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VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA
Institute of the Lithuanian Language
Research interests: morphosyntax, semantics, typology, grammatical hierarchies, secondary predicates.
CINQUE’S ADVERB HIERARCHY AND LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE DATA
Cinque’s Hierarchy of Adverbs and the Findings of the Lithuanian Language
ABSTRACT
The subject of this article is Cinque’s adverb hierarchy (Eng. the universal hierarchy of clausal functional projections). On the basis of this hierarchy, the article describes the use of adverbs in Lithuanian sentences in relation to one another. It attempts to determine whether Lithuanian sentences exhibit a particular hierarchy of adverb use, and whether Lithuanian data can confirm the universality of Cinque’s hierarchy. The article relies primarily on examples from the corpus of contemporary Lithuanian compiled by the Vytautas Magnus University Centre of Computational Linguistics in Kaunas, and examples found using the internet search engine Google.
KEYWORDS: Cinque’s hierarchy, sentence adverbs, order of adverb use.
ANNOTATION
The article centres on the so called universal hierarchy of clausal functional projections developed by Cinque. Based on this hierarchy, the article describes the relative order of sentential adverbs in the Lithuanian language. It attempts to determine whether sentential adverbs constitute a certain hierarchy of usage in Lithuanian and whether the findings of the Lithuanian language may confirm the universality of Cinque’s hierarchy. The article mostly refers to the examples from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language of the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas as well as the examples found through the web search engine Google.
KEY WORDS: Cinque’s hierarchy, sentential adverbs, order of adverbs.
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1. Foreign linguists still disagree about whether adverbs are adjuncts in sentence structure (e.g., adjuncts, for example, Ernst 2001) or specifiers (e.g., specifiers, for example, Cinque 1999)1. According to the traditional view, adverbs are adjuncts, and therefore their position in the sentence is free, e.g.:
a) Carefully Ashley picked up the wounded bird. ‘Carefully, Ashley picked up the wounded bird’
b) Ashley carefully picked up the wounded bird. ‘Ashley carefully picked up the wounded bird’
c) Ashley picked up the wounded bird carefully. ‘Ashley picked up the wounded bird carefully’ (Zyman 2011–2012: 9)
Recently, however, following the finding that some adverbs occur in sentences only in a certain fixed order, adverbs have begun to be treated as specifiers. Erikas Zymanas (2011–2012: 13) mentions four hypotheses for interpreting adverbs, three of which were proposed by Guglielmo Cinque (1999)2:
Name | Content Adjunction Hypothesis | Adverbs are adjuncts. Extend Projection Hypothesis | Adverbs are heads in the extended projection of V. An adverb takes a smaller portion of the extended projection of V as its complement. (Cinque 1994) Multiple Specs Hypothesis | AdvPs are generated in specifier positions. A head may have more than one specifier. (Cinque 1999:47) AdvP-in-Spec Hypothesis | Every AdvP sits in the unique specifier position of a functional head in the extended projection of V. (Cinque 1999:4)
Cinque found that clausal adverbs3, which express mood, modality, tense, aspect, and voice, occur in a certain order in the sentence4. First, he
1 Plačiau apie adjunctų sąvoką žr. Holvoet 2009: 76t, o apie specifikatorių sąvoką – Holvoet 2009: 86tt. Vertėtų nepamiršti, kad esama ir būtinųjų aplinkybių, o tai sukelia dar daugiau keblumų traktuojant prieveiksmius (žr. Holvoet, Čižik-Prokaševa 2005). Paprastai prieveiksmis apibrėžiamas ir pateikiami prieveiksmių semantiniai tipai.
2 Plačiau apie šias hipotezes ir jų trūkumus žr. Zyman 2011–2012: 8tt, 13tt.
3 In English, such adverbs are called clausal or sentential adverbs. For a brief discussion of the concept, see Holvoet 2003: 100, Holvoet, Judžentis 2003: 159. For example, Th. Ernst notes that “clausal predicational adverbs essentially divide into three types, according to scope. The first, ‘Discourse-Oriented’, is sometimes known as ‘Pragmatic’ or ‘Speech-Act’ adverbs. The second corresponds to the rest of the ‘Speaker-Oriented’ group [...] The third, for which I follow Jackendoff’s ‘Subject-Oriented’, is ‘Ad-VP’ [...]” (see Ernst 2000: 84 and the literature cited there). For a more detailed discussion of the classification of adverbs, see section 2 of this article.
4 This order corresponds to the order of functional heads (functional heads) (see Cinque 199: 90, 106).
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provided numerous examples of the ordering of two adverbs in a sentence from Italian, French, English, and Dutch. He then combined these orders into larger groups of ordering patterns in sentence use and presented evidence for the universality of such groups, based on examples from English, Norwegian, Bosnian/Serbo-Croatian, Hebrew, Chinese, Mandarin, Albanian, and Malagasy. In his view, adverb order is strictly defined in all languages: if at least two adverbs are used in one sentence, their order depends on the universal hierarchy of adverbs5, which is determined by the structure of the sentences themselves. The following, in the author’s words, non-exhaustive6 universal hierarchy of 30 groups of adverbs is presented (Cinque 1999: 106):
1 SCHEMA. Cinque’s (adverb) hierarchy
5 In English, Cinque names it the universal hierarchy of clausal functional projections. In this article it is called the adverb hierarchy, because “the hierarchies of adverbial specifiers and clausal functional heads match in a systematic one-to-one fashion” (Cinque 1999: 106).
6 Cinque did not include all sentence adverbs in the hierarchy, because some of them are quite “restricted,” and their ordering and position in the hierarchy are difficult to verify in other languages; he mentions beginning, ending, failure, postponement, limitation, continuative, pretext, consequence, and other actions; for further discussion, see Cinque 1999: 105ff.
7 See Appendix 1 for the Lithuanian equivalents of the adverbs.
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[Aspdurative briefly [Aspgeneric/progressive characteristically [Aspprospective almost [Aspsg.completive(I) completely [Asppl.complete tutto [Voice well [Aspcelerative(II) fast/early [Asprepetitive(II) again [Aspfrequentative(II) often [Aspsg.completive(II) completely]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
Cinque warns that languages may contain examples showing a reversed (not A B, but B A) ordering of adverbs in a sentence. He identifies six cases in which such examples may occur:
adverb B directly modifies adverb A (in such cases, no word can be inserted between them);
the part of the sentence containing adverb B is moved before adverb A because of information structure;
adverb B is used before adverb A as a result of the wh-movement rule;
adverb A and/or adverb B may be used in two different, semantically overlapping positions in the hierarchy;
adverb A is used in the rheme position;
adverb A is used as a parenthetical8.
Put simply, his account showed that some adverbs cannot be used before other adverbs because this is determined by their semantics9 (a similar
8 „B is directly modifying A. (If this is the case, then no material can be inserted between them.) A portion of the clause containing B has raised over A for reasons related to information structure. B has wh-moved over A. A and/or B can actually be generated in two different positions in the functional hierarchy, which are semantically distinct. A is being used as a “focusing” adverb, as in Katie often B talks to [probably Jake]. A is being used parenthetically“ (Cinkę 1999: 3t).
9 Cf.: Stephens Wilson and Ayse Pinar Sayin explain the ordering of adverbs in a sentence in terms of differences in semantic scope. In their view, two adverbs can occur in different orders in a sentence if they modify the verb at “different levels” (see Wilson, Sayin 2001: 4). Carol Tenny proposed the hypothesis that a sentence is divided into “semantic zones”; in her view, “adverbs are lexically
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mano ir Marinas Morzyckis bei kiti jo nurodyti autoriai (plačiau žr. Morzycki 2008: 104). Cinque’s hierarchija taikyta įvairioms kalboms, pavyzdžiui, bandyta taikyti turkų (žr. Wilson, Saygın 2002), švedų (žr. Beijer 2002), hindi (žr. Bhatt 2006), anglų (žr. Zyman 2011–2012) kalbų prieveiksmiams¹⁰.
This article will discuss the use of sentence adverbs in Lithuanian, comparing it with the universal adverb hierarchy proposed by Cinque. It will examine whether Lithuanian sentence adverbs form a certain hierarchy of use and determine whether Lithuanian data could confirm the universality of Cinque’s hierarchy. The article employs descriptive-analytical and contrastive methods. Generalization will be used to identify tendencies in the use of adverbs in Lithuanian. The research data are statistically summarized in tables.
The second section of this article presents descriptions of adverbs in Lithuanian grammars and descriptions provided in foreign-language scholarly literature; the third section briefly discusses the position of Lithuanian adverbs in the sentence; the fourth section reviews cases that have been excluded; the fifth section describes the use of sentence adverbs in Lithuanian, which is summarized in the final, sixth section.
The article draws primarily on examples from the corpus of contemporary Lithuanian texts maintained by the Centre of Computational Linguistics at Kaunas VDU (hereafter DLKT) and on examples found using the Google internet search engine (in this study, these are provided with links to the webpages¹¹); several examples are from the second volume of Lietuvių kalbos grammar (Ulvydas, ed., 1971), and several are from the Lietuvių kalbos žodyno (electronic edition, hereafter LKŽ). A total of 1,810 examples were collected.
2. Discussion of descriptions of adverbs in Lithuanian grammars. The first Lithuanian grammar, written by M. Danielius Kleinas in 1653, states that adverbs are invariable words and have many meanings. It distinguishes
specified for particular semantic zones, but within a zone, their relative positions are determined by their scopes” (Tenney 2000: 316ff.). Wenger (2009: 4ff.) also presents her hypothesis in a general form as follows:
Moodspeech act … Modepistemic: speaker deixis zone (point of view modality) → CP
Tpast … Tfuture: temporal deixis zone (i.e. relating to the speech time) → TP
Moodrealis … Modpossibility: truth-value modality zone reach → ModP
Aspphasal … Aspprospective: middle aspect zone → AspP (grammatical aspect)
Dar apie kitas hipotezes žr. Zyman 2011–2012: 23t.
10 For the shortcomings of Cinque’s hierarchy, see Bolajik 199; Wilson, Saygın 2001; Wenger 2009.
11 Some of the sentences provided have been transcribed using Lithuanian letters.
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17 semantic groups: 1) adverbs of place (of four types: at a place, from a place, through a place, to a place); 2) adverbs of time (also of four types: present time, past time, future time, and indefinite); 3) adverbs of quantity, including adverbs of counting, intensification, and weakening; 4) adverbs of quality and similarity; 5) adverbs of diminution and exclusion; 6) adverbs of separation; 7) concessive adverbs; 8) adverbs of intensification and negation; 9) demonstrative adverbs; 10) adverbs of desire; 11) exhortative adverbs; 12) interrogative adverbs; 13) adverbs of doubt; 14) adverbs of origin; 15) adverbs of order; 16) comparative adverbs; 17) adverbs of omission (see Kruopas, ed., 1957: 505–508). As can be seen, the classification has no single basis; the semantic and grammatical meanings of adverbs are conflated. Adverb formation is also discussed briefly; it is noted that adverbs are non-inflected and can be compared (see ibid.: 508).
The grammar by Kristupas Sapūnas and Teofilis Šulcas states that “an adverb is characterized by meaning and gradation; adverbial meanings are very numerous.” It lists 24 adverbial meanings: 1) place (at a place, to a place, near a place, from a place); 2) time; 3) acceleration; 4) order; 5) repetition; 6) question; 7) answer; 8) affirmation; 9) negation; 10) indication; 11) explanation; 12) desire; 13) similarity; 14) difference; 15) quantity; 16) quality; 17) intensification, increase; 18) weakening; 19) concentration; 20) separation and exclusion; 21) elevation; 22) doubt; 23) occurrence; 24) exhortation (see Stundžia, ed., 1997: 189–197). Here again, the semantic and grammatical meanings of adverbs are conflated.
Augustas Šleicheris savo gramatikoje Lituaische Grammatik (1856) trumpai aptaria prieveiksmių darbą, laipsniavimą ir kilmę (žr. Schleicher 1856: 218–221). Jo gramatikoje galima rasti prieveiksmio apibrėžimą: „Prieveiksmiai – nelinksniuojamosios ir neasmenuojamosios kalbos dalys – iš pradžių taip pat buvo fleksi nes formos [...]“¹² (Lemeškin, Zabarskaitė, sud., 2014: 103). Apie prieveiksmių semantines grupes ir prieveiksmių reikšmes neužsimenama.
Frydrichas Kuršaitis Lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje (1876) išskiria prieveiksmį kaip kalbos dalį, bet aptaria dalimis skirtinguose skyriuose. Jo gramatikoje aprašoma prieveiksmių daryba, rašyba, prieveiksmių vartojimo terminai skirtumai, jų kirčiavimas, tam tikri savitos reikšmės prieveiksmiai (žr. Kuršaitis 2013: 241t, 271t, 273t, 399t, 422). Apie prieveiksmių skirstymą pagal reikšmes irgi neužsimenama.
In 1901, Jonas Jablonskis in the Lithuanian Grammar gives the following definition of adverbs: “Words that do not inflect and denote an action or state’s
¹² “Adverbia – die nicht declinierbaren und nicht conjugierbaren bestandteile der sprache – sind ursprünglich ebenfalls flexionsformen [...]“ (Scheicher 1856: 90).
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quality or simply explain the predicate of a sentence, indicating how – when – where – why an action is performed, are called adverbs” (Palionis, ed., 1957: 138). The grammar briefly discusses adverb gradation and formation, and provides many examples of usage (see ibid.: 138ff.). Adverbs are not classified by meaning. Particles are also included among adverbs (see ibid.: 141ff.).
In 1922, J. Jablonskis, in The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language, gives a broader definition of the adverb and devotes more attention to it: “An adverb is an invariable (indeclinable and unconjugated) part of speech that functions as an adverbial in a sentence. Adverbs answer the questions: how? in what (by what) way? how much? how many together? when? where (in what)? where? from where? why? for what (for what purpose)? what for (where)? [...] An adverb expresses a feature of an action or quality. As can be seen, not all adverbs answering these questions belong to one and the same group” (Jablonskis 1997: 162). J. Jablonskis distinguishes the following types of adverbs: 1) adverbs functioning as manner adverbials in a sentence (including modal participles); 2) adverbs functioning as place adverbials in a sentence; 3) adverbs functioning as time adverbials in a sentence (noting that this group also includes participles); 4) adverbs functioning as reason adverbials in a sentence; 5) adverbs functioning as purpose and goal adverbials in a sentence (expressed by supines and infinitives). It is also noted that adjectival adverbs are gradable; pronominal adverbs are particularly noteworthy; particles are also classified as adverbs (see further ibid.: 162–169).
Jan Otrebski devotes more attention to adverbs in his 1956 grammar. He groups adverbs according to the part of speech from which they are derived. He distinguishes noun-derived adverbs, adjective-derived adverbs, pronoun-derived adverbs, numeral-derived adverbs, and verb-derived adverbs. He discusses adverb gradation and identifies a group of negative adverbs. There is also a section in which J. Otrebski presents archaic Lithuanian adverbs and discusses their etymology (for more detail, see Otrebski 1956: 282–307).
The most comprehensive semantic analysis of Lithuanian adverbs is presented in volume 2 of the 1971 Lithuanian Grammar. The chapter on adverbs was written by Kazys Ulvydas. It provides the following definition of an adverb: “An adverb is an indeclinable and unconjugated independent part of speech expressing a qualitative or quantitative feature of an action, state, or quality, and less commonly of an object, as well as various circumstances in which an action or state manifests itself (place, time, cause, purpose, etc.)” (Ulvydas, ed., 1971: 425). By meaning, adverbs are divided into:
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1. Manner:
1.1. qualitative;
1.2. manner of action;
1.3. quantitative:
1.3.1. number:
1.3.1.1. multiplicative;
1.3.1.2. multiplicative;
1.3.1.3. repetitive;
1.3.1.4. distributive;
1.3.2. quantity;
1.3.3. degree and intensity;
1.3.4. denoting quantity and limit;
1.3.5. denoting quantity and division;
1.3.6. denoting quantity and approximate precision.
2. Place:
2.1. indicating the place where something is, happens, takes place, or occurs, or (with verbs of motion) to which one goes, moves, or proceeds;
2.2. indicating the place from which something originates, or from which an action takes place or spreads;
2.3. indicating a place as a boundary from which or up to which an action takes place;
2.4. indicating the direction or course of an action;
2.5. indicating a route.
3. Temporal adverbs:
3.1. indicating time and measure:
3.1.1. indicating the present;
3.1.2. indicating past time;
3.1.3. indicating more general temporal concepts;
3.1.4. indicating a starting or ending point, or a period of time;
3.1.5. indicating days;
3.1.6. indicating times of day;
3.1.7. describing periods in terms of natural phenomena;
3.1.8. expressing the meaning of years or seasons;
3.2. indicating duration or a temporal boundary:
3.2.1. indicating how long something lasts or exists;
3.2.2. indicating how long something lasts, from when until when;
3.2.3. indicating what happens after a certain period of time;
3.3. expressing the frequency of an action;
3.4. indicating for how long something is the case.
4. Cause.
5. Purpose.
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Numerous examples are provided (for more detail, see ibid.: 429–474). The gradation of adverbs is also discussed (see ibid.: 474ff.).
In the Grammar of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, the section on adverbs is considerably shortened; nothing new is presented, and the wording is modified slightly. The structural features of adverbs, their gradation and accentuation, and their meanings are briefly discussed (the category of quantitative distributive adverbs of manner is omitted, and a type of temporal adverb denoting various weather conditions is distinguished). Adverbs with the suffixes -i(ai) and -yn are discussed separately (for more detail, see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 410–431).
In the English-language edition of the Grammar of the Lithuanian Language, a group of modal adverbs is distinguished in addition to adverbs of manner, place, time, cause, and purpose. It is noted that “modal adverbs express the speaker’s assessment of the content of a statement. They may express modality ranging from certainty to greater or lesser doubt and supposition” (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 393). The following adverbs are listed: tikrai, greičiausiai, būtinai, neišvengiamai, tikriausiai, veikiau (šia), verčiau, apskritai, paprastai, pirmiausiai.
I will now briefly present, in Schemas 2, 3, and 4, various classifications of adverbs found in foreign-language scholarly literature.
2 SCHEMA. Prieveiksmių / aplinkybių tipai pagal P. Ramą ir D. Riccą (1998) (žr. Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 95)
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3 SCHEMA. Įvairių autorių prieveiksmių skirstymas, pateikiamas Th. Ernsto (2001: 10)
c. participant: on the wall, with a bowl, for his aunt
d. functional time-related: now, for a minute, still quantification: frequently, again, precisely focusing: even, just, only negative: not clausal relations: purpose, causal, concessive, conditional, etc.
3. As is well known, in Lithuanian three-argument models the neutral and standard-language dominant order is SVO, e.g.: Jonas eats an apple. Although, for pragmatic reasons, all the words in this sentence can occupy any sentence position (all six variants of this sentence can be grammatical). Thus, it can be stated that Lithuanian
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word order is free13; it depends mainly on the relations between the meanings of words in a sentence, on information structure, and on context; it is conditioned by the situation and by the desire to foreground and emphasize certain parts of the sentence (see further Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 645ff.; Ambrazas 2006: 66ff.). As mentioned above, the sections in Grammar of the Lithuanian Language and A Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian provide a definition of adverbs (see Ulvydas, ed., 1971: 425; Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 410), noting that adverbs can indicate a qualitative or quantitative feature of an action or state expressed by a verb (sings beautifully, was seriously ill, much is written, we sleep little), a qualitative or quantitative feature of a property expressed by an adjective (light gray, slightly larger), a qualitative feature of a state expressed by an adjective or adverb (extraordinarily cold, well enough), or the circumstances of an action or state expressed by a verb (go home, we will sow tomorrow, you dream every night, he deliberately invited). In certain cases (for example, the latter ones), adverbs can even attach to nouns; cf.: Vilnius today; Our village yesterday (morning); the sections discuss the degrees and accentuation of adverbs and semantic types of adverbs, but not their position in the sentence (see Ulvydas, ed., 1971: 425–538; Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 410–431). Some information can be found in the section on the order of constituents in a phrase. It states that “the neutral and dominant position of adverbs is before the verb,” that “this is most characteristic of manner adverbs and inflectional forms and prepositional constructions with corresponding meanings, as well as of adverbs of place, time, and cause that do not correspond to noun forms”; such adverbs “follow the verb only when they bear the main informational load” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 653; see also Ambrazas 2006: 75ff.). As for the position of other adverbs, it is said to vary more, and adverbs bearing a greater informational load are either placed after the verb or moved to the beginning of the sentence (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 653ff.). Cases in which two or more adverbs of different meanings occur in a sentence are also mentioned: in neutral cases, manner adverbs immediately precede the verb, while other adverbs are placed before manner adverbs; emphasized or context-linked manner adverbs may also occur at the beginning of the sentence, before other adverbs14 (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 654; Ambrazas 2006: 76). There are cases in which the position of adverbs cannot be changed: these are phrases whose head is the positive form of a qualitative adverb, while the dependent element is a quantitative
13 Only a few cases of grammatically fixed word order are distinguished in Lithuanian, e.g.: the position of prepositions before noun or pronoun cases, the position of negation before the negative word, the position of interrogative particles at the beginning of a sentence, and the position of a relative subordinate clause after the word it modifies (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 646).
14 For example: he always sleeps peacefully. We deliberately waited a long time yesterday. The dog-ingly he almost never barks anymore (Ambrazas 2006: 76).
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an adverb expressing degree and intensity, they indicate quantitative relations (e.g.: completely foolishly, infinitely pleasantly, very well); phrases composed of two quantitative adverbs (e.g.: very much, unbelievably little); phrases whose head is a comparative adverb (e.g.: twice as fast, noticeably shorter); phrases composed of two qualitative adverbs that express attributive relations (e.g.: dark blue, lightning-fast, fantastically beautiful) (for more details, see Valiulytė 1976: 27ff.). Such cases are not included in the account of the use of two adverbs in a Lithuanian sentence.
From what has been said, it is clear that in Lithuanian an adverb can be used in various positions. Thus, in determining the hierarchy of Lithuanian adverbs, the most frequently used, customary, neutral order of adverbs in a sentence is taken into account.
4. A complete comparison of Cinque’s universal hierarchy with the use of adverbs in Lithuanian is impossible for several reasons. First, not all the adverbs presented by Cinque are considered adverbs in Lithuanian and function as adverbials in a sentence. For example, at the very top of Cinque’s hierarchy are speech-act adverbs (the adverb given is frankly) and evaluative adverbs (the adverb given is fortunately) – their Lithuanian equivalents would be the words openly, sincerely, fortunately. In Lithuanian, the word laimei ‘fortunately’ is considered a parenthetical element (for example, Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 64ff.), e.g.:
(1) Fortunately young people change over time, for better or worse. (http://www.sveika-s
tossodas.lt/index.php?lang=1&sid=280&tid=780)
(2) Fortunately, this usually happens during the holidays. DKT
Cf. Vytautas Ambrazas’s view in the grammar published in English: “the word laimei is used very similarly to a modal adverb” (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 394), and Axel Holvoet and Jūratė Pajėdienė’s view that “certain dative forms of abstract nouns expressing a subject’s evaluation of an event approach sentence adverbs” (Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 104); they provide the following example: Fortunately, the driver stopped in time and an accident was avoided. In the authors’ view, the words laimei / nelaimei ‘fortunately / unfortunately’ should not be considered sentence adverbs, because dependent words referring to the person(s) from whose perspective the emotional evaluation is made are often used with them or may be used with them, e.g.: Fortunately for Vasario, in his second year he was already free from passion (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 642), which is not characteristic of “true” adverbs. In addition, in a sentence they are always set off by commas, which is characteristic of parenthetical elements.
The words openly and sincerely, when used alone in a sentence, function as manner adverbs, not as speech-act adverbs, e.g.:
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(3) „Nebeprisimenu, ką ten rašiau“, – apie ką tik išėjusią esė knygą klau- sinejamas atvirai prisipažino M. Vilutis. (http://www.veidas.lt/ pokalbiai-apie-laime-arba-uz-ka-mirusies-sto-paminklus)
(4) Šiai moters nori atvirai ir dažnai kalbėti apie savo jausmus. (http:// www.jw.org/lt/leidiniai/zurnalai/wp20110801/rodykite-sutuoktiniui-pagarba/)
(5) Pirmiausia atvirai, nuoširdžiai, neapsimetinėdama pasikalbėk su juo. DLKT
To acquire a speech-act function, these words would have to be used with a participle, but in that case they would be treated as parenthetical phrases, e.g.: Frankly speaking, I’m tired of fooling people (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 643). In the opinion of A. Holvoet and J. Pajėdienė, such adjuncts “comment on or evaluate not the event or situation under discussion, but the formulation of the subject itself, choosing a form of expression” (Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 104). They argue that “in Lithuanian, there are practically no special adverbs expressing evaluative adjuncts: parentheticals are most often used” (ibid.).
The Asp adverb pl.completetuto (“whole”) listed at the bottom of Cinqe’s hierarchy should be considered a secondary predicate, a depictive, in Lithuanian. Pronouns such as vienas, visas, pats are regarded as depictives because they clearly show orientation toward an argument of the main predicate, agree with their agreement controllers, and because they are free modifiers and express a property that is relevant at the time of the main action (for more, see Čižik-Prokševa 2011: 94 and the literature cited there). For example:
(6) Bet apskritai mes turbūt visi pernelyg daug galvojame apie tuos... DLKT
(7) -Tai gal, tete, tu atvažiuok, iškepk ir mes visi pavalgyisim? DLKT
In Lithuanian, Asppl.complete cases could most likely be expressed by sentences with the adverbs together, jointly15, e.g.:
(8) Kai pasakiau tėvams, ką ketinu toliau veikti, ilgai kartu svarstėme visus mano pasirinkimo „už“ ir „prieš“. DLKT
(9) Tas sužėjęs tipas kažkada drauge su manimi tarnavo Mogilove prie Dnie- pro, tik aš Tolimosios aviacijos pulke, jis – sekretkų kuopoje, šimtkart šarbesniame dalinyje. DLKT
(10) -Mes pusiaukštome ir gal kartu surasume tą prakeiktą IŠĖJIMĄ IŠ ZOOLOGIJOS SODO! DLKT
15 For discussion of how adverbs too can function as secondary predicates in a sentence, see Vaičiulytė-Semenienė 2012.
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A. Holvoet and J. Pajėdienė classify words such as turbūt, gal, veikiausiai, neabejotinai, tikrai as epistemic adverbs, expressing a degree of certainty or probability (see Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 102). Such adverbs modify not the predicate of a sentence but the sentence as a whole. “The fact that sentence adverbials often take the form of parentheticals shows that the primary form of expression for the meanings under discussion is complex constructions with verbs, predicatives, and so on, expressing higher predicates. Once the hierarchy of predicates is inverted, sentence adverbials occupying the position of modifiers emerge; the parenthetical is an intermediate link between these forms of expression (Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 107). As mentioned earlier, in the English-language Lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje, words such as tikrai, tikriausiai, būtinai, paprastai are considered modal adverbs (see Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 393ff.). The same chapter states that the classification of words such as galbūt and turbūt as modal particles is usually conventional (see ibid.: 378). A. Holvoet and J. Pajėdienė note that many adverbs acquire additional discourse meanings, which indicates their tendency toward particle status (see Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 113). They question whether the two categories can be distinguished convincingly at all if the boundary between them is not clear-cut (see ibid.: 112). Words such as neabejotinai, tikrai, būtinai are classified as adverbs in Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne and LKŽe. In this study, the words tikrai, greičiausiai, turbūt, tikriausiai, galbūt (gal), būtinai, paprastai are also treated as adverbs, taking into account that they can often be substituted for one another in a sentence, and that they modify the predicate of a sentence or the sentence as a whole.
It is impossible to compare Cinque’s universal hierarchy fully with the use of adverbs in Lithuanian also because some examples containing two adverbs had to be excluded, since in them one adverb modifies the other, for example:
(11) The patroness of cows is usually considered to be Maršavina (gūju Mär-šavina), although this cannot be completely certainly established from folk songs. DKT
(12) She is given various roles: dentist, mother, model, dancer, teacher, and even astronaut, but probably most often she is an elegant princess or fairy, whose beauty is unparalleled. (http://www.bernar-dinai.lt/straipsnis/2013-12-28-egle-kuraite-zicke-zaislai-ar-tai-kas-geriau-auklei-vaikus/11956/print)
(13) I don’t know how the apartment story ended, but we deliberately already left the editorial office window unlatched, through which Paulius would climb in, and early in the morning, before the cleaner appeared, would quietly leave. DKT
(14) There the teacher almost certainly had to observe elementary order based on a certain methodological consistency. DKT
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(15) We should recall that, following the collapse of the socialist bloc, Bulgaria until almost now has been governed by former communists. DKT
Such cases of modification are not included in the description of the use of two adverbs in a Lithuanian sentence.
The lower part of Cinqe’s hierarchy raises doubts, as it presents four types of adverbs already mentioned above in the hierarchy (in Scheme 1 they are marked with the subscript (II)). If the same adverb can be used in several positions, the reliability of placing it higher up in the hierarchy (in Scheme 1 they are marked with the subscript (I)) comes into question.
A full comparison of Cinqe’s universal hierarchy with the use of adverbs in Lithuanian is also impossible because not all the adverbs listed by Cinqe can be used together in a single Lithuanian sentence (for example, Aspretrospective adverbs (Lith. adverb ką tik ‘just now’) cannot occur in the same sentence as Aspproximate adverbs (Lith. adverb netrukus ‘soon’); Modrealis adverbs (Lith. adverb galbūt ‘perhaps’) cannot occur in the same sentence as Modnecessity adverbs (Lith. adverb būtinai ‘necessarily’), making it impossible to establish their order in a sentence. Below I will discuss all the cases listed by Cinqe in greater detail, describing not only the strict hierarchical ordering of the specified pairs of adverbs relative to each other (as Cinqe himself and other linguists do, for example, St. Wilson and A. P. Sayin (2001), A. Bhatia 2006, E. Zyman (2011–2012)), but also the position of all adverbs relative to one another (253 combinations of two adverbs are possible), and will provide examples of all the pairs found.
5. Many Lithuanian adverbs are used as Cinqe indicates in his book (see Section A below). There are cases in which Lithuanian adverbs are used in the reverse order (see Section B below). As mentioned, there are many cases in which two adverbs do not occur together in a single sentence, making it impossible to determine their relative order (see Section D below). But most cases are those in which the same adverbs can occur in either order (see Section C below).
A. This section discusses the order of adverbs occurring in the same sentence as specified by Cinqe in his hierarchy, pos16. For example, uncertainty
16 Sentences were also found in which three or even four adverbs are used, for example:
1. He often speaks with information, and sometimes perhaps only should the commission be informed first, and then appropriate measures taken through joint efforts. DKT
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adverbs and necessity adverbs: the uncertainty adverb is used in the sentence before the necessity adverb, as in sentence 16:
(16) Do you really have to tidy your room? (http://www.valtininkas.lt/klausimai/kaip-atrasti-savyje-energijos-atlikti-bet-koki-veiksma)
The reverse order is impossible:
(17) * Do necessarily you really have to tidy your room?
Thus, we obtain Modevidential > Modnecessity. The following pairs behave similarly:
1. Uncertainty adverbs and speed adverbs: Modevidential > Aspcelerative, e.g.:
(18) Another version claims that the Germans changed their minds because of the efforts of the Lithuanian Committee in Grodno, probably in a hurry and acting boldly, the Committee’s own chairman, Viktor Kurgon. (http://www.punksas.pl/leidykla/zalioji%20rikiuote/zalioji%20rikiuote.pdf)
2. Uncertainty adverbs and habitual adverbs: Modevidential > Aspgeneric, e.g.:
(19) I probably as usual will wear a black jacket, trousers and a white shirt, and comb my hair smoothly up and apply gel. DLT
3. Probability adverbs and irrealis adverbs: Modepistemic > Modirrealis, e.g.:
(20) Yes, perhaps maybe it would be possible to arrange for us to vote for five deputies, if there were no more of them. DLT
4. Probability adverbs and speed adverbs: Modepistemic > Aspcelerative, e.g.:
(21) After all, if they laid me in a coffin like that, probably instantly I would die of fright. DLT
2. You learn various things that you perhaps would never ordinarily learn about or even think about. (http://www.vdusa.lt/2014/09/10/triju-merginu-minciu-sukuryje/)
3. The hospital, left half empty, was soon full again. DLT
4. A person whom one sees for the first time in one’s life, whom one does not know at all, and whom one probably soon never again sees. DLT
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5. Probability adverbs and completive adverbs: Modepistemic > Aspterminative, e.g.:
(22) Probably there is no need to tell anyone about the cult TV series “Breaking Bad” and its hero’s ingenious, love-colored crystals. (http://www.lais.lt/lt/paieska/Dakt%C5%B3+pusry%C5%B3Diai)
6. Past-tense adverbs and frequency adverbs: Tpast > Aspfrequentative, e.g.:
(23) Although in the past often I had to go to meetings with Russian cosmonauts and listen to their accounts of their experiences: “Actually, all of that was interesting because of the knowledge, but that I myself would have thought and dreamed about a journey into space—certainly not,” the woman smiles. (http://www.respublika.lt/lt/naujienos/mokslas/mokslas/planetariumo_direktore_nea-beinga_marsu/,print.1)
7. Past-tense adverbs and volitive adverbs: Tpast > Modvolitional, e.g.:
(24) In the park, where once deliberately I had brazenly photographed up close a woman walking her dog beside a sign reading “dogs must not be walked here,” many colorful flowers are growing and several people are sunbathing. (http://www.diarepecate.com/tag/budapest/)
8. Past-tense adverbs and proximity adverbs: Tpast > Aspproximate, e.g.:
(25) ...although the conditions there were difficult, he thought that he sometime soon would be horrified. (http://www.artundersuit.lt/poklabis-su-ie-va-pabuvusia-ir-psichologes-ir-direktores-ir-interjero-ir-drabu-ziu-dizaineres-ir-stilistes-ir-kino-rezシアaus-asistentes-kaile/)
9. Past-tense adverbs and habitual adverbs: Tpast > Aspgeneric, e.g.:
(26) Once, as usual they were sitting on the sofa embracing, when Virkintas came in. DLKT
10. Past-tense adverbs and prospective adverbs: Tpast > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(27) Precisely because of these qualities, he had once almost been expelled from the intelligence directorate of the General Staff of the Navy, yet successfully and calmly climbed the career ladder in the KGB’s First Chief Directorate. DLKT
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11. Past-time adverbs and completion adverbs: Tpast > Aspsg.complete, e.g.:
(28) Reading Sinono’s book, I can’t help feeling that his views once completely became those of Gould. DLKT
12. Future-time adverbs and irrealis adverbs: Tfuture > Modirrealis, e.g.:
(29) Moreover, science requires patience, many years of hard work, and only afterwards perhaps would it have yielded basic and material benefits, and brought joy. DLKT
13. Future-time adverbs and rapidity adverbs: Tfuture > Aspcelerative, e.g.:
(30) He froze for a few seconds in the doorway and afterwards again quickly went back and pressed himself against the wall. DLKT
14. Future-time adverbs and precedence adverbs: Tfuture > Tanterior, e.g.:
(31) Working like that and sometimes enjoying ourselves after the work, as I have already mentioned, we awaited those Soviet tanks; afterwards, indeed we saw them often... DLKT
15. Future-time adverbs and completion adverbs: Tfuture > Aspterminative, e.g.:
(32) Sometimes it seems to me that it is indeed the dead who explain everything – after that no more questions arise, and nobody asks anything anymore. DLKT
16. Future-time adverbs and continuative adverbs: Tfuture > Aspcontinuative, e.g.:
(33) – Well, promise that after that you will still keep talking to me. – I promise, I said, and felt rather uncomfortable. DLKT
17. Future-time adverbs and manner adverbs: Tfuture > Aspgeneric, e.g.:
(34) After that, as usual, Sunday breakfast and an evening at home.
Cinque’s prieveiksmių hierarchija ir lietuvių kalbos duomenys
18. Future-time adverbs and prospective adverbs: Tfuture > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(35) That I was very close to Irma, only later we almost stopped communicating. DKT
19. Future-time adverbs and completive adverbs: Tfuture > Aspsg.complete, e.g.:
(36) Bekas slowed his pace, and later came to a complete stop. DKT
20. Future-time adverbs and manner adverbs: Tfuture > Voice, e.g.:
(37) When Gomulka came to power, the Poles took advantage of the thaw and recruited so many people that later they lived well. DKT
21. Irrealis adverbs and repetitive adverbs: Modirealis > Asprepetitive, e.g.:
(38) Pailė mightwrite again, but she will not, because she has already written everything. DKT
22. Irrealis adverbs and precedence adverbs: Modirrealis > Tanterior, e.g.:
(39) If it weren’t for those competitions, Vilnius might already have tamed her. DKT
23. Irrealis adverbs and completive adverbs: Modirrealis > Aspterminative, e.g.:
(40) Net jei galėtų būti taip pat gražu, net jeigu kas nors dar būtų įmanoma, tai gal jau nė nenorėčiau, nes nereikia būti godžiai, negalima užgožti laimingos dienos dar laimingesne. DKT
24. Irrealis adverbs and continuative adverbs: Modirrealis > Aspcontinuative, e.g.:
(41) If it weren’t for Eva, I might not have gone until now. DKT
25. Irrealis adverbs and proximity adverbs: Modirrealis > Aspproximative, e.g.:
(42) And perhaps soon someone would have noticed the guy; a much stronger feeling would emerge, one that would not end in such disappointment. DKT
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26. Irrealis adverbs and duration adverbs: Modirrealis > Aspdurative, e.g.:
(43) Those “real” onesmay have briefly visited their homeland after the restoration of independence, but perhaps then they realized that their “realness” has little to do with life in Lithuania... DKT
27. Necessity adverbs and speed adverbs: Modnecessit > Aspcelerative, e.g.:
(44) Therefore, if a child suddenly develops severe abdominal pain, and the pain does not go away within 2 hours, be sure to seek medical attention immediately. (http://mamoszurnalas.lt/sauda-pilva/)
28. Necessity adverbs and duration adverbs: Modnecessit > Aspdurative, e.g.:
(45) George W. Bush celebrated his inauguration wildly, hurrying from one banquet to another, where with his wife Laura he would invariably dance briefly. DKT
29. Necessity adverbs and manner adverbs: Modnecessit > Voice, e.g.:
(46) It is no coincidence that good people say that to improvise reasonably well, one must have studied Bach’s music well. DKT
30. Possibility adverbs and speed adverbs: Modpossibility > Aspcelerative, e.g.:
(47) Now perhaps he’ll take that sauna building and perhaps quickly privatize it by some semi-legal means, with the help of officials in the corruption departments, and ha ha, take it! DKT
31. Possibility adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Modpossibility > Aspretrospective, e.g.:
(48) And have you just entered university and want to enjoy the lively nightlife, tours of the old town at night, and the diversity of faces on the streets? (http://www.delfi.lt/pilietis/temos/ir-stai-as-di-dmietyje-studento-gyvenimas-atvirai.d?id=65824032)
32. Possibility adverbs and inferential adverbs: Modpossibility > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(49) I would like to perhaps almost agree with J. Beinortas’s opinion. DKT
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33. Habitual adverbs and absolute adverbs: Asphabitual > Aspperfect, e.g.:
(50) We usually always lack time. DKT
34. Habitual adverbs and duration adverbs: Asphabitual > Aspdurative, e.g.:
(51) Trading companies usually borrow money for a short time, use it to purchase imported goods, sell them within two to three months, repay the loan, and earn from the difference in the prices of the goods. DKT
35. Habitual adverbs and prospective adverbs: Asphabitual > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(52) Cursing, Julius turned toward the street, but for the passengers’ return journey he usually found almost no one. DKT
36. Habitual adverbs and completive adverbs: Asphabitual > Aspsg.completive, e.g.:
(53) Sunglasses usually have no protective filter at all, only dark lenses. DKT
37. Habitual adverbs and manner adverbs: Asphabitual > Voice, e.g.:
(54) Pathological fractures usually heal well. DKT
38. Repetitive adverbs and prospective adverbs: Asprepetitive > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(55) She leaned heavily against me and, it seemed, almost fell asleep again without even reaching her cabin. DKT
39. Frequency adverbs and duration adverbs: Aspfrequentative > Aspdurative, e.g.:
(56) I have a neighbor on Šilmedžių Street, but in the afternoons sometimes come here briefly. DKT
40. Frequency adverbs and prospective adverbs: Aspfrequentative > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(57) A serious discussion between the project authors and committee members often almost never gets underway. DKT
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41. Frequency adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspfrequentative > Aspsg.completive, e.g.:
(58) There are very few atoms heavier than those of helium, so their recombination lines are very weak, often not rotated at all. DLT
42. Frequency adverbs and quality adverbs: Aspfrequentative > Voice, e.g.:
(59) Your inner voice often advises you well, but you are not very willing to listen to it. DLT
43. Volitional adverbs and speed adverbs: Modvolitional > Aspcelerative, e.g.:
(60) I deliberately sipped my tea slowly, glancing at the hostess from time to time... DLT
44. Volitional adverbs and duration adverbs: Modvolitional > Aspdurative, e.g.:
(61) – O kur dabar šitas skulptorius gyvena? – moteris tyčia ilgai ieškojo pinigų, kad galėtų dar daugiau paklausinėti. DLT
45. Volitional adverbs and completive adverbs: Modvolitional > Aspsg.completive, e.g.:
(62) Laidas went to the trash!!! I accidentally completely cut off =]] (http://forumai.bmw-klubas.lt/viewtopic.php?f=59&t=30014&sid=0a4a90bc-74db85811280b828acb1a&view=print)
46. Speed adverbs and duration adverbs: Aspcelerative > Aspdurative, e.g.:
(63) There are even more similarities: the Labour Party leader Viktoras is away on a business trip in Russia today, while circumstances had compelled the leader of the “Rubikon” party, Artūras, to emigrate urgently for a short time to Warsaw. (http://racas.lt/kas-lietuvoje-siandien-zino-daugiausia/)
47. Precedence adverbs and manner adverbs: Tanterior > Aspgeneric, e.g.:
(64) Besides, he will obviously already have reworked my livestock as usual. DLT
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48. Continuative adverbs and prospective adverbs: Aspcontinuative > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(65) I realized that I would never be able to sing like this, so to this day I hardly ever sing. DLKT
49. Continuative adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspcontinuative > Aspsg.completive, e.g.:
(66) We ran short of oxygen cylinders, of which we have 12 and which had hitherto been entirely sufficient. DLKT
50. Continuative adverbs and habitual adverbs: Aspcontinuative > Aspgeneric, e.g.:
(67) Because of strong conservative Lithuanian traditions, in public spaces we still commonly perceive them as decorations on certain buildings or as illustrations of political themes. DLKT
51. Absolute adverbs and prospective adverbs: Aspperfect > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(68) The flesh, by contrast, is always almost the same—white, juicy, and refreshing. (http://www.granini.lt/lt_lt/atrask-m-s-prekin-zenkla/273/)
52. Absolute adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspperfect > Aspsg.completive, e.g.:
(69) Treatment with glucocorticoids does not always completely eliminate the symptoms of the disease. DLKT
53. Retrospective adverbs and prospective adverbs: Aspretrospective > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(70) Boras lay dead on the upper floor of the Dovai Palace, and she herself had only just barely survived? DLKT
54. Proximative adverbs and durative adverbs: Aspproximate > Aspdurative, e.g.:
(71) Soon he stopped briefly at his friend's house and reported that he had been in an accident. (http://www.alietuvis.com/index.php/component/k2/item/766-nuo-jav-teisesaugos-besislapstes-nusikaltelis-lis-lenkas-sugrįžinas-i-cikagą)
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55. Proximity adverbs and inferential adverbs: Aspproximative > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(72) Vasilijus soon almost gave Vytautas a son, whom he never lived to see. DKT
56. Proximity adverbs and completeness adverbs: Aspproximative > Aspsg.completive, e.g.:
(73) The women soon completely will stop napping and will take poodles around in strollers! DKT
57. Proximity adverbs and quality adverbs: Aspproximative > Voice, e.g.:
(74) The results exceeded expectations: soon well I knew the prices... DKT
58. Duration adverbs and completeness adverbs: Aspdurative > Aspsg.completive, e.g.:
(75) “One must for a short while completely isolate oneself from the world so that everyday events might appear without any encumbrance, and one might not know, and otherwise reveal their true essence.” DKT
59. Duration adverbs and quality adverbs: Aspdurative > Voice, e.g.:
(76) - “Why do you kill only old men?” - “They were stuck with it too long well and they were full of sins, Father. I would do it for God’s sake.” DKT
60. Frequency adverbs and inferential adverbs: Aspgenic > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(77) You almost as always didn’t grumble; only at dawn you asked: “Mele, shall we go to the birch grove?” DKT
61. Completeness adverbs and quality adverbs: Aspsg.completive > Voice, e.g.:
(78) This was a primitive way of reasoning and evaluating things, which was completely well understood by him. DKT
The summary statistics are presented in Table 1.
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1 LENTELĖ. Prieveiksmių vartojimas pagal Cinque’s hierarchiją
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As can be seen in the table, two adverbs are used fairly frequently in Lithuanian in accordance with Cinqe’s hierarchy: such cases account for one third of all the examples found (62 cases in total). The adverbs used most often in this order are Asp₍prospective₎ (11 of 23 possible cases) and Asp₍sg.completive₎ (10 of 23), followed somewhat less often by T₍future₎ and Asp₍durative₎ (9 cases each). The other adverbs are used in the order established by Cinqe even less frequently. This usage is rather scattered. No similarities in usage were observed even between the adverbs listed next to each other in the table; therefore, we cannot claim that this usage is determined by semantics.
B. This section discusses pairs of adverbs that occur in a single sentence in the reverse order to that specified in Cinqe’s hierarchy. For example, necessity adverbs and possibility adverbs: the necessity adverb occurs after the possibility adverb in the sentence, as illustrated by sentence (79):
(79) Is it possible to find out exactly how many years one will live with a loved one, and will certainly have to separate? It turns out that it is possible. (http://www.delfi.lt/gyvenimas/meile/zmogaus-smegenys-lemia-meiles-jega.d?id=8754027)
The reverse order is possible:
(80) * Is it possible to find out exactly how many years one will live with a loved one, and certainly might have to separate?
Thus, we obtain Mod₍possibility₎ > Mod₍necessity₎. The following pairs behave similarly:
(81) Could one perhaps actually establish an institution that would coordinate, that could respond somehow? — I think that we perhaps really ought to start talking again about creating a new institution. DLKT
(84) It should also be remembered that, at the end of every speech or sermon, the Pope usually necessarily mentioned the Blessed Virgin Mary, address-
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was heading toward it. (http://www.bernardinai.lt/straipsnis/2013-09-13-vilkaviskio-vyskupo-rimanto-norvilos-homilija-silvoje-totus-tuus/107089)
5. Repetitive adverbs follow frequency adverbs: Asp frequentative > Asp repetetive, e.g.: (85) Nevertheless, Buddhists remained steadfast even in misfortune, and sometimes again became favorites. DKT
6. Repetitive adverbs follow completive adverbs: Aspterminative > Asprepetetive, e.g.: (86) With the money received, we could only prepare for winter, and we have nothing left to continue construction without mothballing the project, again now, said E. Mačiūkas. DKT
7. Repetitive adverbs follow continuative adverbs: Aspcontinuative > Asprepetetive, e.g.: (87) As dusk falls, our Mules appear, until now having again dashed off somewhere. (http://antologija.lt/text/bals-sruoga-dievu-miskas/56)
8. Repetitive adverbs follow retrospective adverbs: Aspretrospective > Asprepetetive, e.g.: (88) After their divorce plans fell through, Konis’s parents had just reconciled again and therefore intended to have their son stay with his father. DKT
9. Frequency adverbs follow manner adverbs: Aspgeneric > Aspfrequentative, e.g.: (89) Usually they leave the girl behind rarely—only when they themselves are getting ready to go out somewhere together. (http://www.l5min.lt/zmones/naujienos/lietuva/viesumoje-retai-matoma-karolina-liukai-tyte-su-mylimuoju-anu-juskiu-atvyko-i-labdaros-rengi-ni-3-461944)
10. Volitional adverbs follow absolutive adverbs: Aspperfect > Modvolitional, e.g.: (90) The less they ate, the more often their hands would touch. Eventually this became a family tradition—before starting to eat, they always deliberately touched hands. DKT
(96) And further, rather sadly, Eduardas, having repeated klumpę klakt, the little man broadly pictured, writes: I think this “pleasure” is not far off; we will not have to wait long. DKT
(99) I no longer remember the third person’s appearance very well anymore, but I think he was dark-haired, resembling a Gypsy or a Caucasian. DKT
Summary statistics are presented in Table 2.
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TABLE 2. Adverb usage in an order opposite to that in Cinque’s hierarchy
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As can be seen, in Lithuanian, two adverbs are very rarely used in an order opposite to that in Cinque’s hierarchy. Most often, these are isolated cases. Only Aspterminate (6 instances out of 23 possible) and Asprepetete (4 instances out of 23 possible) adverbs stand out. Similarities in this usage have been observed among the adverbs listed; there is no semantic conditioning.
C. This section discusses pairs of adverbs that can occur in a sentence either in the order specified by Cinque in his hierarchy or in the opposite order. For example, uncertainty adverbs and probability adverbs: an uncertainty adverb can occur in a sentence before or after a probability adverb without any difference in meaning, as shown in sentences 100 and 101:
(100) Since the latter story probably really will not go to court, we will probably never learn the real truth. DLKT
(101) I think that Deputy A. Ambrazevičius’s and Deputy A. Sakalas’s proposals could be combined, and really probably that vote would be more successful. DLKT
Thus, we get Moodevidential > / < Modepistemic. These pairs also occur in two orders:
(102) You are not dreaming, and most likely, yesterday you did not put on makeup. (http://www.anonas.lt/portal/categories/686/1/0/1/article/28387/foto-reportazas-skotiska-afera)
(103) - Datare, yesterday really was a magical evening and night. DLKT
(106) You at least dream; I can’t even remember when I last dreamed anything at all. Of course, most likely you do dream something, but
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I simply don’t remember anything; I just find it strange that one can constantly fail to remember one’s dreams like this. (http://www.slapcia.lt/secret586/)
(107) In autumn, throughout Italy, under constant light, it must be shown that some victims want to, while others perhaps really cannot... DKT
(110) Rimas kept disappearing and reappearing, disappearing again and appearing once more—only so that he could descend into his hells again as quickly as possible. DKT
(111) I have nothing against competitions, but once again most likely again one buyer will take part. What’s the point of that crowd? DKT
6. Adverbs of uncertainty and frequency adverbs: Moodevidential > / < Aspfrequentative, e.g.:
(112) If you have a cat, it probably often brings you its hunted “prey.” (http://www.alfa.lt/astromanija/straipsnis/1165/Auginantis-kiekvienam-Zodiakui?psl=2)
(113) His cohabited biography sometimes really becomes like a miracle at the end of a fairy tale. DKT
7. Adverbs of uncertainty and volitional adverbs: Moodevidential > / < Modvolitional, e.g.:
(114) What is this? – A wardrobe wheel; yesterday it probably accidentally fell out of your pocket, and I found it here. DKT
(115) But if even one person told me that I was pretending to be old, that I do everything on purpose—I really on purpose do nothing. DKT
8. Adverbs of uncertainty and precedence adverbs: Moodevidential > / < Tanterior, e.g.:
(116) She has probably already been waiting for me for about half an hour by the fountain with lions. DKT
(117) Now certainly already knew: everyone had conspired, everyone was against her. DKT
(120) She debunked several popular myths about love and relationships, which you probably still believe too. (http://www.manopsichologija.lt/netiketi-mitai-apie-santykius-kuriais-vis-dar-tiki-ir-tu)
(121) Drungytė’s dissertation primarily draws on autobiographical material—data about Bložė himself and his circle are included here—which certainly were not known until now. DKT
(122) You really know your way around these places, Aranda. I probably would never have made it this far. DKT
(123) Only those who have long and impartially considered the arguments of both sides and tried to understand them as well as possible always certainly know this part of the truth. DKT
(124) The country that will probably soon be underwater—the Maldives. (http://www.respublika.lt/lt/naujienos/pramogos/keistenybes/idomus_faktai_apie_pasaulio_salis/,print.1)
(125) Therefore, he simply comforted and encouraged his fellow Christians, assuring them that they were honorable men and would certainly soon be released. DKT
(126) The misfortunes probably tormented them for quite a long time before they passed away. DKT
(127) My heart really stopped for a moment... (http://www.prisimink.lt/lt/diskusijos.forum_zinutes/117308.2851?sev=page)
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14. Adverbs of uncertainty and adverbs of predictability: Moodevidential > / < Aspprospective, e.g.:
(128) Neanderthals and representatives of “Homo sapiens” in Europe and Asia at the same time probably almost did not live, a new study suggests. (http://www.sos03.lt/Naujienos/Mokslas/Dvi_zmoniu_rusys_prasilenke_tarsi_laivai_naktyje)
(129) No, it probably won’t be like that, almost certainly knew that she would no longer come running when she saw her. DLKT
15. Adverbs of uncertainty and adverbs of completeness: Moodevidential > / < Aspsg.completive, e.g.:
(130) The question haunted her, though Klaus probably did not care at all: how had she made use of the chance to start life anew, a chance that comes only to a handful, only to the chosen few? DLKT
(131) It was absolutely certainly really cool and not cold at all:}} (https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=10150936110008436&id=161885233435)
16. Adverbs of uncertainty and adverbs of quality: Moodevidential > / < Voice, e.g.:
(132) Such wording sounds like an accusation against a young mother, yet she has probably carefully thought through her decision about what and how to feed her baby. (http://www.tavovaikas.lt/kudikis/mamos-kertele/7-frazes-kuriu-verciau-nesakykite-jaunai-mamai.d?id=63108512)
(133) And yet probably badly what we failed to consider while living in an independent state—in our beloved Homeland—was a very important matter: the needs of foreign countries. (http://www.respublika.lt/lt/naujienos/nuomones_ir_komentarai/skaitytoju_laiskai/sava_produkcija_kenkia_uzsienio_poreikiams/,print.1)
17. Adverbs of probability and past-time adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Tpast, e.g.:
(134) The man touched the metal surface, which had already warmed up. Perhaps once, perhaps his parents and ancestors would stroke an animal in the mornings. DLKT
(135) Coffee probably came once from Yemen, in southern Arabia, but its role in Middle Eastern life remains very important to this day. DLKT
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18. Probability adverbs and future-time adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Tfuture, e.g.:
(136) Soon afterward, my mother's sister (who probably afterward regretted it) gave me some books by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada to read. (http://bhaktijoga.lt/kelias)
(137) Yes, you can find houses costing 5 or 3 thousand. But afterward, probably they would blame me for buying shacks. DLKT
19. Probability adverbs and necessity adverbs: Modepistemic> / < Modnecessity, e.g.:
(138) And is mustard probably absolutely necessary? (http://www.supermama.lt/forums/index.php?showtopic=754145&st=408)
(139) By the way, we are also looking for long-term programmers for extraordinarily well-paid work; if the work is done well, we will definitely probably be in touch with you again. (https://uzdarbis.lt/t39717/ieskau-programuoto-jo-php-skripto-modifikacijos/page__p__454755)
20. Probability adverbs and possibility adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Modpossibility, e.g.:
(140) We probably may also failed to consider how, for example, courts would resolve conflicts arising between business entities and the tax inspectorate. DLKT
(141) I used to talk a lot with my mother; she helped me a great deal, although some relatives still don't know—only my mother's sister and her family, the closest ones—but perhaps probably also because I don't live in Lithuania. (http://www.supermama.lt/forums/lofiversion/index.php/t890348.html)
21. Probability adverbs and habituality adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Asphabitual, e.g.:
(142) Secondly, this party probably most often fails to honor the agreements reached. (http://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvos-diena/aktualijos/k-komskis-apie-d-grybauskaites-itaka-socialdemokratams.htm?p=2)
(143) After that, I started taking part in “Dainų dainelė,” and studying at music school. But most often, probably I would perform in the bathroom, holding a deodorant in my hand instead of a microphone,” Indrė cheerfully said of herself. DLKT
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22. Probability adverbs and repetitive adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Asprepetetive, e.g.:
(144) Probably out again with the girls, enjoying Martini at the nightclub. (http://www.kpskc.lt/content/view/250/)
(145) There will probably be a discussion of “Spindulys” again tomorrow or the day after. DLKT
23. Probability adverbs and frequency adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Aspfrequentative, e.g.:
(146) And now, when looking for attractive secretaries for their companies, employers probably often turn to the faculty dean?.. DLKT
(147) We sometimes probably do not understand the essence of land reclamation. DLKT
24. Probability adverbs and volitional adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Modvolitional, e.g.:
(148) Although she knew I was nearby, she probably deliberately did not look that way. DLKT
(149) So probably she can only be found by chance... Deliberately, you probably could never find her... (http://323f.erdves.lt/forum/viewtopic.php?p=275065&highlight=)
25. Probability adverbs and precedence adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Tanterior, e.g.:
(150) They probably aren't friends anymore. (LKŽe)17
(151) – You have probably already said it and made a promise, haven't you? DLKT
26. Probability adverbs and continuative adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Aspcontinuative, e.g.:
(152) She was probably convinced that she alone was to blame for it: I am probably still not recovered from the summer blow! DLKT
(153) Until now, probably no one had raised the question of what a man is and what a woman is. (http://www.respublika.lt/lt/naujienos/lietuva/kitos_lietuvos_zinios/tevai_protestuoja_kad_konvencija_leis_pasirinkti_lyti/,print.1)
17 Such usage is also found in DLKT, e.g.: – You probably know everything already. If someone dropped a bomb into the sea or ocean, then the military can probably predict that too.probably already the military can predict this too.
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27. Probability adverbs and adverbs of absoluteness: Modepistemic > / < Aspperfect, e.g.:
(154) – Probably never will we get used to those starved, injured... DLKT
(155) Still probably never had he felt such disappointment as he does now. DLKT
28. Probability adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Modepistemic > / < Aspretrospective, e.g.:
(156) – Natanas probably just now accidentally unscrewed it while hurrying around with his suitcase and belongings. DLKT
(157) I don’t know if I got onto the right topic, but probably just now I experienced the first miracle of my life. (http://www.azartas.net/forumas/viewtopic.php?t=228)
29. Probability adverbs and adverbs of proximity: Modepistemic > / < Aspproximative, e.g.:
(158) These are the old forces of speech, which will probably soon hold their twenty-second gathering. DLKT
(159) The greater part of it was conquered by Latvians and Estonians. We probably won’t soon become leaders, but at least we will be able to hold on to our current positions... DLKT
30. Probability adverbs and adverbs of duration: Modepistemic > / < Aspdurative, e.g.:
(160) I’m no longer curious or in a hurry, and my unbridled greed for experiences probably briefly, but it has left me. DLKT
(161) Only for a long time yet probably I will see images of Parabelis in the streets of Vilnius and search here for the days that have passed. DLKT
31. Probability adverbs and predictability adverbs: Modepistemic > Aspprospective, e.g.:
(162) Imagine what this little heart must have gone through, when it probably almost burst with fear. (http://www.mazojiiliza.lt/lt/news/view/id/49019)
(163) If everything were this black, I probably would hardly say a word:) (http://www.mazdaklubas.lt/forumas/viewtopic.php?p=112698)
(174) Perhaps once upon a time priests used to tell stories depicting the creation of heavenly bodies and, generally, of the world. (http://www.respublika.lt/lt/naujienos/pramogos/kinas_muzika_tv/ar_televizijoje_pakanka_ziniu_apie_mitologija,print.1)
(175) R. Šiškauskas: “Perhaps someday I’ll return to play in Lithuania.” (http://www.lrytas.lt/?id=12235566071222223880&view=6)
(176) The participants in the expedition would spend the night in those towns where the postal couriers had once usually stopped as well. (http://klaipeda.diena.lt/naujienos/klaipeda/miesto-pulsas/pasto-kelyje-nuoty-kiai-633510#.VKEBBzSUc5s)
(177) Sometimes pushing problems somewhere further away lets us detach from them for a while, but most often they still sometime rise to the surface. (http://www.psichoterapija-jums.lt/Straipsniai-kaip_ap-sispresti_del_skyrybu.htm)
(178) He stood completely motionless—just stood there and stared at me. I shuddered. As once again it clenched beneath my chest. I had to grab hold of the cabin so I wouldn’t fall. DLKT
(179) We ought to try again someday, but he doesn’t drink water... (http://www.supermama.lt/forums/index.php?showtopic=991964&st=216)
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(180) Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo, following the bombing, urgently yesterday cut short his visit to Mexico and returned to Peru’s capital. DLKT
(181) Well, you see, they all go to Persingas, so that’s why she has a full house; I once urgently needed to register with a gynecologist, and they suggested Šukienė to me... (http://www.tevu-darzelis.lt/forumas/topic/siau-liu-mamytes/page/3259)
(182) “Mom, Mommy, yes, it happened just like this before! Many, many times, and exactly like this! Oh, Mom, I remember! I’m afraid!” he shouted, digging his little clawlike fingers into my palm. DLKT
(183) Frodo looked closely at them and saw that they were not stones, but the remains of carved figures, which time had destroyed long ago. DLKT
(184) – We used a nanny’s services briefly once; in Moscow, student Marina helped us too. (http://www.lrytas.lt/gyveni-mo-budas/seima/j-seduikytes-laimingos-motinystes-recep-tai-201309201103.htm)
(185) We were in her group briefly once, when she worked with the younger children; she might have been a pretty good teacher if she worked with little kids... (http://www.supermama.lt/forumas/lofiversion/index.php/t10476-300.html)
(186) They used to repair things well once, but gradually the prices rose, while the quality slid sharply downhill. (http://www.vinted.lt/forumai/paplepejimai-ivai-riomis-temomis/860960-batsiu vys-kaune)
(187) All around were many louts who occasionally returned to the swamp to remind themselves how badly they had once lived. (http://mreadz.com/new/index.php?id=281104&pages=34)
(188) I suggest becoming acquainted with the orchestra’s history and present, and then обязательно think about it and hear it all live, in reality... DLKT
(189) To prevent this from happening, supplies must be replenished during training. If this is not possible, be sure to drink afterward. (http://www.dojo.lt/index.php/straipsniai/131-teisingas-ig-atstatymas-po-fizins- activity)
(192) Exactly this temperature prevailed in September this year and very often at the end of September next year. And afterward usually comes “Indian summer.” DLKT
(193) It is precisely because of those who are late that most often afterward passions flare up and all sorts of misunderstandings arise. DLKT
(194) I kept waking up from the thunderstorm and then again would fall asleep. DLKT
(195) You will again afterward blame people and set up commissions to investigate where the property went. DLKT
48. Future-tense adverbs and frequency adverbs: Tfuture > Asfrequentative, e.g.:
(196) There may be more such offenses in spring, because when the weather warms up, young people like to sip beer in parks and squares, and afterward often start sorting out their differences. DLKT
(197) If you haven’t had children in three years, then often afterward hormones go haywire. (http://www.meileskelias.lt/index.php/news/62/105/Tantros-kelias.html)
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(198) Only later did he notice those flowers too. They were truly hideous, yet smelled fantastic. He began to sniff them, and then accidentally inhaled Eglė’s scent as well. DLKT
(199) It won’t protect you from thieves, but if by chance later there were an opportunity to negotiate the price after finding your antenna, that would be a very compelling argument. (http://www.cbforumas.lt/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=913&start=90)
(200) As they say, I went through hell, but when I really ran out of strength, when I reached my limit, Henrik was waiting for me there, and from then on, always I was happy. DLKT
(201) Practically always afterward the spiteful director has to withstand attacks over pay raises. (https://www.facebook.com/webaslt/photos/a.378911952127509.96278.126768314008542/881984141820285/)
(202) Sergejus Žigunovas promises to start showing “Queen Margot” in April, and soon afterward perhaps “The Countess de Monsoreau” as well. DLKT
(203) ...it turned out that, when they reach 10–12 years of age, eels swim to the ocean and make a long journey to the Sargasso Sea, where they spawn and soon afterward die. DLKT
52. Future-tense adverbs and duration adverbs: Tfuture > Aspdurative, e.g.:
(204) The conversation turned to children, Vaclovas’s family, and then got sidetracked for a long time by politics again. DLKT
(205) Of course, it is very bad that, when the Lithuanian Citizenship Law was adopted, and for a long time afterward the wrong done by the occupation to Lithuanian children driven into emigration was not remedied. DLKT
(206) If a production has not been staged for a long time or new soloists have been engaged, we always call in the directors again; they restore it, correct the details, and rehearse with the new soloists. DLKT
(207) This question must be raised again. DLKT
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54. Necessity adverbs and frequency adverbs: Modnecessity > / < Aspfrequentative, e.g.:
(208) Carpets and rugs are undesirable in a child’s room, but if there are any, be sure to vacuum them often or shake them out outdoors. DLKT
(209) Most often, his wife would teach me. Every time, she would be sure to treat me to something. DLKT
(210) My firstborn is a Cancer, a true Cancer. Whatever you say, whether deliberately or by accident, they’ll be sure to do the opposite, while the second is a Gemini. (http://www.mamanija.lt/klausimai/4/ar-vaiko-charakterio-savybes-priklauso-nuo-vaiko-gimimo-datos/rikiavimas/geriausi-atsakymai)
(211) Bet specialiai būtinai nusifotografuokit su šypsena. (http://www.vinted.lt/forumai/paplepejimai-ivairiomis-temomis/931368-ko-kia-nuotrauka-deti-i-cv)
(216) On the other hand, if someone dreams of their own death, it does not mean that they will necessarily die soon. (http://www.delfi.lt/pilietis/voxpopuli/pranasiski-sapnai-seimoje-pranese-apie-tragedija.d?id=66233028)
(217) “If there is one work by an artist at home, another will soon surely appear too,” joked E. Grucienė. (http://www.sekunde.lt/kultura/paveikslai-atveria-amzinybes-langa/)
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(218) – So perhaps most often try to send after? DLKT
(219) I think there are many reasons why children run away from home. Perhaps most often it is due to a lack of love; they feel unwanted; domestic violence. (http://www.klaustukai.lt/1144/kodel-vaikai-bega-is-namu)
(224) At first she remained invisible, and perhaps deliberately she tried to hide, so now it seemed as if she had emerged from nothingness. DLKT
(225) Indeed, the restriction on the scale of construction perhaps unintentionally also played a positive role, leaving this market in Lithuania less overheated than in Latvia or Estonia, but it is hardly possible to continue acting this way... DLKT
(226) She came back without taking off her shoes, so perhaps already she's caught a chill... DLKT
(227) Have you perhaps already held the book in your hands? – I ask the writer, traveler, photographer, and actress when we meet in the capital, in a place located in Žvėrynas... (http://www.alfa.lt/straipsnis/49787268/keliautoja-aukstakalnyte-hansen-afrika-yra-jausmai-o-kinija-darbas-protui)
(234) He grew a fine beard, perhaps soon he will become the toast of the salons. DLKT
(235) ...from beneath the layers of plaster, it was possible to bring to the surface the image of the one who perhaps soon will be raised to the honors of the altar, since as early as 1900 Lithuanian Americans submitted a petition to Pope Leo XIII to have Father Andrius Rudamina declared a saint. DLKT
(236) However perhaps briefly I will show how it can be explained that the difference is very great. DLKT
(237) Now, for littering there is a 690 Lt fine, so perhaps once he pays his entire pension, maybe briefly he'll calm down:). (http://jonavoszinios.lt/naujienos/d%C4%971-keistuolio-kaimyno-elgesio-%E2%80%93-nuola-tin%C4%97-baim%C4%97.html)
(248) A shy smile usually quickly disappears from the face. DLKT
(249) If such a patient is admitted to hospital 48 hours after the arrhythmia begins, restoration of the rhythm usually urgently is not possible; the blood must be thinned with orfarin for at least 3 weeks, and antiarrhythmic drugs prescribed. (http://www.pasveik.lt/lt/atsakymai-pagal-organu-sistemas/sirdies-ir-kraujagysliu-sistema/1948/?psl=3)
(250) The hostess did not attend such feasts, usually already gone. DLKT
(251) When choosing data collection methods, the researcher usually already knows what will be studied and who may have the necessary information. DLKT
(252) From the 8th century onward, graves usually already no longer contained either silver neck rings or bracelets. DLKT
(253) Moreover, after buying a “white-label” PC, you usually can no longer upgrade anything in it—the video card, network card, or other peripherals are integrated into the motherboard. DLKT
(256) Otherwise, it may become just another formality, which people usually quickly get used to. DLKT
(257) Usually, soon we will die of cancer: how this relates to occupation, lifestyle, and place of residence (http://www.delfi.lt/sveikata/sveikatos-naujienos/netrukus-dazniausiai-mirsime-nuo-ve-
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zio—how this relates to one’s profession, way of life, and place of residence.d?id=63179186)
(258) Scoundrels! Yesterday they deliberately again poured salt into the soup and burned the pasta, snatched his portrait from the novel “Icosameron” and hung it on the outhouse door… DLKT
(259) And he said to himself, “Sh-sh!”, because he accidentally again began speaking more loudly. DLKT
(266) Apolonija thought for a long time again. (Ul vydas, 1971: 471)
(267) During the third quarter, the strengthening current flows in the opposite direction, and after reaching its maximum value, weakens during the last quarter of the period and briefly becomes zero again. DLKT
(268) After a while, when the neighbors at the table as usual again gathered a little sugar for him, the Professor refused: “Thank you, no more needed. There probably won’t be a war after all, and I’ve collected enough sugar to fill two shoeboxes.
DLKT
(269) It happens that hedgehogs decide to go without food for as long as three days, and afterwards again behave normally. (http://www.eziai.lt/pasveta.php)
(270) Incidentally, it should be recalled here that in 1882 the tsarist government once again completely banned Jews from engaging in agriculture—they had to move from the countryside to the cities.
DLKT
(271) Someone’s been here before Alex. Ian Ryder. Probably. He must have managed to unlock it and not fully close it again, getting ready to come in again. DLKT
(272) After a while I would wet the presents, but later, when I felt well again, I took them out and have kept them at home ever since. DLKT
(273) - Nebūk toks išdidus ir abejingas savo likimui, gerai dar pagalvok. DLKT
87. Frequency adverbs and volitional adverbs: Aspfrequentative > / < Modvolitional, e.g.:
(274) Kalbėkite aiškiai, per dažnai tyčia nešvepluokite. DLKT
(275) O ką jau kalbėti, kad netyčia dažnai susižeidžiu:D (http://www.likimas.lt/sveikata-pagal-zodiako-zenkla/5.rkp.html)
88. Frequency adverbs and speed adverbs: Aspfrequentative > / < Aspcelerative, e.g.:
(276) You know yourself how sometimes quickly rumors spread. DLKT
(277) Having worked as social educators for many years, we know how urgently sometimes advice, counseling, or simply support is needed. (http://www.socped.lt/index.php/skubi-konsultacija.html)
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89. Frequency adverbs and precedence adverbs: Aspfrequentative > / < Tanterior, e.g.:
(278) People of this age often already have a steady job, but do not yet have financial obligations or dependents... DLKT
(279) They, students at least, sometimes already pronounce unstressed final syllables too weakly, swallowing them. DLKT
90. Frequency adverbs and completion adverbs: Aspfrequentative > / < Aspterminative, e.g.:
(280) Adult children suffer pressure, but often already lack the strength, do not want to, or perhaps do not know how to change anything. DLKT
(281) The hyphen is sometimes already deemed unsatisfactory: e.g., Dentist: both a doctor and a designer. DLKT
91. Frequency adverbs and continuative adverbs: Aspfrequentative > / < Aspcontinuative, e.g.:
(282) The demise of Mycenaean culture is sometimes still called a mystery, although culprits are increasingly often being identified. DLKT
(283) They go on to offer their comments: “I started reading Vakarinės naujienos recently; until then I often used to leaf through Respublika.” DLKT
92. Frequency adverbs and proximity adverbs: Aspfrequentative > / < Aspproximative, e.g.:
(284) They all begin wonderfully, the imagination is stirred at once, but quite often quickly it subsides. DLKT
(285) Some venture to try earning their own living, but soon often return to their parents. DLKT
(286) If a child deliberately behaves badly, be firm and decisive. (http://www.bendraamziai.lt/?Page=109&Vp=316&lang=)
(287) A small child does not behave badly on purpose—he lacks sufficient experience and does not know that being hit hurts. (http://www.manosveikata.lt/lt/temos/tevai-ir-vaikai/kai-siauteja-mazasis-tornadas)
(290) The Santariškės Blood Center still urgently needs blood donors with A(II) positive blood type. (http://www.15min.lt/naujiena/ziniosgy-vai/sveikata/skubiai-reikalingi-a-ii-teig-grupes-kraujo-dono-rai-541-455056)
(291) Urgently still needed: a plastic-window installer who speaks German (Fenster-Installarmeister). (http://darbo-skelbimai.balsas.lt/lt/skelbimas/siulomas_darbas/2668153/)
(292) “According to the strategy, by now already the capacity of intersections should have been addressed, along with widening the streets, but this has not been implemented, like many other things,” says a PDP representative. DLKT
(293) As you know, by now already nine such symposiums have taken place. DLKT
(294) Pride once again prevailed, as it always did. DLKT
(295) However, this positivist idea of comparison denies the holistic nature of the historical process: the interpreter is “always already” involved in it. DLKT
(296) Between past and future, the present is a dimension of enjoyment, suffering, and initiative: the capacity to get involved, which we have only just discussed. DLKT
(297) When I was admitted to the Writers’ Union in 1971, I would have only just received it, so I did not take part in those distributions. DLKT
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(304) Pagyvenę pusę metų Amerikoje, jie abu jau gerai išmoko kalbėti angliškai. DLKT
(305) Here I am, Ingrida Rajunčiūtė. I want to do the renovation myself, with my own hands, but I don't know where to start. After I read this, I now know very well already where I need to begin; this is excellent literature. (http://remontuokim.lt/remonto-medziagos/kas-yra-silikoninis-hermetikas.php)
(310) In short, I still don’t know well which one I got pregnant by. DLKT
(311) Until now it is not well understood how nanometer-sized particles interact with other materials, especially with body tissues. (http://rtn.elektro-nika.lt/mi/0304/kiek.html)
(312) They say that in ancient times there used to be enchanted objects. You could leave them anywhere; anyone could steal them—but they always soon found their way back into your hands. DLKT
(313) To a person whom he is seeing for the first time in his life, whom he does not know at all and whom he will probably soon never again see. DLKT
(314) The allergist always asks at length and very carefully about the patient and their illness. DLKT
(315) Vowels are pronounced always short before double consonants and in closed syllables, e.g., der Kuss, bitten, die Katze. (http://vokie-ciu24.lt/vokieciu-kalbos-abecele)
18 Only one example was found in which a duration adverb was used before a continuative adverb. This order was most likely due to the duration adverb being used together with the adverb tiek.
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108. Adverbs of totality and manner adverbs: Aspperfect > / < Aspgeneric, e.g.:
(316) Fishing nuances. Do bream always behave typically? (http://ww-w.15min.lt/naujiena/laisvalaikis/zukle/zukles-niuansai-ar-visada-karsiai-elgiasi-tipiskai-144-167051)19
(317)... student pranks, Latin and medicinal spirits, a host of novelties to adapt to, and an older sister who does not adapt, as usual, always keeps quiet about her shortcomings until she tries everything herself and ends up battered on the other side... DLKT
109. Adverbs of totality and quality adverbs: Aspperfect > / < Voice, e.g.:
(318) She deftly reset dislocations and stitched wounds that always healed well and did not suppurate. DLKT
(319) People, think about it, think very carefully, always before buying any animal! (http://www. gyvunupaieska.lt/lt/news/view/id/67072)
110. Duration adverbs and manner adverbs: Aspdurative > Aspgeneric, e.g.:
(320) At dinner—we planned to grill sausages on the lakeshore—we were the first this time. Mainly because Tania did not put on makeup for the usual half an hour. DLKT
(321) During those two weeks, we would spend not two hours each, as usual, but five hours at her place. DLKT
(324) Young people today hardly read any books at all. What do you think about that? (http://ask.fm/KarinaMcGrath/answer/110064182451)
(325) Matome, kaip saulė pasirodo vis mažiau ir mažiau, lyg ją kas temptų prie žemės. Tuoj jos visai beveik nematysime gal kokius 4 mėnesius. DLKT
Summary statistics are presented in Table 3.
19 Cf. also the use of these adverbs side by side: His water-resistant items are usually more expensive. At least the high-quality ones. (http://forumas.gps.lt/viewtopic.php?f=28&t=2739&sid=341c6c58beb11f70637eb86efedc4475&start=0)
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TABLE 3. Two patterns of adverb use
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As can be seen, the two adverbs are very often used in two patterns in Lithuanian: such cases make up almost two-thirds of all the examples found (113 cases in total). The adverbs most often used in this order are Modepistemic (18 of 23 possible cases) and Moodevidential (17 of 23); somewhat less often, Modpossibility, Tanterior (16 cases each), and Asprepetetive (15 of 23 cases) adverbs occur in this order. The other adverbs are used in two patterns somewhat less often. All this shows that, in these cases, the meanings of the adverbs do not affect their position in the sentence.
D. The final subsection consists of cases where no examples were found of two particular adverbs occurring together in a single sentence. Therefore, it was not possible to establish the relative order of these adverbs. I will now present all these cases:
1. Probability adverbs and characteristic adverbs: Modepistemic? Aspgeneric.
2. Past-time adverbs and completive adverbs: Tpast? Aspterminative.
3. Past-time adverbs and continuative adverbs: Tpast? Aspcontinuative.
4. Past-time adverbs and absolute adverbs: Tpast? Aspperfect.
5. Past-time adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Tpast? Aspretrospective.
6. Future-time adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Tfuture? Aspretrospective.
7. Irrealis adverbs and necessity adverbs: Modirrealis? Modnecessity.
8. Irrealis adverbs and possibility adverbs: Modirrealis? Modpossibility.
9. Irrealis adverbs and habituality adverbs: Modirrealis? Asphabitual.
10. Irrealis adverbs and frequency adverbs: Modirrealis? Aspfrequentative.
11. Irrealis adverbs and volitional adverbs: Modirrealis? Modvolitional.
12. Irrealis adverbs and rapidity adverbs: Modirrealis? Aspcelerative.
13. Irrealis adverbs and absolute adverbs: Modirrealis? Aspperfect.
14. Irrealis adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Modirrealis? Aspretrospective.
15. Irrealis adverbs and characteristic adverbs: Modirrealis? Aspgeneric.
16. Irrealis adverbs and prospective adverbs: Modirrealis? Aspprospective.
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17. Irrealis adverbs and completive adverbs: Modirrealis? Aspsg.completive·
18. Irrealis adverbs and manner adverbs: Modirrealis? Voice.
19. Necessity adverbs and completive adverbs: Modnecessity? Aspterminative·
20. Necessity adverbs and continuative adverbs: Modnecessity? Aspcontinuative·
21. Necessity adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Modnecessity? Aspretrospective·
22. Necessity adverbs and prospective adverbs: Modnecessity? Aspprospective·
23. Necessity adverbs and completive adverbs: Modnecessity? Aspsg.completive·
24. Possibility adverbs and characteristic adverbs: Modpossibility? Aspgeneric·
25. Habitual adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Asphabitual? Aspretrospective·
26. Habitual adverbs and characteristic adverbs: Asphabitual? Aspgeneric·
27. Repetitive adverbs and absolute adverbs: Asprepetitive? Aspperfect·
28. Frequency adverbs and absolute adverbs: Aspfrequentative? Aspperfect·
29. Frequentative adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Aspfrequentative? Aspretrospective·
30. Volitional adverbs and precedence adverbs: Modvolitional? Tanterior·
31. Volitional adverbs and completive adverbs: Modvolitional? Aspterminative·
32. Volitional adverbs and continuative adverbs: Modvolitional? Aspcontinuative·
33. Volitional adverbs and proximative adverbs: Modvolitional? Aspproximative·
34. Volitional adverbs and characteristic adverbs: Modvolitional? Aspgeneric·
35. Volitional adverbs and prospective adverbs: Modvolitional? Aspprospective·
36. Accelerative adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspcelerative? Aspterminative·
37. Accelerative adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Aspcelerative? Aspretrospective·
38. Accelerative adverbs and proximative adverbs: Aspcelerative? Aspproximative·
39. Accelerative adverbs and prospective adverbs: Aspcelerative? Aspprospective·
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40. Celerative adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspcelerative? Aspsg.completive·
41. Celerative adverbs and quality adverbs: Aspcelerative? Voice.
42. Priority adverbs and terminative adverbs: Tanterior? Aspterminative·
43. Terminative adverbs and continuative adverbs: Aspterminative? Aspcontinuative·
44. Terminative adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspterminative? Aspperfect·
45. Terminative adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Aspterminative? Aspretrospective·
46. Terminative adverbs and characteristic adverbs: Aspterminative? Aspgeneric·
47. Continuative adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspcontinuative? Aspretrospective·
48. Continuative adverbs and proximity adverbs: Aspcontinuative? Aspproximative·
49. Completive adverbs and retrospective adverbs: Aspperfect? Aspretrospective·
50. Retrospective adverbs and proximity adverbs: Aspretrospective? Aspproximative·
51. Retrospective adverbs and durative adverbs: Aspretrospective? Aspdurative·
52. Retrospective adverbs and characteristic adverbs: Aspretrospective? Aspgeneric·
53. Retrospective adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspretrospective? Aspsg.completive·
54. Retrospective adverbs and quality adverbs: Aspretrospective? Voice.
55. Proximity adverbs and characteristic adverbs: Aspproximative? Aspgeneric·
56. Duration adverbs and predictability adverbs: Aspdurative > Aspprospective·
57. Characteristic adverbs and completive adverbs: Aspgeneric? Aspsg.completive·
58. Predictability adverbs and quality adverbs: Aspprospective? Voice.
In all these cases, the ordering of the adverbs is undetermined.
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6. SUMMARY
According to St. Wilson and A. Saygin, in Turkish; according to A. Bhatia, in Hindi; and according to F. Beijer, in Swedish, two adverbs are ordered relative to each other in most cases as specified in Cinque’s hierarchy:
„In most of the clear cases, the ordering restrictions go in the direction predicted by Cinque’s hierarchy“ (Wilson, Saygin 2001: 3).
„I conclude that Hindi follows the hierarchy of AdvPs proposed by Cinque for the most part“ (Bhatia 2006: 23–24).
„What I can say, however, is that the hierarchies that I arrived at by the use of my two corpora seem to match the hierarchy presented in Cinque (1999)“ (Beijer 2002: 14).
E. Zyman’s data showed that the use of adverbs in English could not confirm Cinque’s hierarchy. I recall that, in constructing his hierarchy, Cinque not only cites but also draws on data from English. Of the 34 adverb pairs examined by E. Zyman, only 9 pairs occur in the order specified by Cinque in his hierarchy; examples for 2 pairs were not found, while the remaining 23 adverb pairs occur in an order different from that specified in Cinque’s hierarchy20. Thus, Zyman concludes that “the result of this investigation was that the Cinque hierarchy faces considerable empirical difficulties in accounting for the facts of English adverb ordering” (Zyman 2011–2012: 131).
Table 4 below indicates the order in which adverbs discussed by Cinque in his work are used relative to each other in Lithuanian. Only usage tendencies for pairs of the closest adverbs, i.e. those listed consecutively in Cinque’s hierarchy, are presented.
As can be seen, examples were not found for 5 of the 22 pairs listed; 2 pairs were used in the reverse order to that specified in Cinque’s hierarchy; 5 pairs are used as specified in Cinque’s hierarchy; and 10 pairs are used in both ways, i.e. both in accordance with Cinque’s hierarchy and in the reverse order. Thus, we may assume that, among all the cases listed by Cinque, the order of two adverbs relative to each other in a sentence is most often not strictly fixed in Lithuanian and may vary.
Now let us summarize all the cases discussed in this article. As already mentioned, of all the adverbs listed in Cinque’s hierarchy that are applicable to Lithuanian, it is possible to form 253 combinations of two adverbs. No examples were found for 58 combinations. Of the remaining 195 combinations, according to
20 The empirical data obtained are presented in Appendix 2.
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62 pairs are used in Cinque’s hierarchy21, 20 pairs are used in the reverse order to that specified in Cinque’s hierarchy22, and 113 pairs are used in both ways23. All this is presented in Table 5 (the + symbol means that a pair of two adverbs is used as specified in Cinque’s hierarchy, the - symbol means that the pair is used contrary to what is specified in Cinque’s hierarchy, the x symbol means that no examples of such pairs were found, and the 2 symbol means that these pairs are used in two ways).
TABLE 4. Patterns of use of two adverbs in a sentence24
24 Only pairs attested in Lithuanian are indicated.
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TABLE 5. Patterns of adverb use
Mood evidential; Mood epistemic; T past; T future; Mood irrealis; Mood necessity; Mood possibility; Asp habitual; Asp repetitive; Asp frequentative; Mood volitional; Asp celerative; T anterior; Asp terminative; Asp continuative; Asp perfect; Asp retrospective; Asp approximative; Asp durative; Asp generic; Asp prospective; Asp sg. completive; Voice
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Cinque’s hierarchy is very finely subdivided: it consists of categories of mood, tense, modality, and aspect. Some foreign scholars believe that certain categories fall into groups in which the order of adverbs might be less rigid²⁵. However, the abundant data from Lithuanian do not confirm this. The semantic basis also does not explain differences in adverb order; the use of adverbs in one order or another is rather haphazard and does not allow any system to be established. Most likely, the semantic basis can only predict whether one, two, or more adverbs will be used in a sentence. Nor can we claim that the sentence’s information structure affects differences in order. In the sentences collected, the adverbs occur next to one another rather than being moved to the beginning or end of the sentence, as happens when one wishes to single out or emphasize a particular part of the sentence. It is entirely possible that a difference in meaning may be concealed in different patterns involving the same adverbs, but unfortunately this could not be demonstrated syntactically or semantically. Thus, the true nature of Cinque’s adverb hierarchy remains unclear. Incidentally, the question arises whether the adverbs selected by Cinque really form a hierarchy.
What can we confidently claim after reviewing the Lithuanian data? We can claim that Cinque’s adverb hierarchy is not universal (which would mean that it cannot be used as an argument proving that adverbs are specifiers in a sentence), that the Lithuanian data cannot confirm it, that in Lithuanian certain adverbs tend to be used before others in a sentence in some cases, but that most often the order of two adverbs relative to each other in a sentence is nevertheless free and may vary, and that Lithuanian adverbs do not form any hierarchy according to their semantics.
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A m b r a z a s V y t a u t a s, e d., 1997: Lithuanian Grammar. Vilnius: Baltos lankos.
A m b r a z a s V y t a u t a s, e d., 1996: Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian. Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing.
25 „Data shows that all the adverbs are naturally grouped into a few classes. The data shows that within each class, the order of adverbs may not be as rigidly fixed as it is between adverbs belonging to different classes“ (Bhatia 2006: 23–24); „ [...] the differences among many of the categories are very fine-grained [...] I will not attempt a featural breakdown of these categories, but it is clear that they, to a degree, fall into “fields” and that, within these fields, differences may be rather subtle“ (Roberts 2010: 17).
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Čižik-Prokaševa Veslava 2011: Lietuvių kalbos linksnių hierarchija. Humanitarinių mokslų daktaro disertacija. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.
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Ernst Thomas 2000: Semantic Features and the Distribution of Adverbs. – ZAS Papers in Linguistics 17. Berlin: ZAS, 79–97.
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Frey Werner and Pittner Karin 1999: Adverbialpositionen im deutsch-englischen Vergleich. – Sprachspezifische Aspekte der Informationsverteilung, ed. by Doherty Monika. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag (Reihe studia grammatica), 14–40.
Holvoet Axel 2003: Sujungiamieji ir prijungiamieji sakiniai formos bei funkcijos požiūriu. – Sintaksinių ryšių tyrimai (Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos darbai 1), red. Holvoet Axel, Judžentis Artūras. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 99–114.
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Asppl.completive (adverbs of the degree of completion) Eng. tutto Lith. all
Voice (quality adverbs) Eng. well Lith. well, badly
26 The table presents terms translated by the author, rather than terms used in Lithuanian linguistics. Lithuanian syntax books and grammars distinguish manner adverbs and circumstantial adverbs (the latter comprise adverbs of place, time, cause, and purpose).
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APPENDIX 2
Table of results obtained by Erik Zyman27
a. Moodkalbos aktas° (honestly) > Moodevaluative° (unfortunately) | no b. Moodevaluative° (unfortunately) > Moodevidential° (allegedly) | yes (c.) Moodkalbos aktas° (honestly) > Moodevidential° (allegedly) | yes d. Modevidential° (allegedly/clearly) > Modepistemic° (probably) | no e. Modepistemic° (probably) > T(Past)° (once) | (no) f. T(Past)° (once) > T(Future)° (then) | no g. T(Future)° (then) > Modirrealis° (perhaps) | no (h.) Modepistemic° (probably) > Modirrealis° (perhaps) | (yes) (i.) Modepistemic° (probably) > Modirrealis° ([almost] certainly) | no j. Modirrealis° (perhaps) > Modnecessity° (necessarily) | no k. Modirrealis° (perhaps) > Modnecessity° (not necessarily) | (no) l. Modnecessity° ([not] necessarily) > Modpossibility° (possibly) | no m. Modpossibility° (possibly) > Asphabitual° (usually) | yes n. Asphabitual° (usually) > Asprepetitive(I)° (again) | no o. Asprepetitive(I)° (again) > Aspfrequentative(I)° (often) | (yes) (p.) Asphabitual° (usually) > Aspfrequentative(I)° (often) | no q. Aspfrequentative(I)° (often) > Modvolitional° (intentionally) | no r. Modvolitional° (intentionally) > Aspcelerative(I)° (quickly) | (no) s. Aspcelerative(I)° (quickly) > T(Anterior)° (already) | no t. T(Anterior)° (already) > Aspterminative° (no longer) | no u. Aspterminative° (no longer) > Aspcontinuative° (still) | (no) v. Aspcontinuative° (still) > Aspperfect(?)° (always) | (no) w. Aspperfect(?)° (always) > Aspretrospective° (just) | yes x. Aspretrospective° (just) > Aspproximative° (soon) | no y. Aspproximative° (soon) > Aspdurative° (briefly) | yes z. Aspdurative° (briefly) > Aspgeneric/progressive° (characteristically) | no aa. Aspgeneric/progressive° (characteristically) > Aspprospective° (almost) | yes bb. Aspprospective° (almost) > AspSgCompletive(I)° (completely) | yes cc. AspSgCompletive(I)° (completely) > Voice° (well) | – dd. Voice° (well) > Aspcelerative(II)° (fast/early) | no ee. Aspcelerative(II)° (fast/early) > Asprepetitive(II)° (again) | no ff. Aspfrequentative(II)° (often) > Aspfrequentative(II)° (often) | no gg. AspSgCompletive(II)° (completely) > AspSgCompletive(II)° (completely) | – hh. domain adverbs > {Mood speech act° (honestly), Mood evaluative° (unfortunately), Mood evidential° (evidently), Mood epistemic° (probably), temporal adverbs (now), Mod irrealis° (perhaps), subject-oriented adverbs (wisely)} | no
27 Žr. Zyman 2011–2012: 71t. Raidės skliaustuose žymi atvejus, kurie nebuvo įtraukti į Cinque’ės hierarchiją, o žodžiai taip / ne skliaustuose nurodo, kad autoriui šie atvejai nėra visiškai aiškūs.
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Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVIII
Page 67
Cinque’s prieveiksmių hierarchija ir lietuvių kalbos duomenys
Cinque’s Hierarchy of Adverbs and the Findings of the Lithuanian Language
SUMMARY
By referring to the so called universal hierarchy of clausal functional projections developed by Cinque, the article describes the relative order of sentential adverbs in the Lithuanian language. The article is based on the examples from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language of the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas as well as the examples found through the web search engine Google. The article does not only discuss the relative order of adjacent adverb pairs in Cinque’s hierarchy (as it is done by Cinque and other linguists mentioned in the article) but also the relative position of all adverbs in the hierarchy.
After summarising the tendencies of usage of 22 adverb pairs given in Cinque’s hierarchy, it was established that examples were not found in the case of 5 pairs; 2 pairs were used in the opposite order compared to Cinque’s hierarchy; 5 pairs were used as specified in Cinque’s hierarchy, whereas 10 pairs were used in two ways, i.e. both in line with Cinque’s hierarchy and contrary to it) (see Table 4 in the article). Hence, it can be assumed that out of all the cases laid down by Cinque, the relative order of two adverbs in a sentence is usually not strictly defined and may vary in Lithuanian.
Out of all the adverbs specified in Cinque’s hierarchy and applicable to the Lithuanian language, 253 two-adverb combinations can be made. After summarising all the combinations discussed in the article, it was determined that examples were not found in case of 58 combinations. Out of 195 remaining combinations, 62 pairs are used pursuant to Cinque’s hierarchy; 20 pairs are used in the opposite order compared to Cinque’s hierarchy, whereas 113 pairs are used in both ways. All that is provided in Table 5 in the article (symbol + means that the pair of two adverbs is used as specified in Cinque’s hierarchy; symbol − means that the pair is used contrary to the order established in Cinque’s hierarchy; symbol x means that no examples were found for such a pair; symbol 2 means that the pair is used in both ways).
The findings of the Lithuanian language show that Cinque’s hierarchy of clausal functional projections is not universal and the Lithuanian findings cannot confirm it; that in some cases some adverbs tend to precede others in Lithuanian, though usually the relative order of two adverbs in a sentence is free and may vary; and that Lithuanian adverbs do not constitute any hierarchy based on semantics.
