GERTRŪDA NAKTINĖNĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

CAUSATIVE-ASSISTIVE VERBS

DICTIONARY OF THE STANDARD LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

KEYWORDS: standard language, causative-assistive verbs, usage, standardization, dictionary

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

In preparing the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language (hereafter, the BŽ) at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language’s Centre for Lexicography, some standards of the standard language, linguistic facts, and their presentation are being revised. One group of verbs, though small, that nevertheless poses difficulties for users of the standard language, advocates of language culture, and lexicographers is causative-assistive verbs.

In the Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian, causative-assistive verbs are regarded as a subtype of transitive verbs; it is emphasized that they constitute “a distinct, albeit small, semantic group with pronounced distinctive formal features” (DLKG 287; LG 226). “They are formed from transitive verbs with the suffix -dinti and denote an action by which arrangements are made for something to happen or be done by other agents. Cf.: to build a house: to have a house built (by engaging builders, craftsmen), to forge a ring: to have a ring forged (by a blacksmith), to weave a sash: to have a sash woven (by a weaver)” (DLKG 287). As stated, causative-assistive verbs (also called “curative” verbs) are also termed non-active causative verbs. Their derivational base consists of verbs denoting active action (most often with a sequential meaning) (DLKG 399).

FEATURES OF THE COMPONENTS OF SENTENCES WITH CURATIVE VERBS AND DIFFERENCES IN LEXICOGRAPHIC PRESENTATION

Much has been written about the formal and semantic features of curative verbs and the criteria for distinguishing them from causative and other verbs (LKG II 25, 265; Jakulienė 1975; Paulauskienė 1979: 12, 1994: 286; LKM

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110, Savičiūtė 1984: 73–78, 1985: 236–251, 1986: 206–209, 1995: 129–141, etc.). In addition to other important formal and semantic criteria, drawing on the work of Friedrich Kurschat, Jonas Jablonskis, and other authors (Kurschat 1876: 122; Jablonskis I 289; LKM 110), the most important distinguishing feature of curative verbs is considered to be the presence of an additional subject—that is, an intermediary subject—at the deep, and sometimes also the surface, level of a curative sentence (i.e., a sentence with a curative verb). On the basis of data from LKŽ and DŽ₂, the semantic features of the deep-level components of curative sentences have been studied, and regularities of semantic agreement (semantic compatibility) established (Savičiūtė 1985: 236–251). Three main situations emerged (see the table “Semantic Agreement at the Deep Level of Curative Sentences,” ibid., p. 239), which can be described by the following paraphrases:

1) ‘a subject with the authority to give orders takes care and orders someone (a servant, executioner, and the like) to do something,’ e.g.: The king had his head cut off;

2) ‘a client (someone who cannot or finds it difficult to do a particular job) takes care and commissions someone (a specialist in a particular field or craft, a master craftsperson, and the like) to do something,’ e.g.: áusdinti (juostas), dirbdinti (antkapį), kaldinti (kryžių), mėzg­dinti (megztinį), siūdinti (batus, paltą), statydinti (namą, bažnyčią, rūmus), rašydinti (testamentą) and so on; The bishop had a church built;

3) ‘someone takes care, asks, or orders someone (an intermediary) to do something,’ e.g.: siūdinti (laišką) and so on.

As the data collected for BŽ dictionary entries show, in standard-language usage mostly curative verbs from the second subgroup, and to a lesser extent from the third, remain in use. Verbs from the first subgroup reflect realities of the past and are generally needed when writing or speaking about antiquity. In sentences with curative verbs, words denoting an object, material, or abstraction generally do not occupy the position of the intermediary subject. The few examples of this type that are found lie between curation and causation: the meaning of the verb ėsdinti used in chemistry is classified as curative in DŽ₃₋₆, but as causative in LKŽ, LKŽₑ, and BŽ, e.g.: Sulfuric acid is used to etch metals (DŽ₂₋₆). Having assessed various distinguishing criteria, the verbs pažindinti, veikdinti, žiodyti, classified as curative in DŽ, are presented as causative in BŽ.

In the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian, following the requirements of BŽPP and BŽln, efforts are made to indicate the main and optional valency of the pronoun what in questions.

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of verbs, but the two types of valency are not distinguished from each other by any formal means. The Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian is greatly aided by the Dictionary of Lithuanian Verb Valency (Sližienė 2004: 35), which gives the main and, in parentheses, optional valency of the sole causative verb siūdinti, ~a, ~o (pa-)₅ ‘arrange for someone to sew’: Nom Acc (Dat) (išGen) (pasAcc) [C P B O A₍c₎], along with the semantic functions of the actants: Nom Hum Acc –Anim Dat +_ Anim pasAcc Hum išGen –Anim¹. The valency properties are illustrated by the following sentences: “Mother used to have clothes made for her at the village seamstress; From that furrier I had a suit made for my husband; Have covers made for the furniture; At whose place did you have the reins made?; My parents used to have shoes made, not buy them” (Sližienė 2004: 35). It is noted that “Instead of pasAcc, Loc may occur in a sentence, denoting the place where the person doing the sewing works, e.g.: Some ladies have their evening dresses made in a s e w i n g w o r k s h o p.” (Note 2, Sližienė 2004: 35). As Nijolė Sližienė states, the valency of reflexive causative verbs does not differ substantially from that of non-reflexive ones: “The use of the reflexive verb siūdintis differs only in that the sentence does not contain a dative, which is replaced by the reflexive affix -s(i) (the meaning of the latter can be reinforced by the possessive pronoun form oneself), e.g.: From sheepskins I had myself a new sheepskin coat made.” (Note 1, Sližienė 2004: 35). Based on the aforementioned studies of causative verbs and a detailed analysis of the valency of siūdinti, the following entry for the verb siūdinti was formulated in BŽ²:

siūdinti, siūdina, siūdino verb [caus.],³ (what, for whom, where) to arrange, order, or commission someone (usually a tailor or shoemaker) to sew: I am having a suit made for my husband at a tailor’s. | reflexive (who by): Many people have their clothes made by him. Now is the best time to have clothes made—we are offering a discount. | reflexive (what, where, who by, from what): To have orthopedic footwear made (for oneself). I am having a coat made from smooth cashmere fabric. She had an evening dress made at a fashion house by a well-known designer. It was proposed that flags be made for those parishes that do not yet have them. | reflexive, negative (what): I do not like having clothes made to measure; I buy ready-made ones.

¹ A – agent (the function of the performer of an action); C – causer; P – patient (the function of an affected object or bearer of a state); B – beneficiary (the function of an addressee, recipient, or possessor); O – source (the function of the origin of an action or state, or an initial state); A₍c₎ – agent-causer; +Anim – animate entity, including a person; –Anim – inanimate entity; Hum – person (also a group of people, institution, etc.) (Sližienė 2004: 6).

² Quoted here are the dictionary entries for causative verbs in the BŽ, written by the author of this article in 2003, later supplemented and revised, and edited by Klementina Vosylienė. They may change once the dictionary has undergone final editing.

³ The label [caus.] (= causative verb) is currently used in the BŽ text for search purposes.

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In the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language, the cross-reference approach to presenting causative verbs—which is difficult for dictionary users to understand and does not explain these verbs, but merely links them to their base verbs or meanings using the labels prp. (causative verb, DŽ₁–₆ₑ) and cur. (verbum curativum, causative verb, LKŽ, LKŽₑ)—has been abandoned. The Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language uses the definition formula “to arrange (order, instruct, tell, ask, etc.) for someone (usually a specialist in a particular field) to do what the base word denotes.” The pronoun kas in the definition indicates that another agent physically performs the commissioned action. Where possible, the semantics of the word denoting this performer is specified (siūdinti—sewing is done by a tailor; statydinti—building is done by construction workers; (nu)kišdinti—someone is beheaded by an executioner, etc.). Efforts are made to provide clear illustrative examples that name the authority giving the order, or additionally state the agent physically performing the commissioned (ordered, instructed, requested, etc.) action, or indicate that it is carried out at a service-providing business (workshop, repair shop, atelier, etc.), e.g.:

liėdinti, liėdina, liėdino verb [caus.], liėdinti, liėdina, liėdino (what) to arrange or commission someone (usually craftsmen) to cast: The priest had a church built and bells cast. The foreign invaders would take the bells away and have cannonballs cast from them. | reflexive (what, where): We had the gravestone made at a monument workshop.

Although this type of definition often gives the impression of artificial, unnatural, lengthy language, it is more understandable to non-linguists than working labels and cross-references to a base word (Naktinienė 2000: 21–22; 2006: 24).

TABLE 1. Examples of how causative verbs are presented in dictionaries

DŽ₆ₑ

LKŽₑ

BŽ

áusdin‖ti, ~a, ~o caus. w e a v e 1. ~imas (1)

áusdinti, -ina, -ino cur. to weave 1: I will build a little boat, I will have a little sail woven KlpD44. | reflexive transitive: They no longer have any corduroy, ribbed, or calico skirts woven I.Simon.

áusdinti, áusdina, áusdino verb [caus.] (what, who by, for whom) to arrange or commission someone (usually a weaver) to weave (sense 1): She is having a tapestry woven as a gift by a well-known textile artist. | reflexive (what): I had a set of bedspreads and curtains woven.

⁴ See the second footnote.

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Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language_6e

Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language_e

BŽ

to forge||, ~s, ~ed caus. f o r g e 3: a ploughshare, horseshoe, money

to forge, -s, -ed Š; M 1. caus. 1 to forge 6: He must do this from forged stones Bb¹²Moz20,25. The stone was forged R399. 2. K caus. 1 to forge 10: Forging horseshoes J. And forge ploughshares for the new plough LTR. To forge a ploughshare or mouldboard into a spear or sword S.Dauk. And I give you permission to forge money in your land Bb1Mak15,6. I forge a little ring J.Jabl. [...] Forge a little bridge across the lake N174. Do not forge a little ring, do not hammer out a little name JV74. [...]

to commission forging, commissions forging, commissioned forging verb [caus.] (what, for whom) to take care of arranging or order that someone (usually craftsmen) forge (sense 3): We had a cross and candlesticks made in a metal workshop. | negative (what): We will not have rings made; we will buy ready-made ones. | reflexive (what, at whose place): She is having a set of jewelry made at a jeweler’s.

to build||, ~s, ~ed caus. b u i l d –: Houses b. | reflexive: ~ oneself a house. ~ing (is) (1)

to commission the building of (–yti), –s, –ed [...] 3. NdŽ caus. to build 5: Have new barns built J. The lord has a bridge built J.Jabl. Vytautas had churches built in various places in Lithuania A1884,22. | reflexive transitive NdŽ, DŽ¹: We are not having a house built; we do not have the money Mrj. Most of Lithuania’s landowners had palaces built for themselves, following the Classical style rš. [...]

to commission the building of, commissions the building of, commissioned the building of verb [caus.] (what, for whom) to arrange or order that someone (usually builders) build: They are having a house built for their daughter. | reflexive (what): The neighbor plans to have new farm buildings built. | negative reflexive (what): We will not have a house built; we would rather buy one.

USAGE FEATURES OF CAUSATIVE VERBS

Rarity and inconsistency of usage

Causative verbs are an archaic, yet declining, inconsistently used⁵ and increasingly preserved group of verbs in the standard language—

⁵ At a seminar for translators and editors held at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language on February 26, 2004, the author of the article conducted a small oral survey. Seminar participants were asked whether, when speaking (not writing, editing, or translating), they themselves use the verbs siūdinti

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p. Among the 95 causative verbs listed in DŽ₃ (including prefixed forms), selected using DŽ₃ₖ tools, data from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian at the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Vytautas Magnus University, available online, and other online language resources found with the search tool http://www.google.lt/, confirm the usage of not all of them. For example, no new examples of the verb pīrk­dinti were found, although such a situation would be entirely possible nowadays, for instance: to have a plot bought for one’s son (through an intermediary), to have a dwelling bought for oneself (while living abroad and authorizing a friend) and so on, whereas in dictionaries (DŽ₂₋₆ₑ, LKŽ, and LKŽₑ), the verb pīrk­dinti is illustrated only with examples from folklore:

pīrkdin‖ti, ~a, ~o caus. p i r k t i 1: I will have a small plough made, ~ I will have bull calves bought, I will have small ploughshares forged (dial.) (DŽ₂₋₆ₑ). pīrk­dinti (–yti), –ina, –ino 1. caus. to buy 1: I will have a small plough made, I will have bull calves bought, I will have small ploughshares forged KlpD44. Will you have a little wreath bought? Will you give a little gift? JV218 (LKŽₑ).

At present, the BŽ contains 107 causative verbs, 39 of them without prefixes: áusdinti, darýdinti, dirbdinti, gabéndinti, griáudinti, grįsdinti, káldinti, kárdinti, kãsdinti, kéldinti, kėpdinti, kiŕ have made it into the Dictionary of Frequent Words of Contemporary Written Lithuaniankáldinti, siūdinti, statýdinti (Grumadienė, Žilinskienė 1998).

Since the group of causative verbs is small, other simple (non-causative) verbs expressing similar situations are used alongside them, although in both cases the work is carried out not by the clients themselves but by specialists in the relevant fields: tailors, builders, hairdressers, and so on,

and statýdinti, when the situation is clear—that is, when it is understood that the subject does not sew or build personally, but commissions and pays for the work. Three response options were offered: “I always use it,” “I sometimes use it,” and “I never use it.” Seminar participants who answered affirmatively raised their hands. Twenty-nine seminar participants gave their opinions on the verb siūdinti: “I always use it”—14 (48 percent), “I sometimes use it”—4 (14 percent), “I never use it”—11 (38 percent). Twenty-four seminar participants gave their opinions on the verb statýdinti: “I always use it”—6 (25 percent), “I sometimes use it”—16 (67 percent), “I never use it”—2 (8 percent). The fact that not all language specialists—translators and editors, whose work has a significant impact on the state of standard Lithuanian—use these verbs themselves in spoken language, or use them inconsistently, simply confirms that causative verbs are not very widespread in standard Lithuanian.

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e.g.: to have something sewn, but to repair, shorten, narrow (a coat); to have something built, but to equip, paint (a house); to have something cut, but to comb, curl, wash, dye (hair). Such verbs are often used in the same sentence, e.g.: Sometimes men also turn to a tailor. But they do not intend to have anything sewn; they most often want to get their clothes repaired (G); Have a new dress made or get an old one repaired?

Causative verbs are not used with all prefixes. For example, DŽ₃ lists áusdinti, išáusdinti, but not pri(si)áusdinti; data were available for the verb parašydinti, but apparently not for the verb rašydinti (the latter is already included in DŽ₅ₑ–₆ₑ), and so on.

Not all meanings of a base verb give rise to corresponding causative meanings. For example, mėgzdinti (knit items) has a causative meaning, whereas cucumbers knit, flowers set have no causative counterparts.

Distribution in the dialects

The inaccurate use of causative verbs and their base (derivational) verbs has also arisen because a large proportion of Lithuania’s population does not know what causative verbs mean, since they do not have them in their native subdialects. This applies mainly to Eastern and Southern Aukštaitians. The use of derivational verbs in place of standard-language causatives is sometimes recorded in LKŽ and LKŽₑ as well, e.g.: siūti [...] 2. see siūdinti 1 (illustrated by sentences from Kupiškis, Rodūnia, Skrebotiškis, Eržvilkas, Miežiškiai, Meškuičiai, Apso, J. Kardelytė’s book Gervėčių tarmė, p. 78, and the writings of J. Paukštelis (LKŽ XII 631). Following this siūti “siūdinti” precedent (LKŽₑ), in which the use of a base (derivational) verb in a causative meaning is lexicographically sanctioned, it might perhaps be possible to act analogously in BŽ as well: in entries for base verbs that have causative counterparts, additionally provide a separate sense as a variant of the causative verb or its causative meaning, e.g.: I’m having a coat made at a tailor’s (by a good tailor). This would not only sanction the current situation and meet the interests of a large section of standard-language users, but would also help dictionary readers learn that a causative verb exists.

In the Southern and Eastern Aukštaitian Vilnius subdialects, transitive verbs with the suffix –inti are not causative. Their meanings most often coincide with those of the corresponding base verbs in the standard language (Naktinienė 1997: 154–162), e.g.:

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piřkdinti (–yti), –ina, –ino [...] 2. tr. to buy: The children climb over fences, tear their trousers and shirts, and you have to buy them again, Lz. They bought a dress, Lz. Any (they) bought sugar more cheaply, Lz. They thresh grain and take it to market, while the young men buy, LKKIII204(Lz) (LKŽe).

Causative verbs are most widely used among Samogitians, fairly often among Western Aukštaitians (Suvalkiečiai), and rarely among Šiauliai speakers, who border the Samogitians; they are found in the writings of authors originating from these regions and Lithuania Minor, as well as in collections of folklore gathered in these areas. There were considerably more of them, and they were more varied, in older texts.

The base verb instead of the causative verb

Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje (DLKG 2006: 287) nurodoma, kad „šnekamojoje kalboje kartais linkstama jų (parūpinamųjų veiksmažodžių – G. N.) nevartoti, sakyti siūtis paltą, užuot sak ius siūdintis paltą. Mat šie veiksmažodžiai žymi įprastus veiksmus ir iš šnekos situacijos kartais savaime aišku (arba nesvarbu), kas juos atliks“; „Tas veikėjas, kuris pasirūpina, kad veiksmas būtų atliktas, čia yra svarbesnis, negu tas, kuris iš tikrųjų atlieka veiksmą“ (LKM 1976: 110). Neretai taip ne tik sakoma, bet ir rašoma. Atitinkamais pamatiniais (padaromaisiais) veiksmažodžiais reiškiamos situacijos suvokimas dažnai priklauso nuo konteksto, pvz., atstatyti apleistą pastatą gali reikšti ir tiesioginius savininko darbo veiksmus, ir parūpinamąją situaciją, kai darbus atlikti yra pasamdyti statybininkai. Net jei subjekto semantika aiškiai rodo, kad juo reiškiamas asmuo pats nedirbs fizinio darbo, dažnai pavartojamas pamatinis (padaromasis), o ne parūpinamasis veiksmažodis, pvz.: Didikas pastatė (// pastatydino) rūmus. Veiksmažodis pastatyti pavartotas net kruopščiai parengtame vadovėlyje, kuriame kalbant apie valdovą būtų geriau pasirinkti pagrindinį normos variantą – parūpinamąjį veiksmažodį pastatydinti (paryškinta straipsnio autorės), pvz.:

Besides the Great Wall, he (Qin Shi Huangdi—insertion by G. N.) built a palace that could accommodate 10,000 people. 700,000 prisoners of war and conscripted peasants built his enormous burial chamber (Pasaulis I 210).

There are also more instances of this kind of usage (Savičiūtė 1985; Savičiūtė-Naktinienė 1995). Interestingly, similar phenomena involving the use of causatives are observed not only in Lithuanian, but also in Finnish and Norwegian (Racekevičienė 2001: 29; 2002: 138, 142–144).

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The causative verb instead of the base verb

When the distinction between causative and base (resultative) verbs is not understood, causative verbs are sometimes used to describe situations in which the subject performs the action itself, for example: the seamstress has a suit made (=sews), and so on. Although such usage can hardly be justified in standard language, instances have been recorded in dialects, for example:

mėgzdinti (-yti), -ina, -ino [...] 3. tr. megzti ‘to knit’: A jau i žmogui mėgzdini pirštines? KzR. Da aš turiu gobtūrą..., mezgėjėlių mėgzdintą JV416. | refl. tr.: Žakietuką pradėjau mėgzdytis KzR (LKŽₑ);

numėgzdinti [...] 2. tr. numegzti ‘to knit’: Numėgzdino žmogui jakę KzR (LKŽₑ).

A similar use of a causative verb with a non-causative meaning was most likely recorded in a sentence written down by J. Jablonskis:

statydinti [...] 3. [...] In towns, people are paid very well to have stoves built J.Jabl (LKŽₑ).

As examples from the internet, the press, and spoken language show, this tendency toward imprecise usage is especially characteristic of the verb kaldinti, although the place where the corresponding work is done is called (coin, medal) mint, not kaldykla. When the verb is used generally and there is no fuller context, it is unclear what is meant by saying (writing) kaldinti a cross, a medal, coins, a monument, money and so forth: commissioning someone to forge a cross, medal, coins, a monument, or money, or carrying out the commission—that is, the specific work of specialists. In the example below, the context makes clear that specific physical actions are being discussed, so the base (resultative) verb nukalti should have been used (emphasis added by the article’s author):

Many people were intrigued by a coin-minting press made according to an old model. It was difficult to strike it with a hammer and make a little coin oneself, but anyone who wanted could do so [...]. Anyone interested could learn the blacksmith’s craft right there and perhaps even forge (= forge) something for their beloved. (LŽ 2004 06 02: 24). Many wanted to forge themselves (= forge) a little coin (caption beneath a photograph; ibid.).

Folk artists at the City Day celebration will mint (= will forge) a “local currency” (T: Lietuvos rytas, 2001).

Nevertheless, the polysemy of the base verb kalti, when no object is present in the sentence, can make it unclear what is meant—hammering a nail into

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wood, making a wooden object by hammering in nails, e.g. a birdhouse, or making an item from metal by hammering it in a certain way, e.g.:

[...] while onlookers watch, will drive in nails, weave, spin, sew, carve, kaldins (= kals) (T: Lietuvos rytas, 2001).

It is possible that the examples mentioned point to certain, albeit unclear, tendencies toward an additional nuance in the expression of complex work activities in some causative verbs. Nevertheless, there is no reason to think that such a nuance has already become established; therefore, they are not included in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian, and this usage is not encouraged in standard language.

LEXICALIZATION PHENOMENA

Some verbs with the suffix -dinti (or their meanings), previously considered causative, are regarded in BŽ as having undergone lexicalization, e.g.: kìldin‖ti, ~a, ~o caus. of kilti 6; indicate, identify the origin; siedin‖ti, ~a, ~o caus. of sieti (DŽ₃₋₆e). Cf.:

nukìršdinti, nukìršdina, nukìršdino verb. [...] 2. [caus.] (someone, for someone) arrange, order, command that someone (usually an executioner) behead someone (cut off their head); impose the death penalty by beheading: The king had his head cut off (folkl.). 3. law. carry out the death penalty by beheading: By his order, no one was beheaded or hanged.

TABLE 2. Examples of lexicalization

DŽ

LKŽₑ

BŽ

kìldin‖ti, ~a, ~o caus. of k i l t i 6; indicate, identify the origin: He claims descent from the nobility. K. the word from which language. ~imas (1)

kìldinti, -ina, -ino trans. indicate, identify the origin: The Greeks derive their tribes from mythology. rš. From what sources should place names and other proper names be derived? rš. Wherever possible, words are derived from roots, especially verbal ones. EncIX513. I am inclined to derive Lithuanian ė from narrow ē. K.Būg.

kìldinti, kìldina, kìldino verb. 1. (something, from something) indicate, determine the origin: The name Lithuania is commonly derived from the name of a river. Some historians tend to derive Birutė from an influential noble family. 2. (something) KILDYTI 1: Raise dough [yeast] (cook.).

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DŽ

Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language_e

BŽ

to associate ~a, ~o transitive verb: t i e: Amber human figurines are associated with the cult of ancestors. ~imas (1)

to associate, -ina, -ino dialectal variant of sieti. 1. Als to tie, fasten: To tie a rope to a beam J. 2. to establish a connection between things: Amber human figurines found in Juodkrantė are also associated with the cult of ancestors rš. Progressive social thought at the university is first and foremost associated with the name of Joachim Lelewel rš.

to associate, associates, associated verb (what with what) to establish a connection, links: Krašeškis associated Lithuania's independence with Vytautas. Earrings found in Lithuania are generally associated with the adornment of head coverings or hair.

—

to have [something] restored 1. KŽ dialectal variant of restore 4: Now they are beginning to have [demolished monuments] restored Mšk. | reflexive KŽ: Now Kražiai is being restored very much Krž. 2. KŽ dialectal variant of restore 9. | reflexive Š, Rtr, KŽ: The Cabinet of Ministers resigned rš. He resolved even to submit a letter of resignation J.Jabl.

to dismiss⁶, dismisses, dismissed verb [...] 2. (someone) to remove from office (due to certain circumstances): The general meeting dismissed the chair of the board. | intransitive: to resign (due to certain circumstances): An employee may either resign voluntarily or be dismissed for misconduct. The bank manager resigned.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

1. The Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian, which presents the principal (prestigious) and secondary norms of standard-language usage, includes only those causative verbs whose usage is attested not only in dictionaries but also in other written sources of the standard language, corpora, and online communication, or which are used in standard spoken language.

2. The use of causative verbs in the standard language is determined by several factors: these verbs are not used in the eastern and southern Aukštaitian dialects; there are few such lexemes and their paradigms are incomplete; other verbs of a similar type

⁶ For the assessment of this word, see KancKP 47.

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the use of simple verbs alongside causative verbs (often even in the same sentence), the complexity of the situation being expressed, and so on.

3. The Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian uses the following formula to define causative verbs: “to arrange (to order, command, tell, ask, and so on) for someone (usually a specialist in a particular field) to do what is expressed by the base word.” The cross-reference method has been abandoned, whereby causative verbs are not explained but are linked to their base verbs only by a grammatical label.

4. Efforts are made to provide clear illustrative examples that identify the subject (the person with authority to give orders, the client), additionally express the agent who physically performs the commissioned (ordered, instructed, requested, and so on) action, or state that such an action is performed by a service-providing company, and so on.

5. The use of causative verbs in place of base (causative-forming) verbs is considered nonstandard and is not recorded in the normative dictionary.

6. The use of base (causative-forming) verbs in place of causative verbs is considered a usual feature of standard language, especially spoken language, and could be recorded in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian.

7. In presenting causative verbs in the dictionary, the lexicographic tradition of LKŽ, LKŽₑ, DŽ₁–₆ₑ has been deliberately departed from, in the hope that the definitions and clearer illustrative examples will help users of standard language better understand the characteristics of these archaic verbs, use them more correctly, and preserve them in standard language.

ŠALTINIAI

BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (rengiamas).

DŽ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Atsak. redaktorius J. Kruopas. Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla, 1954.

DŽ₂ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. 2-as papildytas leid. Atsak. redaktorius J. Kruopas. Vilnius: Mintis, 1972.

DŽ₃ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. 3-ias pataisytas ir papildytas leid. Vyr. red. S. Keinys, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 1993.

DŽ₃ₖ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. 3-io pataisyto ir papildyto leidimo kompiuterinis variantas. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, Matematikos ir informatikos institutas, 1995.

DŽ₄ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Ketvirtas leidimas. Vyr. redaktorius S. Keinys. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2000. 4-o

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leidimo elektroninis variantas (kompaktinė plokštelė), Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2002. Internetinis variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2002. Prieiga per internetą: www.lki.lt.

DŽ_5e – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Penktas (kompiuterinis) leidimas. Kompaktinė plokštelė. Vyr. red. S. Keinys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2003.

DŽ_6e – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Šeštas (trečias elektroninis) leidimas. Kompaktinė plokštelė. Vyr. red. S. Keinys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2006.

G – Interneto vartosenos pavyzdžiai, atrinkti paieškos įrankiu http://www.google.lt.

Grumadienė L., Žilinskienė V. 1998: Dažninis dabartinės rašomosios lietuvių kalbos žodynas (abėcėlės tvarka). Vilnius: Mokslo aidai.

LKŽ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas I–XX. Ats./vyr. red. J. Balčikonis, J. Kruopas, K. Ulvydas, V. Vitkauskas, Vilnius, 1941–2002.

LKŽ_e – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (t. I–XX, 1941–2002): elektroninis variantas. Redaktorių kolegija: G. Naktinienė (vyr. red.), J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005. [Atnaujinta versija, 2008]. Prieiga per internetą: www.lkz.lt.

LŽ – Lietuvos žinios. Dienraštis.

Pasaulis I – Emblemas T., Hetlandas O. et. all. Pasaulis I: Pasaulio istorija iki 1850 m. Istorijos vadovėlis. Iš norvegų kalbos vertė Eglė Išganitytė, red. Rimanta Jokimaitienė. Vilnius: Vaga, 1999.

T – Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto Humanitarinių mokslų fakulteto Kompiuterinės lingvistikos centro parengtas Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Prieiga per internetą: donelaitis.vdu.lt/tekstynas.

LITERATŪRA

BŽln – „Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno“ rengimo instrukcija (rankraštis).

BŽPP – Liutkevičienė D., Naktinienė G. „Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno“ rengimo pagrindai ir principai (rankraštis; Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos aprobuota), 1998, 1–3.

DLKG 2006: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. 4-oji pataisyta laida. Red. Vytautas Ambrazas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

Jablonskis J. 1957: Rinktiniai raštai I. Sudarė J. Palionis, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

Jakulienė A. 1975: Priežastinių ir parūpinamųjų veiksmažodžių skyrimo kriterijai. – Kalbotyra 26 (1), 78–81.

KancKP – Kancel(i)arinės kalbos patarimai. Pataisytas ir papildytas leidimas. Parengė Pranas Kniūkšta. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas,

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1998. Internetinis leidimas. Sudarytojas Pranas Kniūkšta, vyr. red. Rasuolė Vladarskienė, 2007. Prieiga per internetą: kanceliariniaipatarimai.lki.lt.

Kurschat F. 1876: Grammatik der littauischen Sprache. Halle: Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses.

LG – Lithuanian Grammar. Ed. by Vytautas Ambrazas, Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 1997.

LKG II – Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. II: Morfologija. Vyr. red. Kazys Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mintis, 1971.

LKM 1976: Jakaitienė E., Laigonaitė A., Paulauskienė A. Lietuvių kalbos morfologija, Vilnius: Mokslas.

Naktinienė G. 1997: Pietų aukštaičių ir rytų aukštaičių vilniškių priežastiniai veiksmažodžiai žodynuose. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 37, 154–162.

Naktinienė G. 2000: Bendrinės kalbos žodynas ir leksikos norminimo problemos. – Kalbos kultūra 73, 12–24.

Naktinienė G. 2006: Svarbesnieji Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno semantikos aspektai. – Leksikografija ir leksikologija 1, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 19–33.

Paulauskienė A. 1979: Gramatinės lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžio kategorijos, Vilnius: Mokslas.

Paulauskienė A. 1994: Lietuvių kalbos morfologija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

Rackevičienė S. 2001: Kauzacijos raiška Baltijos regiono kalbose (kauzatyviniai veiksmažodžiai ir veiksmažodiniai junginiai). Daktaro disertacija, Vilnius, 2001.

Rackevičienė S. 2002: Morfologiniai lietuvių, norvegų ir suomių kalbų kauzatyvai. – Kalbotyra 51 (1), 135–146.

Savičiūtė G. 1984: Parūpinamieji veiksmažodžiai ir sakinio struktūra. – Jaunųjų filologų darbai 1, 73–78.

Savičiūtė G. 1985: Parūpinamųjų veiksmažodžių semantika. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 24, 236–251.

Savičiūtė G. 1986: Dėl lietuvių kalbos priežastinių veiksmažodžių reikšmės aprašymo. – Jaunųjų filologų darbai 2, 206–209.

Savičiūtė–Naktinienė G. 1995: Lietuvių kalbos priežastinių ir parūpinamųjų veiksmažodžių leksikografinis pateikimas. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 35, 129–141.

Sližienė N. 2004: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių junglumo žodynas 2(2), Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla.

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CURATIVE VERBS IN THE

BENDRINĖS LIETUVIŲ KALBOS ŽODYNAS

(DICTIONARY OF STANDARD LITHUANIAN)

Summary

Curative verbs constitute a small group of archaic words preserved in standard Lithuanian. Their rare occurrence in actual usage must have been determined by the scarcity of lexemes and lack of systematicity (e.g. siūdintis naują suknelę ar taisytis seną? ‘should I have another dress made or have the old one mended?), a limited number of prefixes attached to them, not being found in some dialects, the complexity of a situation described by them, their context-dependent understanding, similarity with causative verbs, likely confusion with the base verbs referring to crafts or other professional activities etc.

The norm setting Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian) includes curative verbs, which are found in dictionaries and other written sources, such as newspapers, language corpora, internet and standard spoken Lithuanian. In an attempt to contribute to a better understanding of these verbs and their more accurate usage, the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian offers an explicit formulaic definition: ‘to have something done (order, ask, insist etc.) by someone (usually a specialist in the field), as indicated by the base verb’ and includes clear illustrative examples. The Dictionary also gives well-formed cases of lexicalisation (e. g. atsistatydinti ‘to resign’); however, instances of actual usage where curative verbs replace respective base verbs (e.g. kaldinti ‘to have something made using a hammer, as by a blacksmith’ rather than kalti ‘to hammer, to make with the hammer’) with no lexicalisation are treated as violating the norm and are not included into the Dictionary. Common cases, when in standard spoken Lithuanian base verbs replace respective curative verbs, are not treated as violating the norm (e.g. kalti ‘to hammer, to make with the hammer’ rather than kaldinti ‘to have something made using a hammer, as by a blacksmith’), presently, such cases are not featured in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian.

KEY WORDS: standard language, curative verbs, usage, accuracy.

GERTRŪDA NAKTININĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

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