ŽODŽIŲ FORMOS IR JŲ VARTOSENA LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

N. SLIŽIENĖ

MEANING AND USE OF COMPOUND PASSIVE VERB FORMS

The conjugated forms of the passive voice of Lithuanian verbs are exclusively compound forms, consisting of a present or past passive participle of a verb with an independent lexical meaning and conjugated forms of the auxiliary verb būti, for example: esu baramas, būtų baramas, buvo išbartas. In their tense and mood meanings, they correspond to certain conjugated active-voice forms, for example: yra gerbiamas — gerbia, buvo gerbiamas — gerbė, būdavo gerbiamas — gerbdavo, bus gerbiamas — gerbs, būtų gerbiamas — būtų gerbtu, būk gerbiamas — gerbk, tebūnie gerbiamas — tegerbie; yra pagerbtas — yra pagerbęs; buvo pagerbtas — buvo pagerbęs, pagerbė; būdavo pagerbtas — būdavo pagerbęs, pagerbdavo; bus pagerbtas — bus pagerbęs, pagerbs; būtų pagerbtas — būtų pagerbęs, pagerbtų; būk pagerbtas — būk pagerbęs, pagerbk; tebūnie pagerbtas — tebūnie pagerbęs, tegu pagerbia. There is only a difference of voice between the two sets of forms. Active-voice forms indicate that the person or thing expressed by the subject of the sentence itself performs the action they denote, whereas passive-voice forms denote an action performed by another agent and directed at the thing or person expressed by the subject of the sentence (hereafter, such an action will be called passive). In addition, by describing a thing as undergoing an action by another, passive forms also express a certain state of that thing.

As can be seen from the examples above, in their tense meanings, passive forms with a present participle correspond to simple verb forms, while forms with a past participle correspond to both simple and compound perfect active-voice forms. Passive forms with the meaning of compound perfect forms have already been discussed¹; therefore, this article will deal only with those passive forms which, in their tense and mood meanings, correspond to simple active-voice forms².

Passive Forms with a Present Participle

§ 1. Compound passive forms with a present participle denote a passive action simultaneous with the moment of speaking, preceding it, or following it. Alongside the meaning of action, the meaning of state is generally quite clear.

¹ See N. Sližienė, “Meaning and Use of Compound Perfect Verb Tenses,” in: Studies in Lithuanian Grammar (hereafter — LKGT), Vilnius, 1969, pp. 17—40.

² Since compound passive forms with a past participle correspond, both in their structure and in their tense and mood meanings, to compound perfect active-voice forms, they are usually also called perfect forms. However, in cases where they correspond in the aforementioned meanings to simple active-voice forms, they could be called perfect only conditionally.

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Indicative mood:

Present tense: Take for yourself without hesitation the portion that is being kept for you. DaukRR 305. They (the young birds) immediately hide in their mother’s feathers and are fed by their father. IvanLP II 25. Mysterious legends are attached everywhere to the caves. LKŽ II 232.

Past simple tense: On April 8, the courtship of goldeneyes was observed. IvanLP II 97. More than one gray-haired villager told of the gallows hill, whose name was associated with a nobleman’s campaigns. CvR VIII 129. Several workers who had returned from prison were also taken back to work, and the pay supplement was duly paid to everyone for several months. VienR V 410.

Past frequentative tense: The Glass Man was often mentioned here, too. BalčHP₁ 253. The lair used to be disturbed only in spring, when, as the weather grew warm, the Hare would move into the barn, onto the hay. CvR III 66.

Future tense: He knows that they (the horses) will soon be mobilized, and the Kings of Šalteikiai will travel only with geldings unfit for war… SimonVK II 28. What kind of paradise is this, if some are to have things taken away from them and others given them! VienR V 201. Some percentages will also be allotted to old age there, on account of the softening of the brain. ČiulRR III 50.

Indirect mood: But here almost everyone scolds and glares, saying that money is supposedly being wasted for nothing. ŽemR I 49. And threshing had supposedly been done with a steam engine. SimonVK II 205. Sometimes he would begin to tell what kinds of work he had supposedly been made to do. ŽemR II 374. And they supposedly would not have thought that a road would be built alongside the homestead… SimonVK I 46.

Indirect-mood forms occur that are made with neuter passive participles of the auxiliary verb. They denote actions inferred from certain circumstances or merely conjectured.

In place of “runs hurriedly,” “runs at a gallop,” people used to say also: I rush along at a hurried pace. BūgKS 92.

Conditional-mood forms whose auxiliary verb has a simple form denote hypothetical present or future actions; as with simple active conditional forms, their temporal meaning is undifferentiated and becomes clear only in a broader context.

There would be many more ducks in our region if they were given protection. IvanLP II 73. Let us not judge, lest we ourselves be judged. SimonVK II 327.

Conditional-mood forms whose auxiliary verb has a compound form denote a hypothetical past action directed at the thing or person expressed by the sentence subject, and in their temporal and modal meanings correspond to compound perfect active conditional forms, which likewise denote a hypothetical past action; cf.: I would have been scolded — I would have scolded.

If he had been treated better, he would not have run away from there to look for bread. JabIRR I 319. When Queen Gretė opened the kitchen door, the hubbub suddenly ceased, and an awkward silence fell, so that Gretė wanted to return to her room, as though she had been scolded. Oh, she knew they had been talking about her there, that they had most likely been laughing at her. SimonVK II 218–219.

Because of the specific meaning of the passive voice, imperative and optative forms are very rare: a command or wish is usually directed at the thing or person expressed by the sentence subject, whereas in this case the performance of the action

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does not depend on it. Therefore, the passive forms of these moods, if they occur at all, denote a state of the thing more than an action directed at that thing (except for impersonal forms).

Be loved by all, but do not seek that love. JablRR I 314. Thus let it be said. SchG 303. Since you have already sullied your conscience, you hypocrite, at least do not let the name of the Šimoniai be dragged through the prisons. SimonR I 154.

In meaning, present-tense compound passive forms—especially those in the third person—are often expressed by present-tense passive participles alone³. From the perspective of contemporary language, they could also be regarded as compound forms with a zero present-tense form of the auxiliary verb.

Late-sown summer crops are deliberately still kept in the soil; but, poor things, they will barely ripen in the less scorching sun. VaižgDD 59. The oxen understood all too well that those terrible shouts and cracks were not addressed to them. VaižgDD 70. The gentlemen of my family, they too are received with honor. SimonVK II 20. It seems to me that I am being called... SruogR III 408.

Since present-tense compound forms are used relatively infrequently, present-tense passive participles alone will also be given in some places to illustrate their meanings.

§ 2. Passive forms with a present-tense participle, like simple active-voice forms, can have either a specific or a generalized meaning. In the first case, they denote specific passive actions that are ongoing at the moment of speaking, took place in the past, or will take place in the future.

When he asked who had authorized them to deprive an innocent person of his freedom, they replied that it was being done in the name of the police and his master, Kalum-Bek. BalčHP₁ 310. Dangutė is being forced to marry at once a prince of the Mozirs whom she does not love. MairRR II 176. The Kaziuliai gave their only daughter in marriage to their own hired farmhand, who was also being mobilized. VienR I 285. The execution squad had almost finished its work: the last Dutchmen were being shot in the square by the town hall, men whom the valiant fighters had hastily caught—some still in bed, others already on their way to the shops and offices. VenclR III 246. So he thought he would come at least as far as Šmitas’s today, where a magic-lantern show would be held. SimonVK II 300. She too would almost like her departure from this house to be accompanied by a prayer. SimonVK I 243.

When expressing a specific passive action, passive forms are used almost exclusively with imperfective verbs. Only when present-tense forms vividly recount past events (the meaning of praesens historicum) are forms of perfective verbs also used.

It was already late—or, more accurately, early morning—when he set off home from Pagiriai. Then: patter, patter! Three or four men emerged from beneath the little bridge. Vilius was already thrown to the ground and soundly beaten with whips. Then his arms were stretched out and tied tightly to the ends of a white plank, one on each side. “Now run, boy!” advised the painted-up farmhands. SimonVK I 152—153.

In other cases, passive forms of perfective verbs are used only here and there with the meaning of a specific action and are fairly close to perfective verb forms with a past-tense participle (cf. § 6).

Afterward, a guest room was being furnished with two beds, a marble washbasin, and a mirrored wardrobe. SimonVK II 168.

³ For more on this, see N. Slįžienė, Lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos sudurtinių veiksmažodžio formų struktūrą, in: Lietuvių kalbos gramatinė sandara (hereafter — LKGS), Vilnius, 1967, pp. 78—79.

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§ 3. With a concrete passive-action meaning, passive forms with the present-tense participle are generally used only sparingly. Most often they have a generalized meaning: they denote ongoing or, under certain circumstances, regularly occurring passive actions in the present, past, or future.

There is no pulley: however hard one tries, water is drawn laboriously. ŽemR I 56. They (spoonbills) occur everywhere in our area, but nowhere are they found in abundance. IvanLP II 85. As the saying goes—“dog bites dog, dog bites dog, the dog’s tail wags”—so it is here, too. ŽemR II 457. All those crops are reaped, threshed, and poured into the granaries, so that the grain returns from the stalk to the seed in 10, or sometimes 8, weeks, depending on the weather, and yields a hundredfold harvest for the farmer. DaukRR 213. And all the sons, too, were kept under close watch so that they would not get into trouble or look at some pretty face. SimonVK II 173. That stretch of the day was long to wait through for both the old and the young, and nothing was left for the two of them. VaižgDD 107. He (her brother) was given back to her again and again. SimonVK I 201. When autumn came, the season of hopes, the harvest was gathered down to the last grain. CvR VIII 111. Ah, when will that day dawn when those who still want war will be hanged? SimonVK II 262. The rank-and-file were informed that their parcels would not be accepted until at least three days later. VenclR III 248. My dear, neither Viliumas nor I want it to be said of us as it is of your feasts in Pamarys at weddings. SimonVK II 15.

Passive forms of both durative and eventive verbs are used with a generalized meaning, but the former are considerably more common.

§ 4. Present-tense passive forms with a generalized meaning often describe customary present actions as necessary or possible. In the first case, they denote passive actions that are invariably performed under certain circumstances and must be performed.

They found you a place, but you have to pay him a ruble… he’ll take you there right away… in town you pay for every step… ŽemR II 219. A Gudinian fence is not woven, but built in the Gudinian manner—woven from the very ground up. Vrn (LKŽ III 694). Iron is hammered while it is red-hot… SimonVK II 276. Word parts are carried over by syllable: the whole syllable of a word is carried to the next line, along with the word’s following syllables. JablRR I 398. To keep the rye from getting wet in the rain, a hood is put on (a cap). Vdš (LKŽ VI 561). Why are you sprinkling it here like snuff from your nose—scatter it as it is supposed to be scattered! Skd (LKŽ I 692). A cartwheel is made from a thick plank. Klov (LKŽ V 480).

In the second case, customary passive actions in the present are described as possible and therefore as invariably performed under certain circumstances.

Usually, only a building (house), a ship, and a town (castle) are built. BūgKS 109. If all the illnesses are just nerves, and that can be determined so quickly, what need is there for all kinds of doctors? SimonVK II 181. A membrane in the shape of a small bag is easily made from collodion. MatKCh 48. There was no need to hand out the tow; you can see for yourself how it is obtained. CvR VIII 32.

§ 5. Sometimes, passive forms with the present-tense participle denote an action that has already been completed rather than one in progress. In these cases they are used similarly to compound perfect forms with a relative-resultative meaning⁴.

It is divided (cf. has been divided) into two parts. One part of the painting depicts a bright blue sky with a sun shining golden… In the remaining part is depict-

⁴ See N. Sližienė, The Meaning and Use of Compound Perfect Verb Tenses, LKGT, pp. 17–40.

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that gray, the lightning flashing across the sky. SimonVK I 175—176. According to the agreement with Graužinis, land was allotted to Ignotas (cf. was allotted) only as a marshy patch. Gud-GuzKIT 279. Each of those Tyzenhauzes had brought from Livonia a family chronicle written by their ancestor Hans Henrik Tyzenhauz and a parchment containing a copy of the Riga archbishop’s epistle, by which the Tyzenhauz fief was converted into perpetual property. (cf. had been converted) Gud-GuzKIT 338. Everything that had accumulated in her through those acts of grace, she (Severija) now brought to the one to whom it had been allotted by providence to see (cf. had been allotted). VaizgDD 56. East and West, the deep North and South will be joined (cf. will have been joined) through orderly work. SNėrP₁ 156.

In these cases, the speaker regards the result of the action as a continuation or part of the action being described; for this reason, forms with a present-tense participle are used⁵.

Passive forms with a past-tense participle

§ 6. Passive forms with a past-tense participle denote a passive action that occurred in the past or will occur in the future. They are not used to describe present actions.

Indicative mood:

Simple past tense: Soon all the gold was poured into as many small sacks as there were monks. VienR I 30. Through sobs, the life of the little man was recounted from the very cradle. CvR VIII 179. Adam’s long beard was first cut short with clippers, and then, when Aleksandras took a razor in his hands, it all fell away like a snowdrift blown off by the wind. VencIR III 93. The little falcon colonies perished, and their nest was torn apart, scattered, blown by the wind in every direction… KrėvP 206. One Wednesday, right in the midst of the election campaign, a meeting was convened in Elizaitis’s hall. SimonVK I 81.

Passive forms of the simple past with a past-tense participle, like the simple active forms of the simple past, can in a particular context denote a past action whose consequences are relevant to the present. This meaning is close to that of the present perfect. The difference between them is the same, only more pronounced, as the difference between the meanings of active present compound perfect forms and simple past forms: compared with present perfect forms, passive forms of the simple past have a considerably stronger meaning of past action and a considerably weaker meaning of present state⁶.

Our mighty ruler offers to return the man to you peacefully, along with all those who were taken with her (cf. have been taken), if you promise to withdraw from the castle and leave our land in peace. KrėvP 165. — “The steeds are already saddled, my lord,” replied old Vaišnora. “But you won’t find him on foot in the forest, nor catch him on horseback: there is little hope that the gods will get what had been promised to them.” “The gods must get what has been promised to them!” he said in a stern voice

⁵ Cf. the use of simple present forms to describe an action that has already been completed, e.g.: You’re completely crazy already: you don’t have a crumb of bread at home, and now you’re bringing back a carved piece of wood (BsRP 28) (a wife scolds her husband, who has returned from the market having bought a doctor’s sign instead of bread); see Z. Dumašiūtė, “The Use of the Expanded Present Tense in Contemporary Standard Lithuanian,” Lietuvos TSR mokslų akademijos darbai, series A 1(8), Vilnius, 1960, pp. 178—179.

⁶ Cf. N. Sližienė, “The Meaning and Use of Compound Perfect Verb Tenses,” LKGT pp. 23—26.

6. 520

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the grey-haired high priest of the mighty gods. KrėvP 187. As had already been said so often, and called out so often to the master; through the forester I myself had also told Baltaragis several times. But since you do not listen, the master ordered the livestock to be raked together. ŽemR II 69. Having received the answer that these were letters, that words were made up of those letters, and that in this way whoever took the letter would learn what it had been intended to tell him, the child began to look at the letters scattered on the paper with even greater curiosity and attentiveness. PtR I 238. Petras bows, as had been shown, and leaves. BinkRn 293.

To express a singular past action, alongside compound passive forms of the past simple tense, individual past passive participles are also used. This meaning becomes apparent in a particular context.

At last a compromise was reached. The negotiations ended, as is well known, with a “goose.” SimonVK I 269. The midday meal was laid out in the town, in several places—in the almshouse, in the rectory’s servants’ quarters, and elsewhere. Several hundred people were fed, the beggars from the whole district were given alms, and they were laden with leftovers, so that they could scarcely carry them away. VaižgRR I 375. In the spring of 1955, 36 (swans) flew through, while in autumn only 4 were seen. IvanLPII 34. Abroad, this method began to be applied only during the Second World War, whereas in the Soviet Union it had been used even before the war. BaršF 161.

Past passive participles are not often used with this meaning. They occur somewhat more often in the language of scholarly literature and journalism⁷.

Past frequentative tense: “We have no more kvass, so at least have a sip of this little drink—ah, but to revive the heart.” And the guest would be bowed to. VaižgRR I 183. He cut the clothes, made the first seam for them, and the needle then worked on by itself without stopping until the garment had been sewn. BalčHP₁ 119–120.

Future tense: Perhaps the one who does not kill me will be killed by my hand... SimonVK II 318. Oh, you may die; you will be dressed. Mlt (LKŽ I 40). I hope we will be welcomed splendidly. SNėrP₁ 442. Go home; this is not your business, and if you meddle where you should not, you will be fined ten gold coins for every word. BalčHP₁ 311. — “Everything will be done,” Mare retorted, and wanted to leave. ŽemR II 302.

⁷The meaning of a past action is also characteristic of past passive participles in some Slavic languages, although chiefly only in the neuter forms. Today they are used with this meaning only in Polish and Ukrainian and in some Russian dialects; earlier, however, especially in the 18th century, they were widespread in the Russian literary language and are also found in old Belarusian texts. In Slavic languages, as in Lithuanian, they are also used alongside compound forms made from past passive participles and past-tense forms of the auxiliary verb ‘to be’; see Б. А. Матвеенко, Временное значение главного члена страдательно-безличного оборота (на материале украинского и белорусского языков), кн.: Историческая грамматика и лексикология русского языка, Москва, 1962; П. С. Кузнецов, К вопросу о сказуемостном употреблении страдательных причастий в русском литературном языке XVIII и начала XIX века, кн.: Труды Института русского языка АН СССР, т. II, Москва, 1950; П. С. Кузнецов, К вопросу о сказуемостном употреблении причастий и деепричастий в русских говорах, кн.: Материалы и исследования по русской диалектологии, т. III, Москва—Ленинград, 1949. P. Kuznecovas explains this use of past participles in the Russian literary language of the 18th and early 19th centuries as an influence of Polish and Latin, while also noting that it had some support in the living vernacular.

In old Lithuanian texts, present passive participial forms are sometimes used with the meaning of a past action under the influence of Latin (e.g.: O teip’ W. Iėsus, kad’ iiėmus tatái passākė, imtas yra (cf. assumtus est Mr 16, 19; wžiėty jest WjP 379) ing’ dagu. DP 225). Individual past passive participles also occur alongside these, e.g.: Bei kad’ ne maž patārpt ne norėjo, numirė wel’ ir didžiuris, ir palaidotas pekloi. DP 271; it seems inappropriate to explain the use of the latter by the influence of foreign languages, since, as we have already noted, they are still used today.

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Indirect mood: Everyone calls Selim the most fearsome and cruelest cutthroat, yet you dare say that you killed his son and were not immediately cut to pieces. BalčHP₁ 295. And even that enemy would be shown what a German is and that, as they say, one does not joke with him. SimonVK II 43. One of the guards entered the tent to say that they would be attacked at once. BalčHP₁ 59.

The subjunctive mood forms with the past participle denote a hypothetical passive action pertaining to the past or the future. In the former case, they indicate a possible or desired passive action that existed in the past but did not take place, and in tense meaning correspond to the compound perfect forms of the active subjunctive, which denote a hypothetical past action; cf.: I would have been pursued — I would have pursued.

If only I had run back first! Perhaps help would still have been given! ŽemR I 333. If only there had been someone among the great ones, the child would have been helped... ŽemR I 371.

Passive forms with compound forms of the auxiliary verb have a particularly clear meaning of past action.

I would have enjoyed that fodder much more if the one who fed on it had not been slaughtered. DaukRR 327. For a while even Pyvydas had been kicking himself for taking him on as a permanent worker rather than assigning him jobs: how much money could have been earned here VaizgRR I 284.

In the latter case, passive subjunctive forms with a past participle denote possible or desired passive actions that could take place in the future; in tense meaning, they correspond to simple active subjunctive forms used in a particular context, cf.: would be pursued — pursue. Only active forms can denote not only hypothetical future actions but also hypothetical present actions, whereas passive forms with a past participle are not used at all to denote present actions, whether real or hypothetical.

If you found the same little herb with which the fairy transformed you, you would be freed. BalčHP₁ 163—164. Moreover, the scholar himself showed him around the library, pointed out all the cabinets, and gave him many useful tips on how to work so that the goal might be reached sooner. VienR I 300. He was deeply concerned that everything be done well and on time. VaizgDD 97. The working people of our district will make every effort to ensure that the tasks set by the 22nd Congress of the CPSU are successfully carried out. T 1963, 10.

When used with the particle kad ‘that’ or the particle combination kad man, passive subjunctive forms express a command, an order, or a requirement to perform the action described.

See to it that it is done by evening! BilR I 106. Cursed be the one who, having found that treasure, does not return it to my son. BalčHP₁ 95. Let the word be kept! SruogR III 516. Have it fixed properly for me at once! LzPR I 381.

Imperative mood passive forms with a past participle express a desired passive action wished upon someone and are close in meaning to optative forms.

Hail, Vilnius! Hail, our ancient city! GirR II 13. Be cursed, murderers, in the early dawn! Be cursed with a curse, you who cross our threshold! Be cursed by mothers for innocent blood! May plague, cursed ones, tear you from the earth! SNėrP₁ 422.

Optative mood: “Young man,” he said, “my lord the caliph can make you anything he wishes, even my successor, whereas I can do very little, and

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whatever I can do, let it be done better today than tomorrow. BalčHP₁ 309. To knock? No. Let her be astonished, stunned. He will judge without warning. VencIR III 255.

The passive forms of the imperative and desiderative moods are used very little.

§ 7. To express the meaning of a passive action in the past or future, almost exclusively passive forms of telic verbs with a past participle are used. Forms of atelic verbs occur rarely in these cases, and their meaning is close to that of compound passive forms with a present participle.

At first it was thought that an inexhaustible source of energy had been discovered here. BaršF 164. [Einiukas] grew up just as Grėtė herself had apparently been brought up at home. SimonVK II 351. Just as had been intended—the tailor (=seamster) became a steward. BinkRn 171. The works of the sculptor J. Mikėnas, which were exhibited last year in Moscow and at the world exhibition in Venice, are widely known and appreciated. T 1963, 10.

Cf.: Long ago, even before the war, it was thought that a new dwelling should be built, but there was never any money. SimonVK II 171.

§ 8. Passive forms of telic verbs with a past participle express only a specific passive action. Forms of atelic verbs can also have a generalized meaning, but they are used very little. Thus, speaking generally, passive forms with a past participle are used to express specific actions in the past or future.

Since passive forms with a past participle are characteristic chiefly of telic verbs and express a specific action, they cannot be used to describe present actions: the latter are most often expressed in a generalized way by forms of telic verbs.

The relationship between the meanings of passive forms with present and past participles

§ 9. Compound passive forms with a present participle and with a past participle are very closely related in meaning and form a coherent conjugational system of the passive voice. To express a specific passive action, forms of atelic verbs with a present participle and forms of telic verbs with a past participle are used. The former express an action continuing at a particular moment, while the latter express an action that has occurred or is occurring at a particular moment. In a generalized sense, forms of both atelic and telic verbs with a present participle are used, whereas forms with a past participle are hardly ever used in this sense.

This distribution of passive forms was determined by the meanings of the participles that make them up. Present passive participles are formed chiefly from atelic verbs and express passive action as a process. Present participles of telic verbs are generally used only to describe a repeated action, when the duration of the action cannot become prominent. Past passive participles are formed chiefly from telic verbs and express passive action as an accomplished fact. Thus, the meanings of present and past passive participles are also reflected in the meanings of the compound forms formed with these participles.

It can be said that passive forms with a present participle and a specific meaning include only atelic transitive verbs, whereas forms with a past—

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...of the participle of that tense—only transitive verbs of perfective aspect. Forms with a generalized meaning containing a present-tense participle encompass verbs of both imperfective and perfective aspect, whereas this meaning is not characteristic of forms with a past-tense participle. Thus, taken together, only passive forms with present- and past-tense participles encompass all transitive verbs and thereby constitute a single system of finite forms of the passive voice.

The relationship between the meaning of compound passive forms and the meaning of present- and past-tense passive participles

§ 10. Both compound passive forms with a present-tense participle and forms with a past-tense participle originated from compound predicate constructions containing present- or past-tense participles⁸. The participles denoted a property arising from the action designated by the verbal stem of the participle; thus, constructions with a present-tense participle denoted a property of an object arising from a passive action that takes place at the time indicated by the copula, whereas constructions with a past-tense participle denoted a property of an object arising from a passive action that had taken place earlier. Such compound predicate constructions still occur today, for example: His nose was curved like a hook; The writing was simply illegible. This tree will be suitable for sled runners.

The forms most remote from these constructions are passive forms with a past-tense participle. In them, the participle's tense meaning—that is, the relative meaning of an earlier action—no longer stands apart from the auxiliary verb (the participle has lost its tense meaning here). The tense meaning of compound forms is indicated only by the forms of the auxiliary verb, while the past passive participle denotes only the idea of an action and, moreover, determines the voice and aspect meaning of the compound form as a whole. Lacking its own tense meaning, the past-tense participle is very closely connected with the auxiliary verb; at the same time, it is isolated from attributive past passive participles and those denoting an accompanying action. The loss of the participle's tense meaning also led to the difference between the meaning of passive forms with a past-tense participle and that of atelic forms (i.e., the relative-resultative meaning); cf. The rogue… had been seized here by the lapels: he was wounded, could not control his arm—the wolf had fallen into a fine trap! (TilvU 162); here the compound form had been seized denotes a past action that lasted at the same time as the actions denoted by the simple forms could not control, had fallen, while the compound form was wounded denotes a resultant state that lasted at the same time in the past and had arisen from an earlier action.

§ 11. Passive forms with a present-tense participle are not as clearly set apart from compound predicate constructions as forms with a past-tense participle.

⁸A. Potebnia regarded Lithuanian compound passive forms, like the corresponding Russian forms, solely as constructions functioning as compound predicates. In his view, they expressed two events and two tenses (that is, both components had independent lexical and grammatical meanings) and therefore could not be regarded as a single grammatical form; see А. А. Потебня, Из записок по русской грамматике, т. I–II, Москва, 1958, p. 146–154. P. Kuznetsov, however, regards combinations of Russian passive participles and the verb быть, which are analogous to Lithuanian passive forms both in structure and meaning, as compound forms, although he says that he does not claim to offer a definitive resolution of this question; see П. С. Кузнецов, Из истории сказуемостного употребления страдательных причастий в русском языке, докт. диссертация (машинопись), Москва, 1947, p. VI–VIII. These combinations are also regarded as compound forms in the academic grammar of Russian; see Грамматика русского языка, т. I, Москва, 1960, p. 502–504.

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What primarily distinguishes these forms from compound predicate constructions is that, in their tense and mood meanings, they are equivalent to the simple active-voice verb forms and form active–passive voice correlations with them: I beat — I am beaten, I beat — I was beaten, and so on. In this way, they belong to the verbal conjugation system and are set apart from constructions functioning as compound predicates.

Although the qualitative meaning of the present-tense participles that form passive forms has been greatly weakened (otherwise these forms could not be equivalent in meaning to simple verb forms), it is still reflected to some extent in the meaning of compound passive forms: while denoting an action directed toward the object expressed by the verb in the sentence, they also indicate a certain state of that object. For example, I am being beaten means not only that someone is beating me, but also what my state is as a result of being beaten. The meaning of state still links these forms to constructions functioning as compound predicates and shows that they have not become entirely distinct from the latter.

Thus, although the meanings of the participles that make them up have changed to a greater or lesser degree⁹, compound passive forms with present- and past-tense participles have become isolated from analogous constructions functioning as compound predicates and now occupy a definite place in the system of verb conjugation.

Compound passive forms with present and past participles in 16th–17th-century writings

§ 12. Passive forms with present and past participles found in 16th–17th-century writings differ little in meaning and use from modern forms. Forms with a present participle usually have a generalized meaning (a), and less often denote a specific passive action continuing at a particular moment in the present, past, or future (b).

a) That hymn is sung as it is sung in Latin. Mž 318. The Son of David will have mercy on me: your daughter is being tormented by the devil. DP 113. Sometimes even a good person is tormented in this world. Every day we are led into sins and abominations; sometimes by the devil, sometimes by an evil person, sometimes by our own flesh. BrP II 53.

b) Until now he has still been rejoicing, while you are being led somewhere. DP 272. And he blessed them and called their name Man, at the time when they were being created BrB 1 Moz 5, 2.

To describe a generalized action, forms of both imperfective and perfective verbs are used, whereas for a specific action, almost exclusively imperfective forms are used. A few perfective verb forms denoting a specific action occur in the writings of J. Bretkūnas.

And all who had been killed that day, both men and women, numbered twelve thousand, all the people of Ai. BrB Joz 8, 25. If today, as we look

⁹Here, as in all other compound forms, the auxiliary verb has lost its lexical meaning and serves only to express grammatical categories; for more on this, see N. Slizienė, Lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos sudurtinių veiksmažodžio formų struktūra, LKGS, pp. 65–66.

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were to die and be buried. And after three days he would come to us... Then we would truly believe that the man had returned from the dead and was alive. BrP1124.

§ 13. Passive forms with a past participle generally denote specific passive actions in the past or future.

And as they watched, he was lifted up, and a cloud received him from their sight. DP 228. In this way the Midianites were subdued before the children of Israel, and they did not lift their heads again. BrB Teis 8, 28. Knock, and it will be opened to you. Mž 102. Everyone who hears these words of mine will be likened to a wise man who built his house on a rock. SP 50. Remember, lest you be killed. DP 199. Every valley shall be filled, every mountain and hill shall be brought low. DP 29. And what am I to do with Jesus, who is called Christ? They all said: Let him be crucified, crucify him, crucify him! DP 168.

As in the modern literary language, so too in 16th–17th-century writings, forms with a past participle used to express past or future action are predominantly perfective verb forms. Nevertheless, there are somewhat more than today of the indeterminate verb forms with a past participle that denote continuing action and appear to have imperfective meaning.

Petnich was driven through the streets and homes, with great lamentation and wailing. SP 363. They betrayed God’s righteousness, so that without respite they would be beaten with iron chains for ages by the devil’s strongest and fiercest rod. SP 161. A woman who has married a man must not show herself to others, lest they take her and love her; rather, she must take care to marry a lawful husband and be loved by him. SP 223. So that, because of us and our affairs, which are truly against our faith, the Word of the Lord may no longer be blasphemed by Jews, pagans, Turks, and apostates. DP 168. This place was called Gilgal until this day. BrB Joz 5, 9.

As can be seen, the passive forms with a past participle used in these sentences are very close in meaning to forms with a present participle. In these cases, today we would use only the latter. Sometimes, even in old writings, forms with a past participle occur alongside forms with a present participle.

Know this: your seed will be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and there they will be enslaved and oppressed for four hundred years. BrB 1 Moz 15, 13.

Thus, the use of compound passive forms with present and past participles in 16th–17th-century writings was somewhat less established than in the modern literary language.

Conclusions

1. The tense and mood meanings of the simple finite forms of active-voice verbs correspond to those of the compound finite forms of the passive voice with present and past participles. Forms with a present participle, characteristic of imperfective and perfective verbs, correspond to the active forms of imperfective verbs with a specific meaning and to the active forms of imperfective and perfective verbs with a generalized meaning; forms with a past participle, characteristic mainly of perfective verbs, correspond to the active forms of perfective verbs with a specific meaning. There are relatively few deviations

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from this pattern, with somewhat more occurring only in the written language of the 16th–17th centuries. Thus, only taken together do passive forms with present and past participles encompass all transitive verbs and form correlations with the simple finite forms of the active voice.

2. Compound passive forms with present and past participles differ in how far they have moved from the constructions in which they functioned as compound predicates and from which they once developed. In compound forms, past passive participles have lost their tense meaning and become isolated from past participles used in all other cases; as a result, together with the verb to be they form a very close unit. The present passive participles that make up compound forms have not undergone such a major shift in meaning: only their adjectival features have weakened and their verbal features become more prominent, but this was enough for a phrase consisting of such a participle and the auxiliary verb to be to become grammatically equivalent to simple finite forms of the active voice. These forms are linked to compound-predicate constructions by the state meaning still perceptible alongside their action meaning, which shows that they are not sharply set apart.

3. The use of compound passive forms in 16th–17th-century writings is essentially the same as in the modern literary language, except that alongside forms with a present participle, forms with a past participle of imperfective verbs, which have a similar meaning, are used somewhat more often than they are today.

Received 1971. X. 5

Н. СЛИЖЕНЕ

MEANINGS AND USE OF COMPOUND PASSIVE TENSE FORMS

Abstract

The article discusses the meanings and use of compound passive tense forms with present and past participles, which in their tense meanings correspond to the simple tense forms of the active voice.

Compound passive forms with a present participle denote an action directed at the entity expressed by the subject, occurring simultaneously with the moment of speech, preceding it, or following it. They differ from the corresponding simple tense forms of the active voice only in their passive meaning; cf.: esu baramas — baru, buvau baramas — bariau, etc. Forms of imperfective verbs have both specific and generalized meanings, whereas forms of perfective verbs usually have only a generalized meaning, e.g.: Sužiėdovuvės buvo švenčiamos linksmai, bet Grėtei džiaugsmo nebuvo. — The engagement was celebrated cheerfully (lit.: was being celebrated), but Grėtė had no joy (I. Simonaitytė). Svirties nėra: kaip norint vargingai yra semiamas vanduo. — There is no well sweep: somehow, with difficulty, water is drawn (lit.: is being drawn) (Žemaitė). Kai ateidavo ruduo, vilčių metas, derlius būdavo nuimamas iki grūdelio. —

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When autumn came, the season of hopes, the harvest was gathered (literally: was being gathered) down to the last grain (P. Cvirka).

Compound passive forms with the past participle denote a specific passive action that took place in the past or is anticipated in the future, and form active–passive voice correlations with the corresponding simple tense forms: buvau pavytas – pavijau, būdavau pavytas – pavydavau, būsiu pavytas – pavysiu, etc.¹⁰ For example: Pro kukčiojimus buvo papasakotas mažojo žmogaus gyvenimas nuo pat lopšio. Through sobs, the life of a little man had been told from the very cradle (P. Cvirka). Taigi žiūrėk, neužmiršk, girtas pas mergas ne jok, nes būsi išjuoktas ir pažemintas. — So watch out, don’t forget: don’t go to the girls drunk, or you’ll be ridiculed and humiliated (Vaižgantas). The meaning of passive action is characteristic almost exclusively of perfective verbs. Compound forms of imperfective verbs with this meaning are rare.

Since compound passive forms with the past participle are characteristic almost exclusively of perfective verbs and have only a specific meaning, they are not used to denote actions taking place in the present, which are usually expressed generically by forms of perfective verbs.

Compound passive forms with present and past participles constitute a single system of passive-voice conjugation, since only when taken together do they fully correspond in meaning to the simple tense forms of the active voice and cover all transitive verbs. Forms with the present participle, characteristic of both perfective and imperfective verbs, correspond to simple tense forms of the active voice denoting a specific action in progress or having a generic meaning, while forms with the past participle, characteristic of perfective verbs, correspond to active-voice forms denoting a specific completed action or an action that will be completed in the future.

The use of compound passive forms in Lithuanian texts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is essentially the same as in the modern language; only passive forms with the past participle of imperfective verbs occur more frequently.

Received

5 October 1971

¹⁰ This is their second meaning. Their first, relative-resultative meaning is discussed in another article; see N. Slizienė, Sudurtinių atliktinių veiksmažodžio laikų reikšmės ir vartojimas, in Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos tyrinėjimai, Vilnius, 1969, pp. 17–40.