Over the past decade, more than one hundred and twenty neologisms1—new formations containing the element (-)tinkl-—have appeared in usage, e.g.: ikitinklinis, įtinklinti, tinklaraštininkauti, tinklumas, tinklalapynas, supertinklas, tinklaerdvė, plepatinklis, mikrotinklaraštininkas. These are the subject of this article: a qualitative and quantitative analysis is conducted of the structure and usage of 123 neologisms2—their distribution by part of speech, origin, word-formation methods and types, and derivational categories. The typicality of the new formations is discussed, along with (briefly) questions concerning their relationship to new loanwords with diverse roots, their functions, and their lexicalization and socialization, that is, their establishment in the language system and usage.
1. First, it should be noted that the element uniting the neologisms discussed in this article—the noun tinklas (English network)—can also be considered a neologism, but, unlike the new lexemes belonging to the research sample, it is classified as a new sememe. In the digital age, this word has acquired a new, internet-related meaning3: in computing dictionaries
1 In the article, a neologism is traditionally understood as any newly emerged word. A neologism may be newly borrowed, newly coined, or may have arisen as a result of semantic development. In Lithuanian linguistics, these are usually called new loanwords, coinages, and semantic neologisms. A coinage is traditionally understood more narrowly: it is a neologism that has arisen through word formation, that is, a new formation (see: Urbutis 1978: 28–29; Jakaitienė 1980: 82–84; Offord 2001: 98; Girčienė 2006: 74–75, etc.).
2 This many neologisms containing the element (-)tinkl- were identified in written and electronic usage up to August 2011. To establish the full set, the entire possible derivational paradigm was additionally checked using the general internet search engine Google, covering all hypothetical derivatives and compounds of the noun tinklas.
3 Plg. Miliūnaitė 2010: 109; šį atvejį būtų galima interpretuoti ir kaip terminologizuotą bendrinės kalbos žodžio tinklas reikšmę, t. y. „susisiekimo, kelių, ryšių ir kt. linijų sistema“ (DLKŽ, LKŽ).
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network is defined as “a group of computers and other devices connected by communication lines in such a way that data can be exchanged between them,” while “the internet is considered the largest computer network” (EKŽ). It is understandable that many neologisms belonging to the word-formation nest of the computational term network are also computer-science terms performing a referential function. It should be noted that a considerable number of them arose as equivalents of recent borrowings with diverse roots, e.g.: web page ((veb)peidžas, English web page), world wide web (vebas, English World Wide, Web), subnetwork (subnetas, English subnet, subnetwork), blog (blogas, English blog).
2. Among the neologisms, as is usual during stages of nomination expansion (Цуруна 1984: 181; Cichocki 1996: 779), nouns predominate (77%; e.g., video blogger). Verbs are almost six times less frequent (14%; e.g., to network), adjectives eleven times less frequent (7%; e.g., network-active), and there are only a few adverbs (2%; e.g., in a web-like manner).
FIG. 1. Distribution by parts of speech (percent)
3. Most (80%) of the new formations are Lithuanian, e.g., network friend. Only one fifth (20%) of the neologisms are hybrid, i.e., they contain a borrowed element as well, e.g., photoblog (cf. the borrowing fotoblogas, English photoblog). Among hybrid formations, compounds are the most numerous (16; e.g., mega-network); international-prefix derivatives are almost three times fewer (6; e.g., subnetwork); the rarest are neologisms with non-Lithuanian suffixes (3; e.g., networker).
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4. Most of the neologisms under discussion are considered typical formations. They represent all word-formation methods4 (see Fig. 2).
FIG. 2. Distribution of neologisms by word-formation methods (percentages)
About half (48%) of the neologisms are compounds, e.g., network person. Fewer than one third (16) of the 59 compounds are hybrid, e.g., scout network. It is worth noting that about half of these compounds are hybrids of compounds and international elements, previously atypical in Lithuanian word formation, e.g., video blog. In 53 compounds, one constituent is the noun network; in 6, it is blog, e.g.: work network, pseudo-blog. It should be noted that even more neologisms have a compound stem; together with compounds, they make up more than half of the sample of neologisms under study—73 items in total—because 14 (multi-stage) compounds serve as base words for derivatives, e.g., photo blogger, to blog. The abundance of derivatives formed from compounds should be regarded as a new word-formation tendency that has become apparent in recent decades (Keinys 1979: 155; Gaivenis 1980: 31; Mikelionienė 2000: 10–12, 17; Girčienė 2005: 53–54 et al.). This is probably driven by the need for more precise nomination that facilitates communication, reflected in the tendency to bring the lexical and word-formation meanings of a formation closer together (for more detail, see Girčienė 2005: 54 et al.)5. Such processes are characteristic of other
4Reflexive derivatives are treated as representatives of a separate word-formation method according to DLKG: 406–409.
5When a formation is used as a lexical unit, its motivation—that is, the meaning arising from the formation’s own structure—would seem to recede into the background (Gaivenis 1996: 31). However, formations are secondary nominative units in which information is recorded not only about a particular object in reality but also about certain relations between things in reality and the words that name them (Jakaitienė 1988: 24, 92). As long as the motivation of a formation remains clear, its functioning
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FIG. 3. Distribution of suffixes by number of derivatives
therefore differs from the simple word. The word-formation structure indicates guidelines for its use and prevents the lexical meaning from extending beyond certain limits (Urbutis 1978: 56–64). Of the various lexical variants, those whose phonetic form is unambiguous and maximally informative generally become established in usage (Urbutis 1978: 63–65; Haugenas 1994: 23; Skardžius 1997: 79–80; Girčienė 2005: 107–127).
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Suffixal derivatives are only slightly less frequent than compounds (36%), e.g., tinklija. Prefixal derivatives make up about a tenth (11%) of the new formations, e.g., betinklis. Reflexive derivatives are very rare (3%; e.g., įsitinklinti), as are inflectional-ending derivatives (2%), e.g., tinklius. A total of 20 different suffixes were used to form 64 derivatives, three of them non-Lithuanian (see Fig. 3); 12 different prefixes, five of foreign origin: two derivatives each with the prefixes ne- and super-; one each with be-, į-, iš-, po-, už-; one derivative each with anti-, inter-, meta-, sub-. There are two different inflectional endings, with one derivative each in -is and -us. Nominal formations predominate among the derivatives (73%; 47), while verbal derivatives account for less than a third (27%; 17). Figure 3 shows that the most productive formatives are the suffixes -imas and -ininkas.6
5. It has already been noted that most of the neologisms under study containing the element (-)tinkl- are nouns, and therefore they will receive the most attention below. Compounds also predominate among the 95 nouns (62%); suffixal derivatives are less than half as numerous (29%), prefixal derivatives account for less than a tenth (7%), and inflectional-ending derivatives are the rarest (2%).
5.1. Most (75%)—44 out of 59—of the compounds, as is usual in Lithuanian (cf. DLKG 151; Keinys 1999: 69), are formed with a noun as the second constituent. The most popular noun among them is tinklas: 21 compounds have this second constituent, almost half of them with a linking vowel, e.g., naudatinklis. The second most frequent is the compound tinklaraštis, which belongs to the neologism sample and serves as the second constituent in six other, second-level compounds, e.g., mikrotinklaraštis. It is noteworthy that all compounds with this second constituent are hybrids: their first constituents are international elements such as foto-, video-, mikro-, makro-, and so on. In usage, these compound nouns generally compete not only with a loanword but also with its Lithuanian two-word equivalent: cf. audiotinklaraštis and audioblogas, garso tinklaraštis. Among the compounds with tinklas as the second constituent, almost half are hybrids, e.g., megatinklas. Some belong to atypical, isolated-use compounds, e.g., sociatinklis. These include stylistically marked neologisms which, in addition to a referential function, also perform an emotive-expressive and metalinguistic function (cf. Jakobson 2004: 10–17 et seq.), e.g.: There is hardly any point in calling the global network
6 Words with this kind of morphemic structure can also be considered prefixal derivatives of reflexive verbs, in this case tinklintis (see V. Urbutis’s observations on formations with an unsettled order of derivational levels: Urbutis 1978: 91–93).
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narrow it down or read it according to its content. Then we will also need “paskalatintinklio,” “plepatinklio,” “pornotinklio,” and so on [online comment]. Most compound nouns with a noun as the second constituent are determinative, i.e., their first constituent defines or narrows the meaning of the second (Urbutis 1961: 68; LKG I: 457; DLKG: 151).
One sixth (13) of the compounds have a verb as their second constituent, e.g., tinklavaldą. This broadly corresponds to tendencies in the formation of Lithuanian neologisms: it is claimed that only about one in five compounds has a verbal basis in its second constituent (Keinys 1999: 69). In all of them, the first constituent is a noun (tinklas), and all have the linking vowel –a–, with one exception (tinklokūra, though the synonym tinklakūra is also used). In most of the compounds under discussion, the first constituent traditionally denotes the object of the action expressed by the second, e.g., tinklas klaida. Traditionally, both constituents in compounds of this type are most often underived stems, e.g., tinklat arša (cf. Girčienė 2005: 68).
Only two compounds have different constituents: one has an adjectival constituent, tinklapalaikis; the other has a constituent expressed by a bound international element: tinklomatas (see Mikelionienė 2000: 132 et seq.).
To sum up the compounds, only a few have become established terms in computer science usage, having displaced synonymous loanwords. These include tinklalapį, tinklaraštį, žiniatinklį. The newer compounds tinklavietė, tinklaveika, tinklažmogis are also gaining currency. Incidentally, the latter is not merely an equivalent of the loanword internautas: some texts use this neologism in a specialized sense narrower than that of interneto vartotojas—namely, “young Internet pioneers aged 20–29, who are the first to want to try every new development; handling everyday affairs online is their daily routine; the Internet is essential to them as a form of self-expression and necessary for communication and leisure.” Cf. other identified types of Internet users: goal-oriented, social, inert, conservative (see http://mediametamorfozes.wordpress.com/2011/02/05/inter-neto-vartotoju-paveikslas-lietuvoje-2011-m/).
5.2. Among the new suffixed nouns (27), formed with 12 different suffixes, there are almost twice as many nominal (65%) as verbal (35%) derivatives. Overall, suffixal nouns represent six derivational categories. The largest is the category of possessors of a nominal characteristic (31%), which includes derivatives formed with three different suffixes. The most productive of these is the productive suffix of this category, –ininkas (cf. DLKG: 94). Six new formations are tinklaraštininkas, fototinklaraštininkas, mikrotinklaraštininkas, videotinklaraštininkas, tinklasaitininkas, tinklaveikininkas, whose
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The bases are also neologisms—(multi-stage) compounds containing the element -tinkl-, which denote people by profession, interest, or something associated with them (cf. DLKG: 114). Of the derivatives mentioned, the first—the equivalent of the very common new borrowing blogeris, which serves a referential function—is the most established in usage. Other neologisms containing the element -tinklarašt- and denoting narrower, partial concepts also tend to spread. Two further neologisms belonging to the category of nouns denoting bearers of a characteristic—the suffixal derivative tinkličius formed with -išius and the formation with the international suffix -istas, tinklistas—are derivatives of the noun tinklas. Usage data show that these are occasional, stylistically marked neologisms that serve not only a referential function but also an emotive-expressive and metalinguistic function, for example: On the basis of this term, one can coin others that precisely describe a specialist in some other field (even a sufficiently narrow one!) through and through (who first said tinkličius?;-) [online discussion]; Indeed, ask Algirdas; he’s our strong tinklistas☺ [online discussion]. It is worth noting that playfulness and wordplay are regarded as distinctive features of the postmodern era, which is characterized in general by a particularly high prevalence of neologisms (Lapenienė 2007; Lyotard 2010: 32 et al.).
Second in abundance of formations is the category of action names, or verbal abstracts (23%). It includes six derivatives formed with the most productive suffix in this category, -imas (cf. DLKG: 94): tinklaraštinimas, tinklaraščiavimas, tinkl(i)avimas(is), tinklėjimas, tinklinimas(is), į(si)tinklinimas. These are multi-stage, occasional formations (except for the last two), whose base words are also neologisms in the sample under study.
Somewhat fewer new formations belong to the category of characteristic-bearer nouns, or nominal abstracts (15%). These are four derivatives formed with three different suffixes: -umas, -ystė, and the international suffix -izmas. One is a first-stage formation—a not entirely typical derivative of the noun tinklas—namely, tink#lumas. Derivatives with this suffix are most often formed from adjectives (see DLKG: 100–101); cf. the other, multi-stage formation tinkliškumas. The other formations in this category, based on the sample neologisms tinklaraštystė and tinklaraštizmas, should be regarded as stylistically marked competing lexical variants; for now, like the other two, they are very rare in usage.
The derivatives formed with the suffixes -ija and -ynas, which belong to the category of place names—also accounting for 15% of neologisms—likewise tend to spread in usage. Their derivational base is also the sample neologism tinklaraštis: these are tinklaraštynas and tinklaraštija. The latter, although not entirely typical, successfully competes with the new borrowing blogosfera (for more, see Girčienė 2008).
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6. In summary, it may be said that almost one sixth of the neologisms (22) containing the element (−)tinkl− serve as base words for other new formations, which make up about one third of the entire sample (44). Most have one derivative each, for example: tinklažmogis → tinklažmogiškas; tinkl(i)uoti → tinkl(i)avimas; tinklinėti → tinklinėtojas. Several words serve as the derivational bases for two or three derivatives, for example: tinklaveika → tinklaveikininkas, tinklaveikinis; tinklalapis → tinklalapynas, tinklalapiškas, tinklalapinti. The most extensive derivational nest is that of the new compound noun tinklaraštis. This neologism is the base word for as many as 19 new formations, for example: tinklaraštis → tinklaraštininkas, tinklaraštiškas, tinklaraštija, tinklaraštynas, tinklaraščiauti, mikrotinklaraštis (see the list of neologisms for all instances). It is also an element in 8 multi-stage formations, for example: tinklaraštininkauti, tinklaraštiškai, tinklaraščiauvimas, mikrotinklaraštininkas. Neologisms containing the element (−)tinklarašt−, with clear motivation, systematic in nature (forming an adequate system vis-à-vis foreign words), relatively economical, and productive, are spreading rapidly in usage and can compete not only with doublet borrowings but also with other equivalents: cf. tinklaraštis and blogas, asmenraštis, interneto dienoraštis (for more on the tendencies in competition between borrowings with the root (−)blog− and their equivalents with various roots, more than half of which contain the element (−)tinklarašt−, see Girčienė 2008).
CONCLUSIONS
Over the past decade, 123 neologisms—new formations containing the element (−)tinkl−—have appeared in usage, for example: įsitinklinti, betinklis, žiniatinkliškai. Lithuanian neologisms predominate among them (80%); hybrid formations, such as megatinklas, make up only one fifth of the sample. Many neologisms arose as equivalents of new borrowings with various roots that serve a referential function; some of these are considered computing terms, for example žiniatinklis (vebas). Thus, word formation undoubtedly remains an important counterbalance to another way in which neologisms arise—the process of borrowing. There are also new formations, including those stylistically connoted forms especially characteristic of postmodernity, which serve emotive-expressive, metalinguistic, and other functions and are not associated with specific borrowings or computing terms, for example plepatinklis. It is characteristic of stages in the expansion of naming that nouns predominate among neologisms (77%).
Most neologisms are to be regarded as typical formations. Among the more general new tendencies in word formation, one may mention the previously uncommon in Lithuanian word formation—
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The abundance of compounds and hybrids combining native and international elements, as well as derived compounds, e.g. videotinklaraštis, tinklalapynas. Nearly half (48 percent) of the sample consists of compounds, among which determinative compounds traditionally predominate, with a noun as the second constituent, e.g. tinkladraugis. The frequency of compound words, which were previously less characteristic of Lithuanian, confirms the tendency for them to become more numerous that has emerged in recent decades. This is most likely driven by the need for more precise designations that facilitate communication: in usage, neologisms whose sound form is unambiguous and maximally informative generally become established. This reduces the burden on memory and facilitates the integration of new words into the active lexicon.
Second in frequency (36 percent) are suffixal derivatives, e.g. tinklija. About a tenth (11 percent) of the new formations are prefixal derivatives, e.g. potinklis. Reflexive (3 percent) and ending-based derivatives (2 percent) are very rare. In all, the derivatives use 20 different suffixes, 12 prefixes, and 2 endings. The most productive formatives are the suffixes –imas and –ininkas: six derivatives were found for each, belonging to the categories of verbal abstracts (e.g. tinklaraštinimas) and nouns denoting bearers of a characteristic (e.g. tinklaraštininkas), respectively.
Nearly one-sixth of the neologisms containing the element (-)tinkl- are base words for other new formations, which make up more than a third of the entire sample (36 percent). The largest derivational family belongs to the new compound noun tinklaraštis (27). Rapid processes of lexicalization and socialization—the branching out of derivation, the high frequency in usage of many neologisms, e.g. tinklalapis, tinklaraštis, tinklaraštininkas, tinklavietė, žiniatinklis, their ability to compete with loans based on diverse roots and other equivalents, and the favorable electronic discourse for most neologisms containing the element (-)tinkl-—allow us to speak of the linguistic and social insight of the neologisms’ creators and of their potential for further development.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF NEOLOGISMS CONTAINING THE ELEMENT (-)TINKL-
antitinklaraštis
audiotinklaraštis
betinklis
darbatinklis
fototinklaraštininkas
fototinklaraštis
ikitinklinis
infotinklas
intertinklas
intratinklas
išsitinklinti
ištinklinti
networking
to network oneself
to network
macroblog
meganetwork
metanetwork
microblogger
microblog
online social network
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news network
to de-network
non-network-like
backbone network
chatter network
pop network
porn network
subnetwork
pseudoblog
pseudonetwork
scout network
social network
social network
subnetwork
superblog
supernetwork
tarptinklis
tarputinklis
tauškatinklis
tinkl(i)avimas(is)
tinkl(i)uoti
tinkladarbis
tinkladarys
tinkladienis
tinkladirbis
tinkladraugis
tinklaerdvė
tinklagarsis
tinklagriuva
tinklaknygė
tinklakūra
tinklalaidė
to web-page
web page
web-page-like
web-page collection
web year
web-page temporary
web page
web panel
to blog
blogging
to blog
blogger
blogger
to become a blog
blogosphere
blogging
blogger
to blog
blog-related
to blog
blog
in a blog-like manner
blog-like
blogism
blogosphere
blogging
network site operator
network media
network pollution
network user
network [image]
network governance
network administrator
network name
network user
networking
networker
network-related
website
network knowledge
network person
network-like
networking
to network
networking
to network
networker
networked
networking
to network
networker
little network
network
networker
networker
networkness
networker
network architecture
network automaton
networking
to become networked
to connect to a network
video blogger
video blog
public network
supernetwork
World Wide Web
web-based
web browser
in a web-like manner
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Gauta 2011 11 04
NEOLOGISMS WITH THE COMPONENT (-)TINKL-
Summary
The paper examines the structure and usage of 123 recently adopted neologisms, or new words, with the element –tinkl– from the quantitative and qualitative point of view. The analysis focuses on new coinages within the word-building entry of the noun tinklas (‘network’) and their distribution according to part of speech, origin, ways and types of word-building. An attempt is made to discuss issues of typicality of new coinages as well as related issues of their relationship with alternative new loan words (containing various roots), functions as well as lexicalisation and socialization, or their entrenchment in the language system and actual usage.
As an established tendency in periods of nomination development, among neologisms nouns clearly prevail (77 per cent). A large number of neologisms have emerged as equivalents of new loan words performing a referential function, e.g. žiniatinklis (also webas) (‘web’). Therefore, it seems natural that Lithuanian coinages make up the majority (80 per cent) of all researched neologisms. Thus word building remains an important counterpart of borrowing, the other way of emerging neologisms. However, we also have neologisms which could be hardly related to any specific loan words, including words with stylistic connotations, performing an emotive and expressive, metalinguistic and other functions, characteristic of post-modern society, e.g. plepatinklis (~‘chatter-web’).
Most neologisms should be treated as typical coinages. About half of them (48 per cent) are compounds, e.g. tinkladraugis (~‘web-pal’). The abundance of compounds, which previously were not so frequent in Lithuanian, has confirmed
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a clearly identifiable tendency in their increase during the last decades. It might be concerned with a need to more detailed nomination, which makes our communication easier. The need is seen in an attempt to bring lexical and derivational meanings closer to each other. The second most frequent neologisms are suffixal derivatives (36 per cent), e.g. tinklija. About one tenth (11 per cent) of new coinages are prefixal derivatives, e.g. potinklis (‘subweb’). Reflexive and inflectional derivatives are very rare. Most productive are the formants –imas and –ininkas building abstract verbs and carriers of features, e.g. tinklaraštinimas (‘putting up on the webpage’), tinklaraštininkas (‘author of a webpage’).
Other new coinages (about one third of all the data) constitute the derivational basis of almost one sixth of the neologisms with the element (–)tinkl-. Of all derivational entries, the most abundant is the derivational entry of the noun tinklaraštis (‘webpage’, 27 coinages), e.g. tinklaraštis → tinklaraštininkas, tinklaraštinis, tinklaraštija, tinklaraštynas, audiotinklaraštis. Fast processes of lexicalisation and socialisation, which include the emergence of new derivational patterns, particularly frequent usage of some neologisms, competitiveness with loan words consisting of various roots and with their equivalents, electronic discourse favourable to many neologisms with the element (–)tinkl- lead to a discussion about linguistic insights of individual authors and the society and further development of the paradigm.
