn only from written sources; in living speech I have heard only namõ and (in Marcinkonys) namópi.”¹

Singular genitive adverbs are particularly scarce (of course, apart from prepositional constructions) in contemporary Lithuanian literary language. This cannot, however, be said of the language of old written texts, and especially not of individual dialects—the living spoken language of the people. In dialects, adverbialized genitive forms are used far more often than nominative forms. It is true that here it is sometimes exceptionally difficult, even impossible, to determine whether one is dealing with a directly adverbialized genitive or an analogical formation; nevertheless, adverbs retaining the singular genitive ending are of various kinds: nominal, adjectival, numeral, and even participial; stems in a, ia, o, io and even iu; simple, prefixed, and two-stem forms, as well as even those formed from entire phrases. Among these, adverbs with a, ia, o and io stems occur more often. The iu stem is very rare. One can say that nominal adverbs with other stems are not found here.

¹ K. Būga, Kalba ir senovė, I d., Kaunas, 1922, p. 160.

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a stem: greito ‘quickly’ Lkm, Rš, OG 422 (Run home quickly. Sv. Quickly he makes his legs run (runs quickly). Ds, Sv), guolto dialectal (He cries out loudly. Sv. Cf. Polish gvaltu woltać ‘call for help’), jauno (of the moon) ‘when the moon is young’ OG 419, krómo dialectal ‘with it slung over one’s back’ (I used to carry him on my back. Sv), piėsto ‘rearing’ (The horse rears. Sv, Skp), plozo dialectal ‘lying stretched out full length’ (He lies stretched out on the grass. Kp. He lies stretched out in the mud. An. Cf. Polish płazem with the same meaning), ryto ‘in the morning’ OG 419 (I drove the cattle out in the morning. Bien. I left for town in the morning. Sv. There was frost in the morning. Bien. He had already left yesterday morning. Sv. I got up early in the morning. ib), ū́karo ‘in the evening’ OG 419, Dglš (Come to my place in the evening. Bien. Cf. adverbial phrases: tomorrow evening Sv, late in the evening ib, early in the evening ib), zovado dialectal ‘at a gallop’ Sv, išgryto² ‘from early morning’ (Don’t be late; come early, from the morning. Alv. He drove the horses out into the field early in the morning. Lp), išilgo ‘lengthwise’ Sdk, išvientaro ‘continuously, without stopping’ (He runs on and on as if mad. Arm. He keeps striking and striking. Asv), palengvėliūko ‘gently, quietly’ (Just quietly, quietly, gently: don’t wake the children. Sv), palengūko ‘same meaning’ ib, palengvo ‘gently, quietly’ Sv, Ds, Kp (Tell him gently so the others don’t hear. Pnm. Cf. the adverb palengvo, used with the same meaning in Vaižgantas’s written language.), patykiuko ‘same meaning’ Ds, patyko ‘calmly, quietly, slowly’ (Cross the footbridge quietly. ib. He speaks quietly. Sv), patyliūko ‘same meaning’ (Quietly, quietly, he came closer. ib), aukštikaupo ‘above the stack’ Gmž, dvysėdo ‘with two riding seated (on one horse)’ Skp, Slm (Don’t ride two to a horse. Kp), naktigūlto ‘to sleep, to spend the night’ (I came to sleep for the night. Pl), nūsiariko ‘with one’s nose scraping the ground, headlong’ (Where are you rushing headlong—are you going to break your neck? Lkm), sausāgrūdo ‘dry’ (He eats dry bread and works all day. Vlk), trilapo ‘at a pace between a trot and a gallop’ (Our bay horse runs at a pace between a trot and a gallop. Ds).

ia stem: kūlio ‘head over heels, somersaulting’ Slm (We go tumbling down from the pear tree. Kp. Would you not be afraid of tumbling down from the hill of graves? Ds), namelio ‘home, to one’s little home’ rš, namytužėlio ‘same meaning’ JD 724, namolėlio ‘same meaning’ Lnkv, namolio ‘same meaning’ Brž, namulio ‘same meaning’ Kp (Having loaded ripe barley, I’ll bring it home along the dry little roads. Str), riščio ‘at a trot’ Kp (ryščio ‘same meaning’ Sv: He went at a trot. ib), šuolio ‘at a gallop’ (I already know how to ride at a gallop. Slm. Uphill at a gallop, downhill—not a step (when the torchwood is burning). Kp), žimblio ‘so that it buzzes’ (I sent the stone whizzing, and it buzzed. Ds), žingsnio ‘step by step’ Ds, išlydžio ‘continuously, without interruption, steadily’ (Work without stopping. Prk. The girl has already been sleeping continuously for eight days. prš), palengvėlio ‘gradually, slowly’ Pnm, Kp, Sv (Go slowly and you will get to town. Ds), palengvėliūko ‘same meaning’ Sv, pamažėlio ‘same meaning’ Ds (Little by little, little by little, drain the glass to the bottom. (song) Kls. The earth dries gradually and warms little by little in the sun. rš), patykėlio ‘same meaning’ (If we go slowly, it’ll be daytime by the time we arrive. Ds), patykio ‘same meaning’ ib, basamindžio ‘without socks or footwraps, with bare feet in one’s shoes’ (Such a mess—

² The preposition iš is usually written separately even in adverbialized constructions (cf. iš lėto, iš lengvo, iš aukšto, etc.). Sometimes, however, it merges so completely with a fossilized case form that it could in no way be written separately.

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the fence will creak too, while you go threshing barefoot and dressed only in a coat. Arm), *dvieračio* ‘with two people riding’ (Abu jojo dvieračio. rš), *kiauliariščio* ‘at a pig’s trot’ Sv (Ot bėga arkliokas kiauliariščio. Užp. Tik jau kiauliariščio bėgdamas nepagaur arklio. Vžns), *tapėdžio* ‘following, behind’ (Tapėdžio tuoj paskui mane ir atsistojo. Upn), *tolyžio* ‘at once; often, always, continually’ Lp, Kps, VIkv, rš (Kai parvažiuodavo per vakacijas, tai tolydžio ateidavo pas mus. Gs. Jis sveikatos visai neturi — tolydžio serga ir serga. Brt. Eiti buvo sunku, kojos tolydžio klimpo į gilų, patižusį sniegą, permirkusiuose batuose klerksėjo vanduo. BltšR 70. Cf. *topalýdžio* ‘same’ dz).

o-stem: *bėgtinõs* ‘running, at a run’ rš (Bėk bėgtinõs, kad tik būtų greičiau! Sl), *duotinos* ‘giving, by giving’ (Duotinos įdavė, aš nevogiau. Trk), *órãtos* hybrid ‘shouting, screaming, for help!’ Vrn, Smn, Žln, Alv, Dkš, Bd, Klvr, Sn, Mrk, Knv (Domarko namai degė — visi órãtos šaukė. Slnt. Kaip jam dantį traukė, jis órãtos rėkė. Lš. Cf. Polish *ratować* ‘to save’, *ratunek* ‘help’, *ratunku!* ‘help!’), *pėstõs* ‘on foot’ (Nuvėjo miestelin pėstõs. Pg), *senýbos* ‘in former times, long ago’ (Kai būdavo senybos (Kaip būdavo senais laikais). OG 419), *skersõs* ‘crosswise’ (Skersõs šniurą traukt. Ds), *šautinõs* ‘shooting, by shooting’ (Šautinõs nušãvo. KlvrŽ), *šliurptinõs* ‘sobbing (weeping), by sobbing’ Šts, *visuotinos* ‘all together, collectively’ J, *intimpõs* ‘intently, without stopping’ (Padirbėk intimpõs visą dieną, tai pamatysi. Ds), *išilgõs* ‘lengthwise’ (Nugi žiūrau — guli išilgõs purvynan. Lp), *ištisõs* ‘continuously, without interruption’ LlkŽ, *užuolankõs* ‘by a detour, around’ (Užbėk užuolankos ir pagausi. Paj), *sausakimšõs* ‘packed full’ (Prie jo žmonių sausakimšõs. Ds), *tavienãtos* (=tuovienatos?) ‘continually’ (Jis tavienãtos rūko ir rūko. Lnkv), *tuõtampõs* ‘without stopping, without a break’ (Kaip pradėjo varyti rugius per mašiną, tuõtampõs ir išvarė. Up), *tuoitimpõs* ‘same’ Skrd, Šv (cf. *tuo intimpõs* DP 296), *visaplatõs* ‘to its full breadth, throughout’ Ssk (Kad pradėjo visaplatõs bitýs lįsti, kad nieko nebegali padaryti. Grz. Pamatėm, kad namas jau visaplatõs bedegąs. Jis taško pinigus visaplatõs. Kair. Jei jis taip visados leis gyvuolius visaplatos, tai bematant viską numins. Lnkv. Užtat pamažu sužinoję žmonės mano darbus, visaplatõs ėmė peikti ir rodyti pirštais. LzP).

io-stem: *riščiõs* ‘at a trot’ Ds (Tokiam šlapiam kely riščiõs nepavažiuosi. Ėr), *nežiniõs* ‘who knows’ Lkm, *pamažėlõs* ‘same’ ib, *dviračios* ‘with two riding (on one horse)’ (Tėvas su berniuku dviračios išjojo į ganyklą. Sdk), *galvatrūkčiõs* ‘very quickly, at full speed’ (Vaikas galvatrūkčiõs išlėkė. Vad. Atlekia galvatrūkčiõs. Ds), *kūliavirsčiõs* ‘head over heels’ (Kūliavirsčiõs nurūko (katinas) per laukus. Ut), *tapradžiõs* (=tuopradžios?) ‘with that beginning, continually’ (Tapradžios neklauso, kad ir sakai. Grž. Cf. Pulkai vaisko traukia tuopradžios iš vienos vietos į kitą. TŽ VII 338), *vienavaliõs* ‘continuously, without a break’ (Tai vaikelis — visą naktelę rėkė ir rėkė vienavaliõs. Smn. Ko čia šmaužioji (landai) vienavalios per duris? Kt).

An example of the iu-stem may be *toly džiaus* ‘at once’ K I 449, II 166, 190, 317, ‘together’ ib I 551 (cf. also *tuolýdžiaus* ‘at once’ Sdr).

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Finally, one or another highly individual formation should also be mentioned here: greitosios ‘quickly, hastily’ (Greitosios susirinko. OG 423), greitūjos ‘same’ (Ana tik greitūjos apsivilko. Rš), ištošančio (<iš to sančio) ‘from what there is, what one has’ (Įpilk pieno ištošančio. Ktk. Jau kam, kam, o pavargėliui duok ištošančio. ib).

The root, which bears the principal meaning of all the adverbs given here, is most often nominal or adjectival. Thus, among all parts of speech, the genitive singular of nouns and adjectives has undergone adverbialization—and continues to do so—to the greatest extent. In addition, verbal (more precisely, participial) adverbs occur here, as well as just a few numerative ones (išvientaro, cf. añtaras, where the suffix -tara- is distinguished; it also occurs in the words kataras, paš taras).

However, it should be noted that in Lithuanian it is not only the genitive of a noun, adjective, numeral, or participle that can become adverbialized. Some tendencies toward adverbialization can also be discerned in the genitive singular of pronouns. It is true that these are very weak in present-day language, and most pronouns show no such tendencies at all.

Of all the pronoun genitives singular, only those of the pronouns kas and tas, ką, to, have undergone relatively clear adverbialization in the history of Lithuanian. Of these, generally only the first can turn into an adverb on its own, that is, without prepositions or other words. In most cases, however, the genitives of the pronouns kas and tas form compound adverbs together with other words or particles, especially with the preposition dėl (dėl), which occurs both before and after those genitives, e.g.: ką ‘why, for what reason’ (Ko tu čia atėjai? Rš. Ko čia dabar puldinėji prieš vyrą! Šlv. Kō vakar neatėjai? Up. Kō tu toks nuliūdes? rš. Kō aš žaliuosiu, kō linksmas būsiu, žada mane kirsti. d.), kodėl ‘why, for what reason’ (Kodėl nelais tai žaliųjų rūtelijų? d. Cf. the form in old writings kodrin ‘same’), dėko (<dėlko) ‘same’ End, dėlgiko ‘why, then’ 18th–19th c. rš, dėlko ‘why’ Rdm, Als, Jb, del-kō ‘same’ Vrb, dėlko gi ‘why, then’ P, delkōgi ‘same’ Rdm, kažin kō ‘I wonder why’ (Man kažin ko pusiau nujeme, gal jau reiks sirgt. Slm), mažko ‘almost’ Pc, nieko ‘fairly, quite well’ (Jie nieko pragyvena. Jnšk), todėlei gi ‘therefore, then’ srš, todelios ‘therefore’ Grž, antatō ‘for that purpose’ (Jis antatō stovė. Pn), benetō ‘almost, nearly that’ (Pasitaiko benetō kai kada ir susibarti. Nmn), dēlgito ‘for that reason’ srš, dėligto ‘same’ DP 286, dėlto ‘therefore’ Kt, VnlP 16, Alv, Rm, Vvr, dėlto ‘same’ Rdm, Ds, dēltogi ‘therefore, then’ BsP III 38, dēltōgi ‘same’ Rdm. It should also be mentioned here that the form tiekōs (cf. tiekas, -a) is probably a fossilized genitive (Tiekōs (tiek) jau nuvejau, tai reikia ir pas jį ažeit. Grv. Tiek tiekōs (tiek to), einu gult. Pg. Su tuo miegu tiek tiekōs! ib).

As the examples show, the genitive case can become adverbial only when it functions as an adverbial modifier. The adverbial function is a necessary condition for a declined word’s genitive to shift into an adverb. Of all the examples given above, most are adverbs of manner. Thus, whenever the genitive case begins to function as an adverbial of manner in a particular context, it gradually begins to approach the status of an adverb. It is interesting that this morphological

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Manner adverbs of type exhibit a greater degree of adverbialization than adverbs of time or place.

The genitives of the pronouns kas and tas have become adverbial chiefly with a causal meaning.

The relatively slight tendency of the genitive case (when used without prepositions) to become adverbial is explained not only by its strong objective meaning and its reluctance to function as an adverbial, but also by the fact that in language adverbial relations are more commonly expressed by prepositional genitive constructions. Prepositional constructions with the genitive are exceptionally widespread.

Some genitives, constantly used with a preposition in an adverbial sense, become fixed and, as they become fixed, together with the preposition pass into the category of adverbs. The lexical meaning of the principal element of the prepositional construction—the genitive itself—also facilitates and accelerates the process of fixation and adverbialization: words with more general, abstract meanings are usually more prone to become adverbs, since their very content already relates especially to meanings of manner, place, or time. Prepositional constructions that acquire a more generalized figurative meaning as phraseological units also become adverbial more quickly, even though the meaning of their head word, considered in isolation, is entirely concrete.

Of all the constructions of the type discussed here that have become adverbial, or at least approached the category of adverbs, constructions with the preposition iš and the genitive stand out. We have considerably more of them than constructions with other prepositions and the genitive. Let us therefore consider them first.

The principal elements of these constructions are: a) nouns with a, ia, o, io, ė, i, u stems and consonant stems; b) mostly substantivized adjectives with a, ia, o, io, ė stems and pronominal adjectives; c) a few numerals, pronouns, or even participles.

a) The preposition iš and the genitive of a noun

a stem: iš daikto ‘together, from one’ (We all eat iš daikto Yl), iš juoko ‘jokingly’ (Iš juoko, I’ve even fallen in love. Ds), iš kaklo ‘with all one’s might’ Kp (And that one is struggling iš kaklo. Ob), iš kalno Trgn, Rgv, GGuzKIt 455 (probably a calque from Polish, cf. z góry) ‘in advance’ (Iš kalno I’m telling you. Ktk. He promised to pay iš kalno. Sdb. He has already taken half the money iš kalno. Dgl. Pay iš kalno, then you’ll get it. Pl. I paid the money iš kalno. VnlP 303), iš karto ‘all at once, suddenly’ (If the horse doesn’t get going well iš karto, it’s hard to catch up afterward. Ds. They even give ten handfuls of peas iš karto into the manger. Sl. Here I realized iš karto that I had guessed correctly. BltšR 43), ‘at first’ (At first he could not even ask his brother, or say exactly what concerned him. GGuzKIT 784), iš laiko ‘in advance’ (I took care of the brooms iš laiko. Krtn. Get it done iš laiko, then it won’t be needed later. Gž), ‘before its time, too early’ (Who rejoices iš laiko, that one—

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will cry. Jnš), iš lauko ‘from outside’ (Iš lauko namas lentomis apmuštas. Llkž), iš matymo ‘judging by appearance’ (Aš jį iš matymo pažįstu. Alk), iš mažumo ‘from childhood’ (Iš mažumo jis toks pablendęs (pabalęs) buvo. Jnšk), iš oro ‘from the surface, by appearance, from outside’ (Iš oro nieko nematyti (ar neščia, ar ne). Rgv. Prie kitų durų iš oro vis dar ėjo ginčiai. VnIP 144), iš ryto ‘in the morning’ Llkž, iš vakaro ‘in the evening’ (Margis iš vakaro loja, o daugiau miega per naktį. Pc).

ia stem: iš arčio (:artis, arčio ‘nearness’ SD 15, Srv, Skr) ‘from nearby’ (Iš arčio šauo kiškį, ir tai nevažavo. Prng), iš kelio ‘out of the way’ (Jis man iš kelio. Kdn. Pamislijęs, labai iš kelio, ir nebevažėjęs. Ds), iš prieko ‘in advance’ (Iš prieko moka. Sv), iš rudenio ‘in autumn’ (Šalnos iš rudenio želmenis gadino. Jnšk), iš sykio ‘all at once’ Sd, ‘at first’ (Reikėjo iš sykio taip sakyti. Llkž), iš tolio ‘from far away, from a distance’ (Ar iš tolio tas svečias? Grž. Ugnį iš tolio matyti. OsG. Ir atvažiavo iš tolio bernelis. RD 119), iš nejūčio ‘unexpectedly’ (Užpuolė zuikelį iš nejūčio ir sudraskė. Užv), iš paskubio ‘in haste, hurriedly’ (Iš paskubio apsiriko. ps.).

o stem: iš didumos ‘superficially, somewhat’ (Visų obuolių nekrešim, tik iš didumos. Lš), iš galvos ‘by heart’ (Ar visa knyga reikia iš galvos mokėti? Ds. Jie tikt iš galvos šventus mokinosi mokslus. Dn), iš mažienos ‘from childhood’ (iš mažienos kojos prijunkę prie rugienos. Pls. Iš mažienos jau jo tors žugimimas (prigimtis, būdas). Rod), iš tiesos ‘in truth, really’ R 155, K (Iš tiesos bylau jumus. BP I 15. Iš tiesos galėkėtės, DP 12. Iš tiesos numirė. DP 459), iš paskos (iš paskos Kp) ‘behind, following, afterward’ (Aš važiau pirmą, o jis iš paskos. Ll. Iš paskos sėrė. Grž. Ir motina iš paskos atėjo. Pc. Paveizėk, ben atvažiuoj kas iš paskos. Lkv. — Ar dar toli iki Sabalio lentpiūvės? — paklausė Mykolas žmogų, kuris susėlęs ir susikūprinęs stūmė iš paskos pabėgį prikrautas vežėčias ir vis nuoksėjo savo kuing. VnIP 94. — Tui, tui! Ulū-liū-liū! — suklego vaikai, puldami iš paskos ir stengdamiesi pralenkti viens kitą. BltšR 186. Tik nebūt nuošaly, tik iš paskos nepasilikt! GGuzKĮt 674), iš pažiūros ‘by appearance’ (Iš pažiūros gražus arklys. Llkž).

io stem: iš apačios ‘from below, from the ground’ (Duok iš apačios, tai nereikia per pėdus lipt. Vad), ‘from among working people themselves, from the side of the broad masses’ (Vystyti savikritiką ir ypač kritiką iš apačios. tsp), iš po apačios ‘from below, from the ground’ (Dabar kuliam iš po apačios (pačias javų apačias). Jnšk), iš eilios ‘in turn, one after another’ rš, iš mažumenios ‘from childhood’ TZ VII 321, iš nežinios ‘out of ignorance’ 16th century rš, 19th century rš, iš pradžios ‘at first, first of all; all at once’; iš priešcios ‘in advance, from the front’ (Pirkia iš priešcios gražiai aptvarkyta. Knv), iš valios Vs, Mrs, Vj, Ds ‘slowly, at an easy pace, gently’ (Eik iš valios, kad nepailstum. Alk. Jis viską iš valios dirba. Lš. Akėdamas arklių nevuk smarkiai, tegul eina iš valios. Kps. Iš valios ark. Ūd. Per tiltą reikia važiuoti iš valios. Lp), ‘of one’s own accord’ (Grįžčia, jau grįžčia atgal pas tėvelį, kurio iš valios apleidau namelį. (d.) Plv).

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ė stem: iš atidės ‘attentively’ (Iš atidės pradėkit galvoti, ir matysit, kad taip yra. rš), iš mažatuvės ‘from childhood’ Grž, iš maženėlės ‘ditto’ J, iš mažentės ‘ditto’ Ut, iš mažienėlės ‘ditto’ (Iš mažienėlės jie taip vargiai užauginti. Brt), iš mažystės ‘ditto’ Als, iš mažumėlės ‘ditto’ (Iš mažumėlės be motinėlės papratūs vargti didį vargelį. (d.) Ds), iš mažumės ‘ditto’ Šd, Slap, Srv, Kdn, Grž, Svn, Žž, Ktv, Mrs (Iš mažumės ji buvo gražesnė, dabar kažin ko suprastėjo. Slm), iš mažuntėlės ‘ditto’ Prng, iš mažuntės ‘ditto’ Vj, iš mažuonėnės ‘ditto’ Ds, iš mažūomės Grž (iš mažùomės Ad) ‘ditto’, iš mažūminės ‘ditto’ Dglš, iš mažuotės ‘ditto’ (Jau jis iš mažuotės taip šneka (šveplas). Slk), iš pusės ‘sharing the yield equally’ Kp (Viską dirbsime iš pusės. Kbr. Tada pelė su žvirbliu iš pusės kviečius sėjo. (ps.) rš. Kad bus pinigai iš pusės, tai pasakysiu, kur yra padėti. Ml), iš teisybės ‘in truth’ (— Tai jau iš teisybės — nešneketum, Palionį, kad taip nušnekei! GGuzKlt 411), iš valės ‘of one’s own accord, of one’s own will’ Ž., iš nevalės ‘unwillingly, against one’s will’ ib.

į stem: iš akies ‘without aiming carefully, approximately’ (Iš akies šauna. Grž. Į koją pažiūrėjo ir iš akies pasiūvo kurpeles. Tvrč), iš arties (: artīs, -ies K) ‘from nearby, at close range’, iš ausies ‘without written music, by ear’ (Gieda iš ausies. Jb), iš dalies ‘not entirely, partly’ (Tatai parodo iš dalies ir duotieji pavyzdžiai. Jb. Iš dalies teisybė, iš dalies ne. Grg. Jie iš dalies būrai, iš dalies žvejai. K II 226. Na, ir aš iš dalies, su rezervais, su jumis sutinku. VnlP 212. Dabar gi tą kančią iš dalies jis patyrė pats. ib 358), iš pat mažintės ‘from earliest childhood’ Slk, iš mažunties ‘from childhood’ Lkm, Tvr, iš peties ‘vigorously, energetically’ (Rugius visi sustoję iš peties kerta. Grž. Cukrinių runkelių augintojai pasidarbo iš peties. tsp. Tad nors pašniobždom, bet liejo tulžį iš peties ir atkišę delną tikrino, ar ne į ker­džiaus pusę neša vėjas. BltšR 49), iš šalies ‘from the side, from elsewhere, from other people’ (Juk girdam iš šalies, kad visi iš ano juokiasi. Slnt. Taip atrodo tik žiūrint iš šalies. VnlP 23), ‘aside, to the side’ (Kliša karvė — iš šalies koją met. ž.), iš pašalies ‘from the side, from elsewhere, indirectly’ (Iš pašalies šneka. Lp. Iš pašalies žiūrėti. Gs).

u stem: iš vidaus ‘inside, from the inside’ (Dar klaikiau atrodė tie dideli pastatai iš vidaus. VnlP 6. Kai kvėpavo, regėjos, kad įkaitinta geležimi degina jam krūtinę iš vidaus. ib 393), iš viršaus ‘outside, from above’ (Dantis buvo kiauras iš viršaus. Llkž. Iš viršaus žemsiurbės nedidukės, lyg plunksnų dėžutės. rš), iš paskaus ‘behind, afterward, following’ (Vilkos iš paskaus kaip uodega. Žg).

Consonant stem: iš mažens ‘from one’s early days’ (Jau jis iš mažens buvo toks priešgina. Jrk. Toks jis ir iš mažens buvo. Jb. Iš mažens ji tokia perdrėžius. Jrb. Iš mažens jau man išrašė žaibai širdį skausmus. LGR I 137), iš mažumens ‘ditto’ (Iš mažumens buvo lepinami. Lnkv).

It goes without saying that not all the given constructions of the preposition iš with a noun in the genitive are adverbialized to the same degree. Their degree of adverbialization is particularly difficult to determine because in almost all of these constructions the main constituent—the noun (except perhaps only that

2. Lietuvių kalbos morfologinė sandara ir jos raida

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from behind, from the side, from behind, from the edge) all the other cases are also used, though not with equal frequency. Moreover, most of these primary constituents bear at least some degree of object meaning, which is so characteristic of the genitive and which, in fact, prevents it from becoming adverbial. However, the adverbial function and the lexical-semantic characteristics of the primary constituent mentioned earlier, together with the close connection between the concept it expresses and generalized meanings of manner, time, and location-space, blur the genitive’s object meaning and, in this case, incline it—together with the preposition—toward the category of adverbs. The most common meanings of adverbs formed in this way are temporal, locative-spatial, and manner meanings. Other meanings (e.g., cause, purpose) are almost entirely absent.

Analogical formations are also almost never found here. Thus, the examples given are all directly fossilized or fossilizing constructions consisting of the preposition iš and a noun in the genitive.

If, alongside the most usual adverb iš mažėns, the language uses more than 20 variants of the same root with the same or a somewhat different meaning (at least according to the data available to me), this circumstance is explained not only by dialectal differentiation, but often also by considerations of language style and rhythm (cf. emotional speech, the language of songs, and emotionally uncolored speech).

b) The preposition iš and the genitive of an adjective

a-stem: iš ańksto ‘ahead of time, earlier’ Krtn, Dkš (Iš ańksto nieko nežinau. Ds. Aš tau pranešiu iš ańksto. Dkš. Būčiau iš ańksto žinojęs, kad būčiau buvęs laukiamas. Sd. Jis iš anksto sumokėjo už visą mėnesį. GGuzKlt 661. Skubėjo apsipirkti iš anksto. VnlP 142), iš aukšto ‘arrogantly, disdainfully’ (Buozė žiūria į valstietį iš aukšto. Jrb. Dėl ko iki šiol žiūrėjai ant mūsų triūso iš aukšto? Kd), ‘ahead of time, earlier’ Jb, Skr, iš arto ‘from nearby, from right here’ Š, Pl, iš dyko ‘having nothing to do’ Ds (Iš dyko vaikai nebėžino ko daryt. Slm), iš jauno ‘from a young age’ (Iš jauno to nedariau. Ldv), ne iš gero ‘necessarily, when absolutely required’ (Ne iš gero tą dantį ištraukė. Pc. Žinoma, kad ne iš gero taip darė. Jb), iš lengvo (iš lengvo DP 254) ‘easily, gently’ Er, Rgv, Sd, Lp, SD 272 (Iš lengvo ir nueisim, kol sutems. Šlap. Abidvi iš lengvo ir atneštė. Pl. Eik iš lengvo ir nepailsi. Kps. Jie dirba iš lengvo. Jb), iš lėno ‘slowly, gradually’ Grž, Ps (Iš lėno pučiant, (švilpa) išduoda drūtą balsą. LT II 107), iš lėto ‘same meaning’ DZ (Jis šneka iš lėto. Jb. Pakilo nuo stalo iš lėto. rš. Iš lėto tarė žodį po žodžio. GGuzKlt 383. Jos iš lėto ėjo susiglaudusios. ib 161), iš lietuviško ‘using new words, in a non-dialectal manner’ (Jis iš lietuviško kalba. Vb), iš mažo ‘from childhood’ (Tingėjo mokytis iš mažo. Pc. Iš mažo buvau pasiligojęs. Ll. Ir vaikus... į karčiamą velka, kad ir juos tuojau iš mažo surbt pamokintų. Dn), iš pilno ‘fully, completely’ (Atidubok, kas jam priklauso, iš tikro ir iš pilno. Gs), iš resvo ‘slowly’ (Dirba ana sau iš resvo, neskubindama. Ktk), iš réto ‘not quickly, infrequently, slowly, unhurriedly, gently’ Mrk, Krtv, Skp, Slm (Mūs tėvas visada iš réto klega (kalba). Knv. Jis taip iš réto kalba, nesku-

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rries. Jnšk. He walks and eats slowly. ib. Why are you working so slowly? Ut. Our uncle still walks, but very slowly. Šš. The Kaunas representative began speaking, slowly articulating the words. G.GuzKIt 312), iš reto ‘same meaning’ S, iš seno ‘since long ago’ (He has lived here since long ago. Btr. The Šventarėčio manor had long been litigating with the peasants over common pastures—servitudes. VnlP 15. This muddy and unpleasant place had long been avoided by people. GGuzKIt 87. That breed is wicked—it has lived solely by plunder from of old. LGR II 58), iš tieso ‘indeed’ R 354, iš tykeliuko ‘slowly, very quietly, little by little’ (He walks very quietly. Ds), iš tykiuko ‘same meaning’ TDr IV 226, iš tyko ‘same meaning’ Glv, Šd, Kps, Ds, Vj (I wasn’t tired, you see, I walked slowly. Ktk. He spoke very quietly, very quietly, and then got quite carried away. Šv. The water flows so quietly that it seems to stand still. Ds. I’ll go slowly, so I won’t get tired. Lkm. The river flows so quietly that you’d think it was standing still. Trgn. Your father-in-law always drives slowly. Bgs. Slowly, my dear boy! On), iš tikro ‘really, indeed’ Krtn, Lkv, Šd (Are you really saying that? Ds. A few will indeed fix it. Slnt), iš tylo ‘quietly, silently’ Šd, iš tytólo (iš tytólo Nč) ‘from afar’ (From afar one cannot even talk. Vlk. He still avoids meeting me from afar. Nč), iš tolimo ‘same meaning’ (Oh, the lad came from far away and began to woo the daughter from her father. Lp), iš tólo ‘from a distance’ Krtn, Ps, Ds, Lš, Dkš (The nearby lights can be seen from a distance. Vrb. — From far away? — From a clover field, son of a clover plant. Srv. He is a distant relative of mine. Švnč. Are you from far away, sir? Kv. People have come to the courses from far away, too. Jnšk), ‘indirectly, cautiously’ (I speak indirectly, I circle around the matter. R 47. He begins talking indirectly, saying they have come to bargain for geese. Up. Others weren’t afraid to learn to read from Didžkus, but the Stočkai—those only ever approached indirectly, indirectly... GGuzKIt 387. Begin indirectly: first complain of your old age, your illness. VnlP 316), ‘under no circumstances, not at all’ Alv (He absolutely does not want a pregnant mare. Alv), ‘very’ (They are already very afraid of me. Skr), nė (nei, anei) iš tólo ‘under no circumstances, not at all’ (You won’t get there at all with a cart like that. Šts. The rye crop this year won’t be anywhere near as good. prš. Not at all—nothing will come of it (I don’t agree). Rs), iš ūmo ‘suddenly, abruptly’ (If the cat suddenly grabbed the hedgehog by the snout, it might catch it. Pc. Get up, everyone, at once. Str), iš netolo ‘from nearby’ (— From far away? — From nearby, just beyond the lake. Lnk), iš palengvo ‘slowly, gradually’ Ps, R, Ndž (We ran at full speed, while you walked slowly. Skr. And so we came to an agreement gradually. Škn. The plough layer can only be deepened over several years, gradually, so that the clay is not turned up. Kl. The black ships stirred slowly by the quay. VnclR 131), iš palėno ‘same meaning’ Grž, iš pamažo ‘little by little’ (We first began to speak gradually. rš), iš paniūro ‘from under one’s brow’ rš, iš patyko ‘quietly, stealthily’ (He approached quietly. Gl. Go quietly so you don’t wake him. Lš. He speaks very quietly. ib), iš patólo (iš patólo) ‘from a distance; indirectly, cautiously; by stealth’ (He looks at me from a distance. Lp. Don’t ask him directly, but indirectly—and you’ll find out where he lives. Dkš. The dogs attacked me by stealth. Klvr).

ia-stem: iš didžio ‘with pride, proudly’ Jrb. (He looks proudly at his former friends. Šš. He always walks proudly. Alk), ‘superficially, a little’ (Just break off a few cabbage leaves superficially. Knv), iš lengvėlio ‘slowly, gradually’ (Write slowly so you don’t smudge it.

2*

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Slm. We’re chopping it for ourselves in a light breeze. Sld), from new (from new DP 161) ‘again, anew, repeatedly’ (If you did it over again, it would be much better. Trgn. Still, might it be possible to reconsider it from the beginning? VnlP 20), from quietly ‘very quietly, slowly’ Grv, from quietly ‘the same’ (Go quietly, so the child doesn’t wake up. Ds. Quietly, quietly, so they don’t hear. ib. You’ll get there quietly by yourself; nobody’s driving you. Skdt. The widow walked slowly, waking the children quietly. LTR, Brš), from far away ‘under no circumstances, never’ (I wanted to buy it, but he absolutely wouldn’t sell it, and that was that. Vik), from the last ‘with all one’s strength, as much as one can’ (He tries his hardest to help him. Skd).

o-stem: from quick ‘quickly, in a hurry’ (I worked quickly. Lkv), from sideways ‘obliquely’ (But the old rocket man was looking at something sideways, who knows why. LzP. And Stasiukas Milašiukas also glanced at me sideways, and it suits him. ŽR I 33), from true ‘in truth’ (As for me, know what you will, but in truth, look to old age. ŽR I 171), from the last ‘with all one’s strength, to the utmost’ (I’ll do my utmost, just so I can get out of debt. Gs. She defends herself to the utmost. Jb).

io-stem: from new ‘anew’ (Let’s start anew. Skd), from yesterday ‘from yesterday’ (The laundry is still wet from yesterday. Pc), from behind ‘from behind’ (The raven keeps quarrelling, keeps flapping, lagging behind. rš).

ė-stem: from the right, from the left (of the side) (I’ll sit on the right, and you on the left. Jnšk), from the last Llkž (from the last) ‘with all one’s strength’ (The child studies as hard as he can. Kair. Everyone is bustling at full tilt, while you’re wandering around the markets. ŽR I 88).

Pronominal adjectives: from the living ‘seriously, thoroughly’ (He doesn’t just poke around; he searches thoroughly for who’s to blame. J), from the quick ‘in a hurry, while hurrying’ (I was in such a hurry that I forgot to shut the door. Slm. In my haste, I even forgot my gloves. Sdk. I ran off in a hurry and forgot. Lk), from the pure ‘truly, truthfully’ (He told everything truthfully. Skr), from the slow ‘slowly’ (The other one, even working slowly, gets everything done. Trgn), from the lively ‘at a lively pace’ (He ran so fast that he crashed. Ds), from the sincere [Slavic] ‘with all one’s strength’ (We work with all our might. Pg), from the latter ‘to the utmost, with all one’s strength, as much as one can’ rš., from the last ‘the same’ (He works to the utmost. Lkv. Father is straining his vocal cords to the utmost. Rs), from the last ‘the same’ (He does his utmost just to please. Gs).

The examples given show that constructions consisting of the preposition iš ‘from’ and an adjective in the genitive most often become adverbial, functioning as manner adverbials. Thus, among these constructions that have become adverbial, we find mostly adverbs of manner, and considerably fewer of place and time. When used to express other adverbial meanings, these constructions show no tendency to become adverbial.

A characteristic of adverbs of this type is that their adjectival constituents have also become somewhat nominalized. This nominalization of the adjectival constituents apparently takes place alongside their process of adverbialization, which

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appears to be more vigorous and eclipses not only their incipient nominalization but also fades the adjectival meaning itself. In this way, the whole construction becomes adverbial. It should be noted that the adverbialization of these constructions is often more extensive and more pronounced than that of constructions consisting of the preposition iš ‘from’ and a noun in the genitive.

c) The preposition iš and the genitive of a numeral, pronoun, or participle

We have very few adverbialized constructions of this composition. As second constituents, they more often include only the genitives of the numerals vienas ‘one’ and pirmas ‘first’, the pronoun visas, -a ‘all’, the reflexive pronoun form savęs ‘oneself’, and occasionally the genitive of one or another substantivized participle, e.g.: iš vieno ‘together, jointly’ (Tik reikia dirbti, visiems eiti iš vieno. Jb. Mes daug galėtume nuveikt iš vieno. Kd), ‘continuously, constantly, without stopping’ (Patrankos iš vieno šveičia. Alv. Tenai jau iš vieno — ir gula ir kelia jis tenai. Jnšk. Iš vieno reikia ir reikia. Lš. Iš vieno tik kuliam ir kuliam. Lp. Iš vieno apsiniaukę — lis. Er), iš pirmo ‘first, at the beginning’ NdŽ, iš viso ‘all told’ (Nebesuskaitau, kiek čia tų vaikų iš viso. Vb. Kiek iš viso medžių nupiovė? Ds. Iš viso tik vos gals tvoros pasiliek[i]. Dn. Jis stebėjosi, kad ir iš viso nedaug prisirinko, ir salė buvo toli gražu nepilna. VnlP 145), ‘at all’ (Ar iš viso ataduodi? Trgn. Nesūlyk man, nenoriu: aš iš viso pomidorų nevalgau. Kps. Aš iš viso nežinau. Ds), ‘generally’ (Aš iš viso nelabai mokėjau pasakų. Dglš), iš visos ‘for the whole day’ (Išginus bandą iš visos, praalkstas. Šts)³, iš savęs ‘by itself, of its own accord’ (Tai iš savęs auga. KB I 48. Iš savęs išmoko. Likž), iš neviltosios ‘unexpectedly’ (Kad ir parašau, tai ben kelintuose metuose, visai iš neviltosios. Bg), iš dėto ‘right here’ (Gali girdėt kaip iš dėto. Prk).

The ending of some of the genitive constructions with the preposition iš mentioned here is sometimes clipped, thereby producing clipped forms that have the highest degree of adverbiality among all adverbialized constructions with the preposition iš and the genitive, since here not only has the meaning of the case itself faded, but its formal marker—the ending—has also disappeared. Because of this clipping of the ending, the preposition iš most often tends to merge with the main constituent. We indicate this graphically by writing such clipped adverbs as one word, especially when, in their clipped form, those main constituents are not used in the language without prepositions⁴, e.g.: iškart< iš karto (Jis iškart tris antis nuėmė (nušovė). Lš), iššyk< iš šykio (Iššyk pataikė. Dkš), išvidur< iš vidurio (Buvo... padalytas ir išblaškytas išvidur (iš vidaus). brš), išpalengvėl< iš palengvėlio (Padės mums išpalengvėl išpirkti. rš), išpavirš< iš paviršiaus

³ Sometimes the preposition iš merges completely with another preposition and the main pronominal constituent, whose ending is retained; cf.: neisišenėko ‘not easy’ (Regis, kas čia, o dėto geras grėblys neiššenėko padirbti. Trgn.)

⁴ Strictly speaking, no rigorous consistency has been achieved in Lithuanian spelling in this respect.

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‘superficially, poorly’ (Darbą išpavirš atliko. Llkž), išvien< iš vieno (Lietuvos darbininkai ėjo išvien su bolševikų partija. tsp. Jis išvien dirba ir dirba. Snt. Bruknės išvien raudonuoja. Skr).

As already mentioned, the genitive with prepositions other than iš becomes adverbial much less often.

ant: ant galo ‘finally’ Rgv, Sd (cf. the phraseological combination ant galo pagalės ‘ditto’: Ant galo pagalės jie pripažino, kad mano teisybė. Pc), ant būrio ‘at intervals’ (Ant būrio man šilta pasidaro, ant būrio šalta. Šd), ant abejo[s] ‘hesitantly, while hesitating’ (Dirbsiu ir tiek ant abejo[s]. Grž), ant nuomonės ‘as you understand, suppose’ (Eik ant nuomonės ir rasi. Erž), ant lygasties ‘equally’ (Pasidalinom ant lygasties — nebus skriaudos nei vienam, nei kitam. Ktk), ant greito ‘quickly’ (Padaryk ką ant greito užkąst. Vs), ant greitos ‘ditto’ (Ant greitos gana guviai pasisuvau. J), ant roplos ‘on all fours’ (Jonas ant roplos beveiziant smunka po lova. ŽR I 333), ant tuščios ‘without having eaten anything’ (Per kiaurą naktaitę ant tuščios. ib 265), ant greitosios ‘quickly, in haste’ Lkm, Rgv (Kur čia ant greitosios tą vandenį išpilt? Pc), ant smagiosios ‘very loudly’ (Kai suriks ant smagiosios, tai tik neparvirtau — taip persigandau. Ds), ant skardžiosios ‘ditto’ (Nešūkauk ant skardžiosios — visi jau miega. Dbk), ant vieno ‘regardless’ rš. Cf. the clipped adverb antvien ‘ditto’ (Tai drąsuolis — antvien eina. Gs. Kai įvyksta jis, tai jau antvien eina. Brt)⁵.

It should be noted that the adverbs just mentioned are not used intensively in the literary language. They are used more in colloquial folk speech. In some cases, it is easy to find equivalents for Lithuanian adverbs of this type in Slavic languages (cf. Russian накорец|ant galo, на- тощак|ant tuščios, наскоро|ant greitos), and therefore it is entirely possible that the emergence of some adverbs of this type in Lithuanian was influenced by Slavic languages.

bė: be galo ‘indescribably, extraordinarily, very’ (Lietuvių tauta be galo dėkinga Komunistų partijai už naują, šviesų gyvenimą. tsp), be galo ir be krašto ‘ditto’ (Ji žino, po širdim nauja gyvybė bręsta — Laininga ji be galo ir be krašto. TTSon 29), be galo, be krašto ‘ditto’ (Be galo, be krašto daug turėtų susikrovę. Bien), be laiko ‘too early, before the proper time, in advance’ (Be laiko mirė, be laiko rugius suvežė. Jb. Be laiko strypinių neišlaidyk (iš anksto nesididžiuk). VP 9. Šiandien tai be laiko sutems. Pc), be reikalo ‘without need’ (Be reikalo taip greitai ėmė pakuotis. VnIP 430. Gerai, kad jam neužminė be reikalo. Jnšk. Nebereikalo ši vieta vadinasi Perualka. rš. But cf. also the following expression: Be reikalo mes nepardavėm tos karvės (meaning, we should have sold it) Grg), be stabo ‘unceasingly, without a break, continuously’ (Be stabo lyja. Rm), be pérstojo ‘ditto’ Llkž, Ktk, be pérstolio ‘ditto’ (Be pérstolio dirba. Grž), be pértrūkio ‘ditto’ (Be pértrūkio lyja. Llkž). Cf. benedaugio ‘almost,

⁵In the Eastern Aukštaitian dialects, the preposition in is used in place of the literary-language preposition ant; elsewhere, an is used.

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near“ (Arti, benedaugio trys mylios. Rdm), be dienos “very early” (Paskėlė be dienos. OG 434), be reikõs “without reason” (Be reikõs širdijatės (pykstatės). Bien), be atvangos “unceasingly, continuously” (Jis dirba be atvangos. Jb), be žinios “a lot” (Per kiek metų priviso tų kiaulių be žinios daug. D), be paliovos “unceasingly, continuously” (Dangus užgriozdintas storais debesimis, be paliovos varvinančiais ledinį lietų. BltšR 29), be pérstojos “same” (Kada gi bus galas tam lietui — lyja ir lyja be pérstojos. Ktk. Here compare also Samogitian ba parstojõs “same” Lkv), be pérstogės “same” (Lyja be perstogės. Llkž), be skaičiaus “a lot” (Be skaičiaus daug buvo žmonių. Rm), be skyriaus “without distinguishing, without distinguishing” BsP II 26, be vieno, be vienojo “continuously” (Lapė išpiovė žąsičius be vieno. Grg. Igulė (igula) dajutusi mažą galę neprieteliaus te esant, užpuolusi be vienojo nukavo. D).

ik(i): ik valios “sufficiently, enough” (Ir jam gana, ir tėvam ik valios. VnIP 31. Kartą taip ir rado Pranciškų negyvą, iki valios prisišutunusį pirtyje. CvR VI 31), iki valės “same” (Sieno prisišienaujam iki valės. Rm).

lig(i): lig laiko “temporarily, not for long” (Lig laiko tu čia taip dūksti. Ds. Lig laiko puodas vandenį neša. Vg), ligi nãgo “continuously” (Sušlapau ligi nago. Llkž), ligi valios “sufficiently, enough” (Ligi valios prisiklausė. rš. Dabar tai jau ligi valios prisipirkau duonos. Grž), lig senės “until old age” (Nuog mažens mokinas ir mokinas lig senės. Pls), lig valės “sufficiently, enough” StrR 105, ligi paskutinio “continuously” rš.

nuo: nuo daikto “continuously; constantly; in succession” (Kaip tik žmogus nuo daikto bamba, niekas ano plepalo ir neklauso. Užv. Šią naktį nuo daikto tris sykius girdėjau perkūną trenkiant. Plt. Višta ded du dieni nuo daikto. Sts. Nuo daikto imk, neskyr(i)ok. Slnt. Malką imkite nuo daikto, nelipkit ant viršaus. Prk. Kask bulves nuo daikto, nebegiok! Sts. Eina ir eina žmonės nuo daikto. Vvr. Vieškelis apsodintas gluosniais nuo daikto. Jnšk. Ne nuo daikto turime dieną, ne nuo daikto teipogi ir naktį. brš), nuo tolo “from afar” (Nuo tolo rugiai balti. LnkV. Jau nuo tolo vaikas išbėgo pasitikt tėvo. Ds. Nuo tolo žiūri, kaip gardžiai valgo, ir seilės varvina. Grž), nuo tamsõs “early” (Nuo tamsõs atsikėliau. Llkž), nuo vietos “continuously, in succession” (Tris dienas nuo vietos švesdavo. Kdn), nuo mažumės “from childhood” Plk, nuo jaunumės “from youth” Bsg, nuo jaunumėlės “same” Gs, nuo maženėlės (Nuo maženėlės be motinėlės. Alk. Dirbau nuo maženėlės, nuo jaunumėlės. Gs), nuo mažumės “from an early age” Vs, Srv, Šlap, Alv, Ig, nuo mažiuomenės “same” Ad, Švnč, nuo mažuomės “same” Ps, nuo akies “by eye, approximately” Llkž, nuo mažuntės “from an early age” Aln, nuo arto (: ar̃tas, -à) “from nearby” (Iš tolo ir nuo arto keliauja. brš), nuo réto “sparsely” (Kalba labai nuo réto. Lg), nuo seno “for a long time” rš, nuo mažo “from childhood” (Mūsų vaikai nuo mažo prie darbo pripratę. Ll).

põ: po laiko “too late” Llkž (Jau po laiko — iš numirusių nebeprikelsi. Plt. Po laiko grybai rauti, kad nebedygsta. Dr). Compare nepoilgo Kt, nepoilgio rš, NdŽ “soon, shortly, before long.”

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prie: prie daikto “in one place, together” (Siemet daržus turėsime prie daikto. Šlap. Dirbkim visi prie daikto, ir gana. Sk.). už: už šviesos “while it is still light, before dark” (Dar kur už šviesos metėm arę. Knv. Už šviesos iš medžio (iš miško) neparveši daržtes nei vieno pagalio. ib). Compare neužilgo “soon” Dkš, Pc (Neužilgo atėjo ir žuvusiojo tėvai. VnlP 276).

Clearly, the prepositional and genitive constructions mentioned here too are not fossilized and adverbialized to the same degree or extent. The principal cause of their fossilization and adverbialization must likewise be considered to be their adverbial use itself. But in language we have many other preposition-and-genitive constructions functioning in sentences as adverbials of place, time, manner, cause, and other circumstances (compare on the roof, out of sorrow, from the heart, out of joy, without noise, until night, until dawn, from the mountain, after an hour, by the highway, etc.), yet they show no tendency to become fossilized and adverbialized. We perceive their nominal components as unmistakable genitives, alongside which various modifiers may be used without changing the lexical meaning of the head component, but merely reinforcing it further by emphasizing the grammatical meaning of the case itself (compare on a tin roof, out of great sorrow, with all one’s heart, etc.). Thus, the adverbial function alone does not turn all prepositional constructions into adverbs. As already mentioned, the lexical meaning of their head component is highly significant for the fossilization and adverbialization of these constructions: its greater generality, abstraction, or sometimes metaphorical nature facilitates and accelerates the process of adverbialization itself. The intensity with which a prepositional construction is used must also be considered here, as it too plays a role in the process of adverbialization. The genitives that form the second components of some of the prepositional constructions cited above, which have become or are becoming adverbialized, are among the most frequently used in the language. Consider the adverbs iš mažens, nuo mažens, iš mažuties, nuo mažuties and all their other variants. Among the many variants, a considerable number of such adverbs stand out whose second components are known in the language only in a fossilized genitive form. For example, the form *mažuo. no longer exists in the language. Only its genitive mažens has survived, not independently but in the phrase iš mažens. The second components of other numerous variants of this adverb are likewise used most frequently in the genitive (together with the prepositions iš, nuo). Thus, intensive use of a prepositional construction brings about and accelerates its fossilization and, consequently, its adverbialization as well. In a construction undergoing adverbialization, a semantic change takes place; it becomes lexicalized in a particular way and acquires something like the meaning of a single word. This explains why no modifier can be inserted between the preposition and genitive in a fully adverbialized prepositional construction without violating or changing the adverb’s meaning. When a prepositional construction has not yet become fully adverbialized, a modifier is sometimes possible and used, but only to a limited extent. For example, we could say—and do say—without any reason, without any need, without any interruption, or sometimes we insert the particle pat: from early childhood itself, from youth itself, from the earliest age itself. However

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we can clearly see that the use of modifiers here is already very limited. This indicates that these constructions are becoming fossilized.

Since the process by which prepositional constructions (like inflected constructions) become fossilized and adverbialized takes place continuously and lasts a very long time in living spoken language itself, it is simply impossible for us to pinpoint and date the moments from which a particular case with a preposition becomes adverbialized. By observing contemporary language and the comparatively recent written-language tradition, which spans only a few centuries, we can draw conclusions only from concrete linguistic facts—from the actual results of adverbialization. It goes without saying that, when observing and studying the process by which prepositional (like all inflected) constructions become adverbialized, one always encounters transitional cases, which are often simply impossible to distinguish from cases of complete adverbialization. Therefore, among the examples given so far, there are undoubtedly such transitional cases.

The fact that the endings of the second components of the aforementioned prepositional constructions are sometimes clipped off, without—as already mentioned—changing the adverb’s meaning, also confirms their complete or at least partial adverbialization; cf. begàl<begàlo<be gãlo, berèik<bereikõs<be reikõs or berèikal<bereikalo<be reikalo.

Of course, the mere presence of shortened forms alongside the aforementioned constructions would not in itself demonstrate their adverbial character, since ordinary preposition–genitive combinations that have not become adverbialized can also lose an ending and thereby simply turn into an adverb, cf. nuopavãsar<nuo pavasario, nuotoláik<nuo to laiko, ik(i)tõlaik<ik(i)tõ laiko, ikšiõlaik< <ik šio laiko. Thus, in Lithuanian, clipped adverbs of this type arise in two ways: a) through the clipping of the endings of the main components of prepositional constructions that have already become, or are becoming, adverbialized, and b) through the loss of the ending of the main component of prepositional constructions that have not yet become adverbialized (sometimes even containing a modifier).

To give a clearer picture of the adverbialization of the genitive in contemporary Lithuanian, it should also be pointed out that this case very often serves as a component of fossilized idiomatic expressions. First to be mentioned are expressions consisting of a noun in the nominative, a preposition, and the genitive of the same noun, e.g.: dienà iš diẽnos “every day, constantly, continuously” (The Soviet people make our state, the fortress of peace, more powerful day by day. likewise Day by day the weather is getting warmer. Ds), grūdas iš grūdo “all through, every single grain” (The cabbages are sprouting, grain by grain. Šts), kãrtas iš kãrto “from time to time” (You fed them from time to time, and they got used to it. Užv), rankà iš rañkos “cash, paid immediately” Gs, rýtas iš rýto “every morning” Llkž, dienà nuo diẽnos “every day” rš, gãlas nuo gãlo “all through, continuously” (I read the newspaper all the way through. The fields are spread with manure from end to end. Šts), kãrtas nuo kãrto “occasionally, now and then” (The patient would occasionally ramble. VnlP 395), kója nuo kójos “in unison” (The lawyer... turns pale and red, stamping his feet. ŽR II 248), laĩkas nuo laĩko “at intervals” (From time to time they look pleasantly into each other’s eyes. BlnR 38), dienà po diẽnos “every day”

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ŽR II 119, kartas po karto “occasionally; one after another” tsp, ŽR II 184, rytas po ryto “every morning; on some morning soon” ŽR II 127, žingsnis po žingsnio “gradually” CvR VIII 47, žodis po žodžio (Word by word, reproach after reproach—the landlord began to threaten. CvR VIII 190), diena už dienos “soon” (Day after day—and soon the worker too. Ds), koja už kojos “slowly, gradually” (We walked slowly, one step at a time. ŽR II 410), etc.

All such expressions are fossilized and have acquired adverbial meaning. Their meaning sometimes becomes so generalized that it is difficult to describe in other words. But it is not only such idiomatic expressions that acquire adverbial meaning and thereby become adverbialized in their own way: there are also other constructions in which the first component is a preposition, followed by a genitive with a full or clipped modifier, e.g.: be vieno galo “extraordinarily” (The girl is extraordinarily beautiful. Grg), be maža ko (>bemažko) “almost, nearly” (There was almost a whole bucketful. Ds), iki amžių amžio “forever” BP II 151, iki gyvos galvos “for a lifetime” CvR VIII 207, iki gyvo kaulo “very much” (It annoyed me to the bone. VnlP 68), iš dyko buvimo “for lack of anything to do, out of idleness” (Horns grew from idleness. Rdm), iš gerojo gero “spontaneously” (This lake came into being spontaneously. LŠ), iš geros valios “likewise” (The hand began to ache spontaneously. Pc. It turns spontaneously. Dkš), iš gražios valios “likewise” (The eye began to hurt spontaneously. Al), nuo vieno daikto “continuously, all the time” (The child was covered all over with painful sores. Plt. The small child keeps asking for food all the time. Mžk. Cf.: As soon as he started sewing one thing, he kept on until he finished. Šauk), nuo paties kėlimo “very much, extraordinarily” (That mother is extremely nimble. LlKž), nuo vien žodžio “in a word” (In a word, speaking. Šauk), prie gyvo kaklo “under no circumstances” (I don’t want porridge with vinegar under any circumstances. Dr). Further, cf. the predicate in the sentence Jau jis nuo pusantro velnio (quite, very, extremely bad). Skr.

Worth mentioning separately are such adverbial idiomatic expressions that include genitives of pronouns together with adjectives, adverbs, and function words, e.g.: viso gero “in all” (How much money do you get in all? LlKž), viso labo “likewise” (There are only five of us. ib), tiek to “never mind, let it be” DŽ, tiek to “likewise” Ds, tiekai to “likewise” ib (cf. tiekto-daug “likewise” Trgn), nė iš šio, nė iš to “spontaneously, for no reason, needlessly” rš, nei iš šio, nei iš to “likewise” Lkm, kaip niekur nieko “as if nothing had happened” VnlP 92, etc.

* * *

Turning to the examination of adverbs with the formatives -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės, it should be noted that the language contains many fossilized forms which, at first glance, could be derived from the singular genitive, since their ending coincides with the ending of that case. But here we must remember that an adverb’s “ending” is not the same as the ending of an inflected word.

As long as a case form has not turned into an adverb, its ending indicates the meaning of the case and the word’s relation to other words in the sentence. As a case form becomes fossilized, the case meaning itself fades, and at the same time it can easily

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the formal case marker—the ending itself—may change. As we have already seen, the former case ending sometimes disappears altogether, and the newly acquired adverbial meaning of fossilized case forms is not affected in the least. On the contrary, the absence of an ending sometimes even emerges as an indicator of a word’s adverbial meaning (cf. nuopavasar < nuo pavasario).

Moreover, in certain cases an “ending” (probably through analogy), without changing the adverb’s meaning, may also appear where none would be expected, e.g.: vėlios (vėlios Dgls) “again” (Man vėlios galvą sopa. Rgv), dabarõs “now” (Dirbom, dirbom, dabarõs reikia ir pasil- sėti. Jnšk), tenãjos “there” Rm, Lnk. Therefore, when discussing adverbs, it would generally be more accurate to speak not of an ending, as understood in inflected parts of speech, but of a formant, since former case endings have in fact often developed into derivational formants for adverbs, on the model of which new adverbs are formed.

As the examples just given show, these formants often affect even words that today have nothing to do with nominals. Thus, it would be inaccurate to regard all adverbs with the formants -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės, which at first glance are easily associated with genitive singular endings, as adverbialized genitives of nominals, since in many cases these formants merely coincide in external form with genitive endings, while the adverbs containing them have developed from other cases.

Formant — (i)o

darõ “now, at this moment” (Darõ tai kas kita. Lp) dabartėlio “now” Ds, dykõ “for nothing” (Dykõ niekas nieko neduoda. Lnkv), skersõ (in the phrase skersõ išilgõ) “crosswise and lengthwise” (Eik skersõ išilgõ — niekur geriau nerasi. Mlt), aplinkõ “around” (Visi tik geria aplinkõ. Ml), apsukõ “round and round, around” (Rietimo galus apsukõ atsuka. Dgļs. Apsukõ siuva. Bien. Vis darbas eina ir eina apsukõ (here you finish and then do the same work all over again). Tvr. Vis apsukõ ir apsukõ niūnia (speaks in a roundabout way). Bien), apžargõ “straddling the cart ruts” (Važiuok apžargõ su tokiu vežimu. Arm), atatuõ “backwards (of horses only)” (Arkliai tik atatuõ atatuõ. Tvr), atgalõ “back” (Ateitum atgalõ, bet takai užaugo. Bien. Stumk vežimą atgalõ. Krok. Amžiai kraunas, tolyn traukias, atgalõ negrįžta. BM I 451), intimpõ “strenuously” (Nebesveika tiek kelio bėgt intimpõ. Sdk), išilgõ “lengthwise” (Išilgõ perkirto. Bien), pasupõ “one after another, in succession” (Pasupõ tris puodelius išgėrė. OG 422), pašyukštõ “in a whisper, quietly” (Anas pasakė pašyukštõ, kad niekas negirdėtų. OG 422), paviršiõ “along the surface, superficially” (Paviršio pabadė (jei kas blogai nupiovė su dalge). OG 422. Tik paviršio darbą darė. Bien), perėjo “right through” (Koją perėjo perdurė. Bien. Perėjo perljio. ib), dviračio “astride” (Ant mažo arklio bais bloga dviračio jot. Ds).

As we see from the examples, this formant is usually stressed in colloquial folk speech. It may derive not only from the singular genitive

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case ending, but also from the locative, as well as from the plural instrumental ending. Colloquial folk speech shows a strong tendency to shorten the plural instrumental endings of all inflected feminine words, which are generally retained in full in the literary language. Many dialects do not have the full endings -(i)omis, -ėmis, -imis at all. In shortening, the final i is dropped, and most often the dual instrumental form, which has no final -s, is used for the plural instrumental. The final -m of the form inherited from the dual can no longer be lost in inflected words. Consequently, the shortening process no longer affects the final sound m. That final -m, together with the vowel preceding it (if the ending is stressed, a circumflexed vowel), remains as a marker of the word form. In adverbs, however, where case meaning has completely faded, the word ending is less stable, so -m can probably be dropped here without changing the adverb’s meaning. This is shown by the following pairs of synonymous or near-synonymous adverbs: dykõ||dykõm Vb, Srv, Lnkv, Ds, skersõ||skersõm Llḱž, apsukõ||apsukõm Grž, apžargõ||apžargõm “any which way” Kp, atatupõ||atatupõm, paviršiõ||paviršiõm Slap, and also by the fact that, among all the cases in Lithuanian, the plural instrumental has yielded and continues to yield the greatest number of adverbs, which are extraordinarily numerous and widespread not only in colloquial folk speech but also in the literary language, especially in works of fiction. Today, adverbs derived from the plural instrumental can be regarded only as a very widespread adverb type, firmly unified into a large group by its characteristic formants, which developed from plural instrumental endings. The formant -(i)om(is) is especially common here; for the reasons indicated, it could probably, at least in some cases, have developed into the formant -(i)o.

Finally, there is no doubt that in many cases this formant is the result of analogy: once a certain number of adverbs with this formant, derived from the cases mentioned, had become established in the language, adverbs began to be formed on their model from other forms, even from indeclinable words (cf. darõ, dabartėlio). Thus, the example of the formant -(i)o clearly shows how diverse the sources from which adverbs with a given formant arise can be.

The morphological composition of adverbs with the formant -(i)o is highly varied. This depends on the individual character of their formation. Alongside formations such as darõ, dabartėlio, which today can no longer be associated with any inflected words, but only with the adverbs dar “now” Kps, Vlk, Lp, Vrn, dãr “also” Arm, Krok, Onš, dabartėl “the same” SD 43, KIG 135, Lnkv, dabartėlei “the same” Užp, dabartėlės “the same” Dkš, Pnd, Lel, Jb, dabartėli “the same” KIG 135, N, dabartėlios “the same” Brž, Grž, Ds, there are also adverbs, both simple and prefixed, that can still readily be associated with adjectives: dykõ (: dỹkas, -à), skersõ (: skẽrsas, -à), išilgõ (: išilgas, -à). There are also prefixed adverbs with this formant alongside which nouns or adjectives with the same root are found in the present-day language or in older texts, e.g.: apžargõ||apžargà “jumping over a groove while driving a rope” Slv, apžarga “jumping over a hoop while throwing cloth” Alk; aplinkõ||aplinkas, -a “surrounding” K and aplinkà “surroundings” SD 222, J, “space around, interval” Jb; apsukõ||apsukas, -à “done in a circle, complete, whole” Š and apsuka “axis,”

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‘a spindle, a peg; (of the body) a joint, a bend’ SD 202; atgalió||atgalias, -ią ‘backward, rearward, in reverse’ Prl, Trgn, Pg, Svn, Pc and atgaliai plural form of the adjective ‘smaller remnants of grain, fragments’ J, Grg, Prk, Klt, Šv, Vkš, Brs, Lž, Klp; ‘means, trifles’ D, atgalis ‘a remnant; the end of a strip of land’ rš.

J. Otrębski notes that adverbs with this formant in the Tverečius dialect are generally prefixed and are formed from nominal, adjectival, and even verbal stems and roots⁶. Other dialects and sources, however, show an even greater variety of these adverbs: specifically, there are also compounds, for example, those in which the first component is a numeral and the second a verb (dviraičio).

Formant -(i)os

In colloquial folk speech, this formant may be stressed or unstressed. While in some cases its origin could be associated with case endings, in others it is merely an adverb-forming formant, extending even to modal words and particles.

The genitive case has probably been responsible for the emergence of some adverbs with this formant. Hypothetically, one could also maintain that some adverbs with this formant derive from the plural instrumental: the presence in the language of parallel forms aplinkòm||aplinkò, apžargòm||apžargò..., where the latter words may have evolved from the former, could have paved the way for the emergence of parallel forms apsukõms||apsukõs, atgalióms||atgaliós... However, not all adverbs with this formant can be regarded as fossilized case forms, since once the formant had become established in the language, it could also have been added secondarily to truncated forms, to other truncated adverbs and, as we have seen, even to particles.

A few examples are given below to illustrate the morphological composition, meanings, and syntactic use of adverbs with this formant.

1. Words with nominal roots and no prefix: ankstičkõs ‘early’ (I got up a little early and went to feed the soldiers. Grv), aplõs ‘disorderly, in disarray’ (With its mouth open, it leaves everything scattered about. Ds), artičkõs (used as a preposition) ‘near’ (We were near one another. Grv), daugaliõs ‘a great deal’ Mit II 235.

2. Prefixed words with nominal roots: aplinkõs (apliñkos) ‘around’ (People travelled around. Kš. We’ll go around if there’s no way to go straight. Grž), apsukõs ‘in a circuit’ (The horse isn’t eating; it just keeps walking round and round the stake. Grž), atgaliós ‘back’ (Take me back. Bien), atskirõs ‘separately’ (They have already moved out and live separately from their parents. Ds).

3. Two-stem formations: akimirkõs ‘immediately, in a moment’ (Just put it in, and in a moment it boiled. Klov).

⁶ J. Otrębski. Wschodniolitewskie narzecze twereckie, część I, Kraków, 1934, p. 422.

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The adverb kiekdienos ‘daily’ should also be included here (Platesnio mokslo kiekdienos laukit. Mž 12; Ansai valgė ir gėrė apstu kiekdienos. DP 270), if it had already become fully adverbialized in sixteenth-century language and had indeed turned into a single word.

4. The formant -(i)os also occurs with so-called a n c i e n t or p r o n o m i n a l adverbs, which are difficult to connect with nouns at all in present-day usage: anaipòs ‘that way’ (Ne šitaipòs daryk, bet anaipòs. Gs), čianàjos ‘here, in this place, in this thing’ (Cianàjos žemė kaip aguona (gera). Jnsk), kitaipòs ‘otherwise’ (Nuėjo kitaipòs (išėjo kitaip). Pls), niekadòs ‘never’ DŽ (Niekados taip nedaryk. Jb), nuolatòs ‘often, continuously’ DŽ, ‘in succession, one after another’ (Dirbk nuolatòs, ko čia šokuoji iš vienos vietos kiton. Ds), šitaipòs ‘this way’ (Šitaipòs neapausi vaiko — pasisodink ant kelių. Gs), vėliakos ‘again, anew’ (Lijo lijo, o nareinant vėliakos sausa, gražu. Pc), visadòs ‘all the time, always’ (Visadòs vaikas geras. Grž).

Only adverbs of this formant such as dabarčios ‘now’ (Dabarčios aš jam parodysiu. Nmk), dabartėlės ‘ditto’ (Ką dabartėlės dirbsi? Grž), stand somewhat apart; they may be related not only to dabar ‘now’ but also to dabar-t-, cf. dabartis, -iės, dabartį ‘the present time’ DŽ.

5. This formant is also found in adverbs in which a temporal or locative meaning is intertwined with a modal deictic meaning, e.g.: anaurėlės ‘that time, on that occasion’ (Anaurėlės buvau užėjęs aplankyti, dabar nebebuvau. Grž), antenainòs ‘over there’ (Antenainos žvilgterk. Bien).

6. Finally, this formant extends even beyond the limits of the adverb, touching on m o d a l w o r d s a n d p a r t i c l e s that are close to the adverb category: bėigos ‘by the way, perhaps, as can be seen, that is why, somehow’ (Bėigos, ir tu, Jonai, ten buvai. Lš), bùcegos dial. ‘as if, as though’ (Jis bùcegos negirdi. Tvr), būdavos Ar (as an interjection, cf. būdavo with the same function), būteinos ‘as if, as though’ (Praėjo pro šalį būteinos nematydamas. Dglš), àros ‘or, by the way’ (Àros, ir tu ten buvai? Grž).

Formant -ės

With this formant occur modal deictic particles that have not yet fully detached from the adverb, as well as clear adverbs: anasgatės ‘once, there you go’ (Anasgatės tu taip negerai padarei! Grg), ańsgatės ‘ditto’ (Ańsgatės taip buvau padaręs, o dabar taip nepadariau. Grg), dabartėlės ‘now’ (Kas čia dabartėlės man sakė, ir užmiršau. Dkš), dabartės ‘ditto’ (Javus suvežėm, dabartės kulsim. Rm), dartėlės (dartėlės Rdm) ‘ditto’ (Kur dartėlės eini? Vrn), dàrtės ‘ditto’ (Dàrtės tai jau einam namo. Dg), čionàitės ‘here, in this place, in this thing’ Brt, čionùitės ‘ditto’ Vikv. Further, cf.: paskuitės ‘after that, afterwards’ Gs, tenùitės (ten) ‘there’ Brt, Gs, tuojùitės ‘immediately’ ib. etc.

The extraordinary variety in the formation of Lithuanian adverbs and the abundance of their formants can already be seen from the fact that often alongside these formants

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There are many adverbs in the language alongside other adverbial forms with the same root and the same or a very similar meaning, both full forms (often with different suffixes and stems) and truncated ones, e.g.: ankstič-kės “early,” ankstainais “very early” Šv, ankštainiais “the same” Als, Pln, Gršl, Brs, J, ankstáinintais “the same” Šv, ankštéinai “the same,” Kv, ankstéinais “the same” Pgr, Kv, Vvr, Užv, J, Tl, ankstéinyčiais “the same” Up, ankstėinais “the same” Vdk, ankstérnais “the same” Grg, Vvr, anksti “not late” DŽ, ankstỳbai “the same” KlyD 113, ankstýbókai “fairly early” Ktk, Gs, ankstičkai (ankstičkai Žt) “early, very early” Asv, Arm, ankstičkutėlėliai “the same” Rod, ankstiė “not late” Als, Sim, Mž 510, D, ankstienais “very early” J, Šv, ankstyvai “not late” Lnkv, Smn, ankstýūkai “fairly early” Er, ankstókai (ankstokái K, Ds) “the same” Alk, Kp, ankstuckutėlėliai “very early” Svn, ankstūčiai “the same” Rš, ankstutėlti “the same” BŽ 479; aplinkõ “around,” aplinkõs “the same” Kš, Ds, aplink̃ “the same” RŽ, aplinkai “the same” SD 98, P, aplinkiniai “around, throughout the surrounding area” Jnšk, aplinkiniais “the same” J, aplinkiniu “the same” Jb, Ž, aplinkój “around” Pls, aplinkóm Kp, Jnšk (aplinkóm Dglš, Prng) “the same,” aplinkomis “the same” SD 201, aplinkų “the same” J, aplinkui “the same” DŽ, aplinkun “the same” N, aplinkuo ž. (= aplinkui); atgalió “in the opposite direction, backward,” atgaliós “the same,” atgál K, DŽ, Pn, Rm, Kp, Jž, Lp, Pc (atgal DŽ) “the same,” atgali “the same” Mrn, atgaliai “the same” Gr, SP II 70, D, Arm, “backwards” VoL 205, atgalíau “back” J, D, atgalíausia “the same” Lz, atgalioms “the same” d., atgalión “the same” Aru 17, Nč, atgaliona “the same” KlyD 264, atgaliónai “the same” J, atgalióp “the same” rš; čionájos “here, in this place, in this thing” J, čionáitės “the same,” čionuitės “the same,” čioñ Gs (čioñ K) “the same,” čiondi Pc, Gs (čionai K, čionai Š, čionai Rž) “the same,” čionáis VD 358 (čionais Ds) “the same,” čionajū “the same” Lp, čiontais “the same” Klp, čionui “the same” Gs, čionuis “the same” Šil, cf. also čianaikos “the same” Grv, čianáitės “the same” Rdm, čianájos “the same” Er, Jnšk, čiais “the same” Pun, čianai Er, Pn, Jnšk, Kp (čianai Kp) “the same,” čianáis “the same” Er, čianajà “the same” Mrc, čianájonais “the same” Jnšk, čianajū “the same” Lp, čianájuos “the same” Tvr, čianájus “the same” Lzd, čianui “the same” Rdm, čianújaka “the same” Rod; darõ “at present, at this time, for the time being, now,” dabartėlio “the same,” dabarčios “the same,” dabarõs “the same,” dabartėlios “the same,” dabartėlės “the same,” dabartės “the same,” dabartėlės “the same,” dartės “the same,” dabà “the same” Pg, Rm, BM 239, dabar̃ “the same” DŽ, dabarai “the same” Srv, dabarčiu “the same” Mit III 458, dabarčiui “the same” Nz, D, V, Š, dabarčiuo ž. “the same,” dabarčiuos “the same” Zr, dabarškčiai “the same” brš, *dabarnai “the same” N, dabarštel “the same” Jnš, K, dabartėl Lnkv, Grž, dabartėlei “the same” Užp, dabartėlenai “the same” Ds, dabartėli “the same” KlG 135, dabartinau “the same” BsP II 181, dar Kps, Dsm, Vlk, Lp, Vrn (dár Arm, Krok, Onš) “the same,” dartėliais “the same” Rdm; kitadõs “once, at one time,” kitadà “the same” DŽ, niekadõs “never,” niekadà “the same” DŽ, niekad “the same” ib, nuolatõs “continuously, all the time,” nuolatai “the same” DŽ, nuólat “the same” ib, vėliós “again, anew,” vėliakos “the same,” vėlei (vėlai) “the same” K, vėliais “the same” K, vėl “the same” DŽ, vė “the same” Šlap, visadõs “all the time, always,” visadà “the same” K, visadai “the same” ib, visad “the same” DŽ.

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These examples show that adverbs with the formatives -(

what are, in all, some thirty words (taken individually) in this group, with variants here and now bearing various stress positions and intonations, with various suffixes and formatives, if all these variants merely repeat the here and now meanings?

This extraordinary diversity of forms is, undoubtedly, a product of past eras, arising under conditions of linguistic differentiation and rooted deep in individual dialects.

The presence alongside anksti, ankstučiai, ankstutėliai of adverbs such as ankstiškos, ankstainais, ankstainintais, ankstėinai, anksteiniais, ankstėinyčiais, ankstėlniais, ankštėrnais, ankštienais, ankštickutėliai, ankštuckutėliai and others can be considered in exactly the same way: they merely repeat one another’s meanings (differing only in form and suffixes). This variation in forms and suffixes likewise originates nowhere else but in the dialects.

The use in literary works of such forms known only in individual dialects is justified only when it is stylistically motivated.

As already noted, amid the variety of adverbs with the same root and their formatives, it is easy to discern a common national foundation—the most widely known and used adverbs and their most characteristic formatives. For example, of nearly three dozen adverbial derivatives from the root ankst-, scattered among individual dialects, anksti stands out as the most widespread, familiar, and commonly used in both colloquial speech and literary language. The adverbs aplinko, aplinkos, aplinkėm, aplinkėj, aplinkun and others, which arose in individual dialects through local tendencies in word formation, are likewise nothing more than dialectal parallels. Of all the forms with that root and meaning, only aplinkui and aplink are most widespread throughout the Lithuanian-speaking area.

In exactly the same way, among the numerous parallel forms, such forms also emerge as part of the common national language: atgāl, čia, dabar, vėl and others.

It should be noted that even adverbs with the same root expressing completely identical circumstances are not necessarily widespread in the common national language in just one form: we often encounter universally widespread parallel forms, and sometimes it is easier, while at other times it is simply impossible, to say which of these parallel forms should be regarded as primary in terms of usage. Here are a few examples of such parallels: aplinkui and aplink, apsukui and apsukai, čia, čion and čionai, kitadā and kitados, niekadā, niekados and niekad, nuolātos, nuolatai and nuōlat, visadā, visados and visad, and so on.

The existence of parallel forms of this kind in no way conflicts with the norm of the literary language: they are necessary here. If such forms have survived in the common national language, their use is therefore justified. And indeed, they lend the language a certain variety and melodic colour, which poets in particular often make use of. Such parallel forms are undoubtedly an asset of the common national language.

Of the formatives -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės, in cases where they are not clearly perceived as originating from the genitive ending, where they have developed from the endings of other cases, or where they are products of analogy, in the common national language

3. Lietuvių kalbos morfologinė sandara ir jos raida

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Only -os is more frequent. But this formant is also found here in adverbs that can no longer be associated with nouns today—the so-called archaic and pronominal adverbs. In all other cases, these formants occur in individual dialects, where they are likewise neither especially numerous nor widespread compared with other formants. Even in dialects, they are displaced by the formants -(i)ai, -(i)ui, and especially by former instrumental endings, etc.

The same tendencies (only more strongly) are also evident in the literary language. Here, first of all, a clear difference is noticeable between the language of works of fiction, on the one hand, and that of scholarly and journalistic literature, as well as periodicals and literary colloquial speech, on the other.

First, it should be said that the use of these adverbs in the literary language has undergone extensive selection: only a relatively limited number of adverbs have the formants -(i)o, -(i)os, and -ės. Of all these formants, -(i)os is more common in the literary language, while -(i)o and -ės are much rarer, occurring only in isolated cases.

With the -(i)os formant, only such adverbs as niekados (His father, Raulas, had never known him at all and had never seen him. BlnR 3), visados (And he begged him that the fiddler should always remain in the Kistynas valley and that he should always, every night, play just for her alone, and that no one should ever again listen to him playing. VnlU 13), kitados (Yes, there once stood a real castle here. SimnA 7), nuolatos (New defects and patched-up spots kept appearing. MPutA II 7), and atgalios (— And we’re going back! Across the stream, — Džiūras replied cheerfully and, as if parting the water in front of himself with his palms, made a swimming motion. GGuzBr I 314) are most commonly used.

In very rare cases, adverbs with this formant such as taipos (As the spring sun drives the deepest snows from our fields, so in battles the red regiments of the Soviets, put to the test, will soon drive the wicked enemy back across our fields. LGR 279), vėliakos (The count gives her (Agastelė) two, and the steward three rods. CvR III 11), kanakadós “once, formerly” TPrg I 2, 198, and šitaipos (That’s how one must deceive a spy! MntvR 210) are used.

The formant -(i)o lags far behind the formant -(i)os in the variety of its individual forms and, especially, in their frequency of use. Only a few adverbs are used with the formant -(i)o, including atgalio, taipo and one or two others. For example:

He goes home through the snow. Back to Adutiškis. GGuzB I 270. And if that is so, then it is absolutely necessary to become acquainted with the darker sides of society’s life. BlnR 265.

Also included here is kaipo, used only as a comparative particle. In modern literary language, however, even this particle has almost entirely fallen out of use, giving way to the word kaip; today the adverb taipo retains the formant -o only when used with the particle -gi (taipogi “likewise”).

Some of the aforementioned adverbs with the formant -(i)o (e.g., kaipo and especially taipo) are archaic. Peter made excellent use of the archaic character of the word taipo.

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In his novel “Frank Kruk,” Cvirka puts a stretch of slang into the mouth of a beggar reading the Gospel: “...look at the fig tree and all the trees, when they are already budding you know that summer is near, so too when you see these things happening... CvR VII 207.”

In the language of works of fiction, adverbs with the formant -ės occur, such as dabartėlės, dartės ‘now’, kadai kãdės ‘when’, paskuitės, tuojauïtės. For example:

And Besąsparis, having sent a new ball of smoke from his mouth, again:— So that wound will come in handy for you now. GGuzBr I 167. Thus, for a brief moment, I gazed at him, until Our old homeland came to mind, Honored once by his song, now by mine. LGR 268. Night is coming; it will be sometime or other, but here we must hurry. ŽR I 195. At last, having put it on his shoulders, he slowly walked toward the church. The door opened, and immediately a priest, as big as a bull, stepped out. MntyR 234. MntyR 224.

The “stems” of the two latter adverbs (paskuitės, tuojauïtės) are to be distinguished as paskuit-, tuojaut-, where -t- has most likely arisen by analogy with words such as dart-ės, dabar-t-ės. In both words paskuitės, tuojauïtės, the ending -tės is nothing other than a certain extension arising under the influence of analogy, occurring more often in adverbs, where the word ending itself plays a different role than the endings of inflected words. This is already confirmed by the circumstance that changes and truncations both at the very end of the word and before the suffix, as well as the lengthening of the word itself by various formants or entirely non-etymological elements, are most often completely unrelated to changes in the meaning of the adverb itself, or are sometimes related only to minor nuances of an emotional character.

Thus, we see that, compared with the diversity of adverbs with the formants discussed here that can be observed in dialects, their use in the language of works of fiction is very limited. They enter the literary language, undoubtedly, from dialects and appear only in marked speech (usually that of characters).

If we consider the language of scholarly and journalistic literature, as well as spoken literary language, we will find almost none of these formant adverbs, apart from one or another, especially pronominal or archaic forms, such as kitadõs||kitadà; niekadõs||niekadà, niẽkad; visadõs||visadà, visad; nuolatõs||nuõlat; taipogi||taip pat, etc.

These facts show that the present-day literary form of the Lithuanian national language, which developed on the basis of the southwestern Aukštaitian dialect and thus has roots reaching into the depths of the people’s living spoken language, in its further development and enrichment by no means draws everything not only from the vocabulary of other dialects but also from its own direct source, the southwestern Aukštaitian dialect. The many parallel adverbial forms still found in various dialects today do not all enter the literary language: only those are selected which are best known to the entire Lithuanian-speaking community, are the most common, and are therefore the most expressive.

3*

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This selection has been taking place since the very beginnings of the Lithuanian literary language—from the appearance of the first written works. Moreover, selection in the language’s lexicon between, on the one hand, what is common to the whole nation, has the greatest tendency to spread and establish itself, and is most expressive, universally intelligible, and basic, and, on the other, what does not take root and is familiar only within a narrow circle, has naturally occurred in every period of the language’s development. This kind of selection process continues in our own day. Under the influence of the literary language, the process of dialect leveling is proceeding more rapidly today than ever before. As dialects become subordinate to a unified national language, they will eventually disappear completely. In the unified national language, they will leave only what can enrich it; everything else in them will lose its significance and disappear.

Thus, of the many adverbial formants and individual adverbs that have arisen in dialects, only those can enter and take root in the literary language which enrich it and make it more flexible and expressive. Even the language of works of fiction, whose functions sometimes expand considerably and which, in portraying various aspects of life, does not avoid dialectisms, archaisms, professionalisms, or various neologisms, draws from dialects only what, when depicting a particular literary scene or expressing an idea, can best serve the writer’s intention and can most readily be understood and accepted by the reader.

It is therefore not surprising that, for example, of the nearly three dozen morphological variants of the word dabar, known mainly in dialects and only in part in older written sources, authors of fiction use only one or another—those also more widely known in dialects and somewhat associated (even if only slightly) with emotional and semantic nuances. All the other variants, although they demonstrate an exceptionally wide range of word-formation possibilities in the language, would not enrich the language of a literary work; on the contrary, they would overload it with parallel forms that add nothing new and would run counter to the norm of the literary language.

The morphological norms for adverbs in the Lithuanian literary language, which have developed over many centuries, are today generally so firmly established that any writer can readily sense a deviation from them. This sense of the norm is usually what determines the choice of one or another adverbial formant, or of a particular adverb, from among the many parallel forms still found in the people’s spoken language.

Summarizing everything said in our examination of the adverbialization of the singular genitive into adverbs with the formants -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės, we arrive at the following conclusions:

1. Although there are considerably more cases of the adverbialized or adverbializing singular genitive in present-day Lithuanian than of the nominative, the singular genitive too is one of those cases that show no strong tendency toward adverbialization. The relatively weak tendency of the singular genitive to become adverbial is explained not only by its strong objective meaning and its reluctance to function adverbially, but also by the fact that the circum-

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To express locative relations, prepositional and genitive constructions are more widely used in the language.

2. The most important and essential condition for the adverbialization of the singular genitive, as of other cases, is its adverbial function. This case more often becomes adverbial only when it functions as an adverbial of manner. This is already evident from the results of adverbialization themselves: there are more genitive adverbs of manner in the language than adverbs of time or place; moreover, adverbs of manner of this type stand out from the others through their greater degree of adverbiality.

3. Genitive adverbs occur much more frequently in dialects than in the literary language. They are somewhat more numerous among nouns and adjectives. Other parts of speech participate very little in the formation of these adverbs. For example, in the history of the Lithuanian language, among all pronominal genitives only kõ, tõ have become adverbs (the latter only in cases when it is used with the preposition dėl or with other particles that have merged with the genitive itself into a single word). Among stems, (i)a and (i)o are more frequent; other stems are very rare or do not occur at all.

4. Analytic genitive adverbs—that is, adverbs derived from preposition-and-genitive constructions—are much more productive than synthetic ones (simple, prefixed, two-stem, and compound forms). The prepositions in these constructions are iš, ant, be, ik(i), lig(i), nuo, po, prie, už. The fossilization and adverbialization of prepositional constructions is brought about not only by their intensive use as adverbials, but also by the lexical meaning of their head constituent—the genitive: prepositional constructions used adverbially become adverbs more readily when the head constituent has a more general or abstract meaning, or when the construction acquires a figurative, idiomatic meaning. A preposition-and-genitive construction used intensively in an adverbial sense undergoes semantic change: it becomes lexicalized, acquiring, in the process of adverbialization, what is effectively the meaning of a single word. As long as such a construction has not yet become fully adverbialized, a modifier may be used with its head constituent (the genitive form).

5. Among all constructions of this type that have become adverbs or are undergoing adverbialization, preposition iš plus a genitive stands out in its abundance; such constructions most often express time, place or space, or manner. Purpose and cause meanings do not occur here. The head constituents of adverbs formed in this way are most often genitives of nouns and substantivized adjectives (both simple and pronominal). The substantivization of the adjectival constituents of these constructions probably takes place alongside their adverbialization. It is noteworthy that constructions with an adjectival constituent display more pronounced adverbiality than those with a nominal constituent.

6. Some preposition iš plus genitive constructions stand out from the others through the abundance of variants with the same root and the same or a similar meaning (for example, in dialects more than 20 variants are used alongside the adverb iš mažėñs). This circumstance is explained not only by dialectal fragmentation, but often also by considerations of linguistic style and rhythm.

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7. Alongside complete, adverbialized prepositional constructions, there are also constructions whose head constituent has been reduced. The latter are the most fully adverbialized, since here not only has the case meaning of the head constituent faded, but its formal marker—the ending—has also been lost. When the ending is lost, the preposition usually merges with the head constituent into a single word. It should be noted that the loss of the head constituent’s ending immediately turns a formerly non-adverbial construction into an adverb as well (cf. nuopavāsar< ‘since spring’, <nuotolaik ‘since that time’, etc.).

8. Adverbs with the formatives -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės should be distinguished from genitive adverbs. These formatives may derive not only from singular genitive endings, but also from the endings of other cases (singular locative and plural instrumental); in many cases, they are probably analogical formations. While some adverbs with these formatives can readily be associated with nouns, adjectives, and other inflected words, others can no longer be associated with any inflected part of speech (cf. darō ‘now’, anaurėlės ‘then, at that time’).

9. Alongside adverbs with the formatives -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės, dialects use very many adverbs of different formation but with the same root and the same or a very similar meaning. This diversity of same-root adverbs demonstrates the flexibility and richness of the word-formation system of this part of speech. When variants of same-root adverbs merely repeat one another, preference in usage should be given to those most widespread in both speech and writing.

10. The use of adverbs with the formatives -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės differs between the literary language, on the one hand, and colloquial folk speech, on the other: there are far fewer such adverbs in the literary language; moreover, same-root variants alongside them are very scarce.

ABBREVIATIONS

Al — Alytus

Alk — Alksnėnai, Vilkaviškis district

Als — Alsėdžiai, Plungė district

Alv — Álovė, Daugai district

An — Anykščiai.

Ar — Ariògala.

Arm — Armoniškės (Byelorussian SSR).

Aru — Lithuanian dialect texts from the Vilnius region. With grammatical notes by P. Arumaa. Dorpat, 1930. (The numbers indicate pages.)

Asv — Asavà (Byelorussian SSR).

Bd — Būdvietis, Lazdijai district

Bg — Kazimieras Būga (1879—1924), his writings and notes from unknown sources.

Bien — Bieniūnai, Dūkštai district

BlnR — J. Biliūnas, Raštai, Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1947. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

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BlṫsR — J. Bal tušis, Rinktinė, Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1952. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

BM — Lithuanian Dialects, collected by A. Baranowski. Volume I: Texts from the Weber estate, edited by Dr. Franz Specht... Leipzig, 1920. (The numbers indicate pages.)

BP — Postilla, that is, a Brief and Plain Explanation of the Gospels... By Jana Bretkuna... Karaliaučius... 1591, Parts I and II. (The numbers indicate parts and pages.)

Brs — Barstyčiai, Skuodas District.

brš — a word or sentence from lesser-known ecclesiastical writings.

Brš — Birštonas, Prienai District.

Brt — Bartininkai, Vilkaviškis District.

Brž — Biržai.

Bsg — Baisógala, Šeduva District.

BsP — Various Lithuanian Tales. Collected by Dr. J. Basanavičius. Chicago, 1903—1905. I, II, III and IV. (The numbers indicate parts and pages.)

Btr — Butrimonys, Eišiškės District.

BŽ — J. Baronas, Russian-Lithuanian Dictionary. Second, newly revised and accentuated edition, Kaunas, 1932. (The numbers indicate pages.)

CvR — Petras Cvirka, Works, Vols. I—XI, State Publishing House of Fiction, 1949—1953. (The numbers indicate volumes and pages.)

d. — a word or sentence from a song.

D — Simanas Daukantas (1793—1864), a word or sentence from the language of his writings. D followed by a number — Dajnes Žiamajtių... Petropilie 1846 (The number indicates the song number.)

Dbk — Debeikiai, Anykščiai District.

Dg — Daugai.

Dgl — Daugailiai, Utena District.

Dglš — Daugėliškis, Ignalina District.

Dkš — Daukšiai, Simnas District.

Dn — Kristijonas Donelaitis (1714—1780), a word or sentence from the language of his writings.

DP — Daukšos Postilė. Fotografuotinis leidimas, Kaunas, 1926. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

Dr — Darbėnai, Kretinga District.

Ds — Dusetos.

Dsm — Dusmenys, Daugai District.

DvD — Dainos, Jurgio Dovydaičio surinktos... Kaunas, 1931. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

dz. — Dzūkian (dialect).

DŽ — Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian, State Publishing House for Political and Scientific Literature, Vilnius, 1954.

End — Endriejavas, Rietavas District.

Ėr — Eiškai, Ramygala District.

Erž — Eržvilkas, Skaudvilė District.

Gl — Gelgaudiškis, Sakiai District.

Glv — Gelvonai, Širvintos District.

Gmž — Silvestras Gimžauskas (1841—1897), a word or sentence from the language of his writings or manuscripts.

Gr — Gaurė, Tauragė District.

Grg — Gargždai, Klaipėda District.

Gršl — Grūšlaukis, Salantai District.

Grv — Gervėčiai (Byelorussian SSR).

Grz — Gruzdžiai, Šiauliai District.

Grž — Grūžiai, Joniškėlis District.

Gs — Geistarai (Didvyžiai), Vilkaviškis District.

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GGuzBr — A. Gudaitis-Guzevičius, Broliai, Books I—III, State Publishing House for Fiction, 1948—1953. (The numbers indicate the books and pages.)

GGuzKlt — A. Gudaitis-Guzevičius, Kalvio Ignoto teisybė, Books I—II, State Publishing House for Fiction, 1948—1949. (The numbers indicate the books and pages. The same abbreviation, with only a page reference, also denotes the second edition of this work, published by the same publishing house in 1952.)

hibr. — hybrid

I — Laurynas Ivinskis (1811—1881), a word or sentence from the language of his writings.

Ig — Igliáuka, Kapsukas District.

Yl — Ylakiai, Seda District.

J — Литовскій словарь А. Юшкевича съ толкованіемъ словъ на русскомъ и польскомъ языкахъ. Томъ 1—1897, II — 1904, III — 1922. Петроградъ. (A — kukštūties. The same abbreviation also marks words from the unpublished part of the dictionary.)

Jb — Jonas Jablonskis (1860—1930), his writings and slips for which the source is unknown.

JD — Lithuanian songs recorded by Antanas Juškevičė. 3 volumes. Kazan, 1880, 1881, 1882. (The numbers indicate the song number.)

Jnš — Joniškis.

Jnšk — Joniškėlis.

Jrb — Jūrbarkas.

Jrk — Litauische Märchen und Erzählungen... von C. Jurkschat... Tilsit, 1898. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius; kiti jo raštai žymimi tuo pačiu ženklu, tik nenurodant puslapiai.)

Jž — Jūžintai, Dusetos district.

K — Littauisch-deutsches Wörterbuch von Friedrich Kurschat, Halle a. S., 1883. (Žymimas tik K). Deutsch-littauisches Wörterbuch von Friderich Kurschat. 2 Teile. Haalle a. S., 1870—1874: I, II. (Skaičiai rodo dalis ir puslapius.)

KB — Beiträge zur Kunde der littauischen Sprache, von Friederich Kurschat... Erstes Heft. Deutsch-littauische Phraseologie der Präpositionen. Königsberg, 1843. — Zweites Heft. Laut- und Tonlehre der littauischen Sprache. Königsberg, 1849. (Skaičiai rodo sąsiuvinius ir puslapius.)

Kbr — Kybārtai.

Kdn — Kėdainiai.

Kl — Kuliai, Plungė district.

KlG — Grammatica Litvanica... primum in lucem edita à M. Daniele Klein Pastore Tils. Litv... Anno... 1653. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

Klov — Klovainai, Pakruojis district.

Klp — Klaipėda.

Kls — Kalesninkai, Eišiškės district.

Klt — Kaltanėnai, Švenčionėliai district.

KlvD — Prūsijos Lietuvių dainos. Surinko... Vilus Kalvaitis. Tilžėje 1905. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

Klvr — Kalvarija.

Klvrž — Žemaičių Kalvarija, Seda district.

Knv — Kaniava, Varėna district.

Kp — Kūpiškis.

Kps — Kapsukas (formerly Marijampolė).

Krok — Krókialaukis, Simnas district.

Krtn — Kretinga.

Krtv — Kūr­tuvėnai, Šiauliai district.

Kš — Kaišiadorys.

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Kt — Keturvalakiai, Vilkaviškis district.

Ktk — Kuktiškės, Utena district.

Ktv — Kietaviškės, Vievis district.

Ie. — Polish (language).

Lel — Leliūnai, Utena district.

Lg — Lygumai, Pakruojis district.

LGR — Liudas Gira, Rinktinė, Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1951. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius. Tuo pačiu ženklu su tomo ir puslapio nuoroda žymimi ir Liudo Giros Raštai, I, II t., išleisti tos pačios dykla, 1952. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

Lkm — Linkmenys, Švenčionėliai district.

Lkv — Laukuva, Rietavas district.

Ll — Lioliai, Kelmė district.

Likž — manuscripts of the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian, prepared by the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian SSR and published in 1954 by the State Publishing House for Political and Scientific Literature.

Lnkv — Linkuva.

Lp — Leipalingis, Veisiejai District.

Lš — Liškiava, Veisiejai District.

LT — The Lithuanian Nation. Publications of the Lithuanian Scientific Society, vols. I—V, Vilnius, 1907—1936. (The numbers indicate volumes and pages.)

LTR — The Lithuanian Folklore Manuscript Repository (manuscript folklore collections of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature).

Lz — Laz(d)ūnai (Byelorussian SSR).

Lzd — Lazdijai.

LzP — Lazdynų Pelėda, a word or sentence from her writings.

Lž — Laižuva, Mažeikiai District.

Mit — Mitteilungen der litauischen litterarischen Gesellschaft. Bd. I—V. Heidelberg, 1880—1911. (The numbers indicate volumes and pages.)

Ml — Mielagėnai, Ignalina District.

Mlt — Molėtai.

MntvR — Vytautas Montvila, Rinktinė, Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1950. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

Mrc — Marcinkonys, Varėna District.

Mrk — Merkinė, Varėna District.

Mrn — J. Mačiulis-Maironis (1862—1932), a word or sentence from his written language.

Mrs — Miroslavas, Alytus District.

Mž — Mažvydas, The Oldest Monuments of the Lithuanian Language up to 1570... Kaunas, 1922. (The numbers indicate pages.)

Mžk — Mažeikiai.

N — Wörterbuch der littauischen Sprache von G.H.F. Nesselmann. Königsberg. 1851. N su dainos numeriu — Litauische Volkslieder gesammelt, kritisch bearbeitet und metrisch übersetzt von G.H.F. Nesselmann, Berlin, 1853.

Nč — Nočia (Byelorussian SSR).

Ndž — Dictionary of the Lithuanian Written Language. Lithuanian-German section. Compiled by M. Niedermann... Heidelberg, 1932.

Nmk — Nemaikščiai, Skaudvilė District.

Nmn — Nemunaitis, Alytus District.

NžR — unknown manuscript.

Ob — Obeliai.

OG — Jan Otrebski, Wschodniolitewskie narzecze twereckie. Część I, Gramatyka, Kraków, 1934. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

On — Onuškis, Rokiškis District.

Onš — Onušiškės (Onuškis), Daugai District.

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OsG — New Lithuanian Grammar brought to light by Gottfried Ostermeyer... Königsberg, 1791.

P — Ambroziejus Pabrėža (1771—1849), a word or sentence from the language of his writings.

Paj — Pajūstrys, Panevėžys District.

Pc — Pociūnėliai, Šeduva District.

Pg — Pagiriai, Ramygala District.

Pgr — Pagramantis, Tauragė District.

Pl — Palėvenė, Kupiškis District.

Plk — Plokščiai, Šakiai District.

Pln — Plungė.

Pls — Pelėsą (Belorussian SSR).

Plt — Plateliai, Salantai District.

Plv — Pilviškiai, Vilkaviškis District.

Pn — Panevėžys.

Pnd — Pandėlys.

Pnm — Panemunėlis, Rokiškis District.

Prk — Priekulė.

Prl — Perloja, Varėna District.

Prng — Paringys, Ignalina District.

prš — a word or sentence from lesser-known Prussian (Tilsit and Klaipėda region) writings, where the source is not indicated, or from newspapers.

Ps — a fairy tale.

Ps — the Book of Psalms (in the Bible).

Pun — Punia, Jieznas District.

R — Littauische-Deutsches und Deutsch-Littauisches Lexicon... von Philipp Ruhig... Königsberg... 1747. R-Littauisch-Deutsches Lexicon. R su puslapio nurodymu — Deutsches-Littauisches Lexicon.

RD — Songs of Liudas Rėza. 3rd edition of the first Lithuanian songbook, Parts I and II... Kaunas, 1935. (The numbers indicate song numbers.)

Rdm — Rudamina, Lazdijai District.

Rgv — Raguva, Troškūnai District.

Rm — Ramygala.

Rod — Ródunė (Byelorussian SSR).

Rs — Raseiniai.

rš — a word or sentence from the language of more recent writings, newspapers, or journals, where the source is not specified in detail.

Rš — Rimšė, Dūkštas District.

Rž — Dictionary of Lithuanian Spelling, State Publishing House for Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, and Scholarly Literature, Kaunas, 1948. (Page numbers are given only when the quotation is not from the alphabetical section of the dictionary.)

sc — scilicet, means.

SD — Dictionarium trium linguarum... Avctore... Constantino Szyrwid... Quinta editio... Vilnae MDCCXIII. (The numbers indicate pages.)

Sdb — Sidabravas, Seduva district.

Sdk — Sudeikiai, Utena district.

Sdr — Sudárgas, Šakiai district.

Sim — Simučio collection of proverbs (from everywhere). He himself is said to have originated from Kartena. (P. Sragys’s source.)

SimnA — Ieva Simonait y tė, The Fate of the Aukštujai Simonai, State Fiction Publishing House, 1948. (The numbers indicate pages.)

Skd — Skuodas.

Skdt — Skudutiškis, Molėtai district.

Skp — Skapiškis, Pandėlys district.

Skr — Skirsnemunė, Jurbarkas district.

Skrd — Skriaudžiai, Kazlų Rūda district.

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sl. — Slavic (languages).

Sl — Salos, Rokiškis District.

Sld — Saldutiškis, Švenčionėliai District.

Slk — Salakas, Dūkštas District.

Slm — Salāmiestis, Vabalninkas District.

Slnt — Salantai.

Smn — Simnas.

Sn — Seinai (in Poland).

Snt — Sintautai, Kudirkos Naumiestis District.

srš — old writings (words taken from old writings where no source is specified).

Srv — Surviliškis, Dotnuva District.

Ssk — Siesikai, Ukmergė District.

Str — A. Strazdas (1763—1833), a word or sentence from the language of his writings.

StrR — Antanas Strazdas, Raštai, Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1952. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

Sv — Svėdasai, Anykščiai District.

Svn — Suvainiškis, Pandėlys District.

Š — Lietuvių ir rusų kalbų žodynas. Sudarė D-ras J. Šlapelis. Vilnius, 1921. (Tuo pačiu ženklu žymimi žodžiai, paimti iš kitų J. Šlapelio žodynų ar iš jo lapelių, kur nenurodytas šaltinis.)

Šauk — Šaukėnai, Užventis District.

Šd — Šeduva.

Šil — Šilavótas, Prienai district.

Škn — Šakýna, Žagarė district.

Šl — Šiauliai.

Šlap — Šlapabėržė, Dotnuva district.

Šlv — Šiluva, Tytuvėnai district.

Šš — Šašuoliai (Šešuoliai), Ukmergė district.

Šts — Šatės, Skuodas district.

Šv — Švėkšna, Priekulė district.

TDr — Tautosakos Darbai (Folklore Studies), vols. I—VI, a publication of the Lithuanian Folklore Archives. 1935—1939. (The numbers indicate volumes and pages.)

Tl — Telšiai.

t. p. — the same, the same meaning.

TPrg — J. Tumas-Vaižgantas, Pragiedruliai.

Trgn — Taurāgnai, Utena district.

Trk — Tirkšliai, Mažeikiai district.

tsp — Soviet press, where no source is indicated.

TTSon — Teofilis Tilvytis, Sonnets about Happiness, State Fiction Publishing House, 1951. (The numbers indicate pages.)

Tvr — Tverečius, Ignalina district.

TŽ — Nation and Word. Publication of the Faculty of Humanities, vols. I—VII. (The numbers indicate volumes and pages.)

Up — Upyna, Skaudvilė district.

Upn — Upninkai, Jonava district.

Ut — Utena

Užp — Užpaliai, Dusetos district.

Užv — Užventis.

V — M. Valančius (1801—1875), a word or sentence from the language of his writings.

Vad — Vadokliai, Ramygala district.

Vb — Vabalninkas.

VD — A. Vireliūnas, Kupiškėnai Songs (see Nation and Word, vols. III and IV. The numbers indicate song numbers.)

Vdk — Viduklė, Raseiniai district.

Vj — Vajašiškis, Zarasai district.

Vķš — Viekšniai, Akmenė district.

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Vlk — Valkininkai, Eišiškės district.

VnclR — A. Venclova, Rinktinė, Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1950. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

VnlP — A. Vienuolis, Puodžiūnkiemis, Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1952. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

VnlU — A. Vienuolis, Užžėlusiu taku, Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1946. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

VoL — E. Volteris, Lietuviška chrestomatija, St. Peterburgas, 1904. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

VP — M. Valančius, Patarles Žemaičių, Tilžėje 1867. (Skaičiai rodo puslapius.)

Vrb — Virbalis, Kybartai district.

Vrn — Varėna.

Vs — Veisiejai.

Vvr — Veiviržėnai, Priekulė district.

Vžns — Vyžuonos, Utena district.

Zt — Zietela (Byelorussian SSR).

ž. — Samogitian (dialect).

Ž — Žemaitė-J. Žymantienė (1845—1921), a word or sentence from the language of her writings.

Žg — Žagarė.

Žln — Žilinai, Daugai district.

Žr — Zarėnai, Telšiai district.

ŽR — Žemaitė, Raštai, I—IV t., Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1948. (Skaičiai rodo tomus ir puslapius.)

Žž — Žiežmariai, Kaišiadorys district.

ADVERBIALIZATION OF THE SINGULAR GENITIVE AND ADVERBS WITH THE FORMANTS -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės IN CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIAN

К. УЛЬВИДАС

Abstract

1. Although in contemporary Lithuanian cases of an adverbialized or adverbializing singular genitive occur considerably more often than cases of an adverbialized or adverbializing singular nominative, the singular genitive is nevertheless among the cases that are not especially prone to adverbialization. The comparatively limited propensity of the singular genitive to undergo adverbialization is explained by its strongly expressed object meaning and by the fact that it is not characteristic of it to function as an adverbial. To express adverbial relations in contemporary Lithuanian, singular genitive constructions with prepositions are more commonly used.

2. The most important and indispensable condition for the adverbialization of the singular genitive, as of other cases, is its adverbial function. The singular genitive is more often adverbialized in the function of an adverbial of manner, as confirmed by the results of adverbialization themselves: among adverbs correlated with the singular genitive, manner meaning occurs more often than temporal or spatial meaning. Moreover, adverbs of this type expressing manner are distinguished from others by a greater degree of adverbiality.

3. Adverbs derived from the singular genitive are used more often in dialects than in the literary language. In most cases, they correlate with nouns and adjectives. The other parts of speech participate very little

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in the formation of these adverbs. For example, in the history of the Lithuanian language, of all singular genitive forms of pronouns, only the forms kŏ ‘what’, tŏ ‘that’ underwent adverbialization (the latter only in cases when it was used with the preposition dėl ‘for’ or with other words that merged with the singular genitive form into a single word). Forms with stems in (i)a- and (i)o- are the most common; other stems are very rare or entirely absent.

4. Synthetic adverbs (simple, prefixed, composed of two roots or stems, as well as those formed from fixed phrases) correlated with the singular genitive are less productive than analytic adverbs derived from the singular instrumental with the prepositions iš ‘from’, ant ‘on’, bè ‘without’, ik(i) ‘until’, lig(i) ‘until’, nuo ‘from’, pō ‘after’, prie ‘at’, už ‘behind’. Adverbialization of prepositional constructions is brought about not only by their intensive use in an adverbial function, but also by the lexical meaning of their main component—the singular genitive: among prepositional constructions used adverbially, those whose main component has a more general, abstract meaning, or which acquire the figurative meaning of an idiomatic phrase, are more readily adverbialized. A genitive construction with a preposition, when intensively used in an adverbial function, undergoes semantic change: it becomes lexicalized, acquiring the meaning of a single word in the process of adverbialization. Until such a construction has become adverbialized, its main component (the singular genitive) may be accompanied by a modifier.

5. Among all adverbialized or adverbializing singular genitive constructions with prepositions, constructions with the preposition iš ‘from’ stand out for their abundance; they most often express time, place or space, as well as manner. Meanings of purpose and cause do not occur here. Nouns and substantivized adjectives (both simple and pronominal) most often serve as the main components of adverbs derived from singular genitive constructions with prepositions; the substantivization of adjectival components apparently takes place simultaneously with their adverbialization. Interestingly, the adverbs whose main component is an adjective, rather than a noun, display more pronounced adverbiality.

6. Some adverbs derived from singular genitive constructions with the preposition iš have numerous variants with the same root and identical or similar meanings (for example, alongside the adverb iš mažens ‘from early childhood’, more than 20 variants are used in dialects). This is explained not only by dialectal fragmentation, but often also by stylistic or rhyming and melodic considerations.

7. In addition to complete adverbialized prepositional constructions, constructions whose main component has been reduced are also used. These latter constructions are distinguished by the most pronounced adverbiality, since here not only has the case meaning of the main component ‘faded’, but its formal marker—the ending—has also disappeared. At the same time as the ending is lost, the preposition usually merges with the main component into a single word. It should be noted that the loss of the main component’s ending immediately turns even a formerly non-adverbialized singular genitive construction with a preposition into an adverb (cf.: pavąsarį < nuo pavasario ‘from spring’, nuotolaik < nuo to laiko ‘from that time’, etc.).

8. Adverbs with the formants -(i)o, -(i)os, -ės should be distinguished from adverbs correlated with the genitive. These formants may derive not only from singular genitive endings, but also from the endings of other singular and plural cases (singular inessive, plural instrumental). Moreover, in many cases, adverbs with these formants should probably be regarded as the result of word formation by analogy with existing forms in the language. While some adverbs with these formants correlate with nouns, adjectives, and other inflected words, others

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are already generally difficult to associate with any inflected part of speech (cf.: darō “now,” anaurēlios “then, at that time”).

9. Alongside adverbs with the formants -(i)o, -(i)os, -ēs, dialects also use many variants with the same roots, identical or similar in meaning to the former. The diversity of adverbs with the same roots attests to the flexibility and richness of their word-formation system. In cases where these variants are completely identical in meaning, literary usage favors those that are most widespread and familiar in the language of the general population.

10. The use of adverbs with the formants -(i)o, -(i)os, -ēs differs between the literary language, on the one hand, and colloquial folk speech, on the other: these adverbs are rare in the literary language; moreover, variants with the same roots are few in number there.