LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, III LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

LEXICAL PARALLELISMS IN THE LANGUAGE OF DAUKŠA’S CATECHISM (1595)

J. KRUOPAS

When reading the writings of M. Daukša, one of the most prominent representatives of old Lithuanian writing and a creator of the literary language (the 1595 Catechism and the 1599 Postil), one is struck by the abundance of lexical parallelisms—the use of several words to express the same or closely related concepts¹. Similar lexical variation can also be observed in other early and later writings. This is a characteristic feature of the history of our literary language. It arose in our writings both from efforts to establish a literary language and from the desire to appeal to speakers of various dialects, as well as from the absence of a stable and uniform literary-language tradition, the influence of foreign languages, and various other circumstances.

Here we are concerned with reviewing the lexical parallelisms in Daukša’s Catechism².

M. Daukša was the first among Lithuanian writers in Lithuania (excluding those in East Prussia) to lay the foundations for the Lithuanian literary language. In translating and publishing the Catechism and, later, the Postil (1599), and in seeking Lithuanian equivalents for various concepts, he, like other translators of his time and later, had to undertake difficult work. Finding good equivalents in translation always requires considerable painstaking effort, discernment, and certain philological resources (various dictionaries, literature, etc.) on the translator’s part. For translators in the sixteenth century, “the difficulties of words,” to use Z. Blotno’s preface’s phrase³, were incomparably greater. In the area of vocabulary, they faced such difficult tasks as: 1) developing terminology to designate concepts in the new religion (Christianity) and abstract concepts in general; 2) determining which words were Lithuanian and which foreign; 3) taking into account the vocabulary of various dialects. Translators of that period had to seek equivalents without dictionaries or literary-language traditions (established vocabulary), while being more or less removed from the language of the people, under the strong influence of Germanization (in East Prussia) and Polonization (in Lithuania), with foreign originals before them (early Lithuanian writing was almost entirely translated), and in unfavorable social and cultural circumstances.

¹ Cf. History of Lithuanian Literature, I, 144, Vilnius, 1957; Archivum Philologicum, IV, 7 ff.

² Hereafter abbreviated DK.

³ Margarita Theologika, Karaliaučiuje... 1600, prakalba „Skaititojop“, V psl.

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In seeking Lithuanian equivalents, some translators strove to find as many as possible in the language of the people or to create neologisms from Lithuanian words, resorting to borrowings only rarely; others slavishly borrowed foreign words from the texts they translated and polluted the language of their writings with barbarisms, which became especially prevalent in religious literature in the second half of the seventeenth century and in the eighteenth century.

Daukša was a great patriot, a defender and reviver of the Lithuanian language, which the feudal lords of his time despised. Through his writings, he sought to create a rich, varied, pure literary language intelligible to the people. This is evident from the language of his first publication, the Catechism, in which we find numerous lexical parallelisms, demonstrating the translator’s efforts to provide the most precise and comprehensible equivalents possible, to make his language expressive and varied, and to appeal to the widest possible readership.

Lexical parallelisms in the DK occur either side by side in the text after the conjunctions or, and and after the connective expressions that is (e.g., a mark or sign of a Christian 15; necessary and obligatory 21; to forgive debts, that is, sins 54), or in the margins (where, perhaps, replacements for one word or another proposed by proofreaders may also have been entered), or in various places in the text (pages). Most of them (189 instances) are found in the margins (hereafter abbreviated marg.); less often (35 instances) they occur side by side in the text after and, or, that is. Lexical parallelisms occurring in various places in the text cannot be precisely identified and counted, and are therefore presented in this article as illustrative material and reviewed together with the other parallelisms. The lexical parallelisms in the DK are most conveniently reviewed by dividing them into the following groups: 1) two or more (rarely) Lithuanian words used in parallel; 2) a Lithuanian word and a borrowing; 3) two borrowings.

Most often, two Lithuanian words are given in parallel. These parallelisms could be divided into subgroups according to the closeness of meaning, imagery and emotional nuance, word formation, and other features of the words used in parallel; however, for the sake of concise exposition, they are first presented here in alphabetical order (by the first word, which has a replacement alongside it in the margin or in various places in the text), and then reviewed collectively. Headwords (nouns and pronouns are given in the nominative, and verbs in the infinitive) are written in the modern literary language. Illustrative examples are transliterated in modern letters (only the original letters no longer in use today—ė, î, û, â, ê, û, w, ł, ß, ſ, ð, ʒ, etc.—are retained). The illustrative material occasionally includes not only individual members of parallelisms but also adjacent words that help clarify the meaning of the parallelisms. The page numbers of the DK examples are indicated after the transliterated forms. If a word in the same or other forms is found on several or many pages, as many of the pages from which it was excerpted as possible are listed in parentheses.

Polish-text equivalents are given in parentheses (:) and are taken from E. Sittig’s work “Der polnische Katechizmus des Ledesma und der litauischen Katechismen des Daugßa und der Anonymus vom Jahre 1605” (Göttingen 1929). They can be located in the work cited by using the Lithuanian equivalents from the DK.

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blindness and blindness

blindness 159 (: слепоте); blindness 142 (: слепота).

Synonyms formed in different ways. Aklatis is more commonly found in Daukša’s and other old writings.

to call and to name

áĥgame pres. wáďiname 49 (91) (: zowiem); wádiname pres. áĥgam 60 (105) (: zowa); wadina 26 (28, 31, 39, 40, 61, 90, 92....) (: zowia).

Most commonly vadinti is used, but algoti is still found in the writings of M. Daukša and K. Sirvydas generally. Today, algoti in the sense of “to call” is not attested anywhere in the language and has become an archaism.

to faint and to languish

alpstąti atgeiwinti pres. gaištanti 162 (: mdlejącego); cf. apgaišt’ 175 (: wstáie).

Substitutes with different shades of meaning.

age and time “time”

Only once, probably by chance, without choosing the most precise Lithuanian equivalent for the Polish word czas in translation, amžis is used in the sense of “time”: niūg amžio Apaštalu 19; elsewhere (2, 4, 93), amžis (: wiek) is used with the meanings “a person’s lifetime, a long period, eternity.” In the first meaning, amžis can be associated with metas, which is used both with the meaning “time” (38, 68, 69, 75, 94, 123, 151, 181, 182, 186) (: czas) and with the meaning “a period of 365/6 days” (1, 5, 32). The word laikas is unattested in DK.

to deceive and impoverish

neither deceiving anyone nor reminding [them] beforehand 86.

In the writings of Daukša and Sirvydas, primitinti is used several times in the now-unusual sense “to drive into expense, to wrong,” in which it may be related to ap-gauti.

to grieve, worry, and feel distressed

grieved, past tense: was concerned 122 (: fráʒowal); was concerned, past tense 116 (: fraʒuja); about this, was grieving 111 (: fráʒuja); Take care 44 (: Stáraycień).

The substitutes differ in shades of meaning. Cf. grief and distress.

to experience (translation), to happen and to act

As absjturi nūdemiu atlaidimas prš. Dėties 41 (: się dzieie); to happen while praying 80; wiekjas [= weikęs] 41, 49, 114 (:dzieia); kasg... Ju manim weiksis 143 (:sta-nie).

Polish dzieje się is translated as to experience, to happen and to act. The most usual equivalent is to happen (destisi…); the more distant equivalent for us is veiktis, used in the sense of “to happen, to occur” and once “to become” (:stanie). Darytis in the sense of “to happen, to occur” is unattested.

acquisition (translation) and obtaining

apitūrėjimo prš. obtaining [= įgyiimo] 51 (: dośtąpieniu); apturėjimo malōnes 4 (: przyjęcia); cf. to experience and to obtain.

to experience (translation) and to obtain

and in unity he supports himself 77; thus 4 (40, 44, 62, 93, 104, 124) (: dostapil, otrzymała).

15. Kalbotyros klausimai, II

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In DK, forms of to obtain are used almost throughout, while in later writings the calque to experience becomes more prevalent (:otizymac).

forgivable, forgiven, and worthy of forgiveness

Nū ėme atlaidtina prš. worthy of forgiveness 92 (: grzch powßedni); with forgiven [sins] 91 (:powßednemi).

Of the three substitutes, atleistina is the best (when speaking of sins, faults, etc.); atleidinta is unusually formed.

to remember and mention

atmindami 109 is formed on the model of paveikſſo Diewo, rather than minėdami 84 (:wſpomi-niąac); atmintūmbit ią 60 (67, 74, 84, 139, 151, 162) (: wſpomináli 60; Pamien-tai 74, 162; Wſpomni 139, 151).

atminti is used almost throughout; minėti in the margin (84) is used somewhat imprecisely, since the meaning of the sentence here better suits atminti.

redemption (translation) and liberation

The Polish odkupienie is translated as: vžų ƒawa atpirkima 36 and atwadawimu manų 155. The Polish odkupić is likewise translated in two ways: atpírko 13 (34, 134) and ifwadút 106. A more precise equivalent is išvaduoti (deliverance) than the calque atpirkti (redemption).

regard and view

have regard for the humble ones prš. view 153 (: wzglęad); regard 20 (123) (: roz-myſhu, względ).

More frequent is regard; view is known only from Daukša’s writings.

infinity and the immeasurable

infinite mercy prš. the immeasurable 137 (: niekóńczónego); infinite strength 24 (49, 186) (: niezmierną, nieſkóńczóney).

Daukša uses these substitutes. Most often in his writings we find immeasurable (unbounded). Cf. incalculable and immeasurable.

to speak and to talk

Forms of these synonymous verbs, corresponding to the Polish forms powiedzieć and mówić, are used in various places in the text (e.g., byloti — 4, 22, 48, 50, 52, 61, 63, 66, 68, 81, 87, 90, 99, 137, 152, 158, 159, 178, 184...; kalbėti — 7, 48, 59, 62, 65, 66, 74, 87, 88, 89...). Most frequently encountered is byloti. Sometimes both words are used on the same page and in similar expressions, e.g.: bi-iodamas Tėwę mūſſų 66 and kalbėdamas Tėwę mūſſų 66; nei biłodami nė tieyſos 87 and ape wiſſus gerai kalbėdami 87. Cf. to say and to utter (to speak).

to do, assert, and act

doing all this prš. Asserting 71 (: czyniąc); does 11 (20, 41, 68, 72, 80, 92, 148, 156, 164, 165… (: czynić); What are you doing 67 (: czynić). The Polish czynić is translated almost throughout as to do. Here and there, to act occurs. Once, in the margin (71), to assert (asserting) is used unusually and, it seems, imprecisely for to do (doing); the verb is found in Daukša’s Postilė (490) in the sense ‘to agree’ (in Širvydas, Valančius, and other writings its usual meaning is ‘to say, to narrate’).

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maker, creator (translation) and sutvertojas (translation) ‘creator’

darytoies, or sutwertoies dagaus 30; sutwerėiu, or daritoiu 31; sutwerėio prš. daritoiaus 132 (: sutworzyciela); daritoie 23 (27, 133) (: sutworzyciela); sutwerei 122 (135 157) (: sutworzyciela).

Most commonly used is darytojas, somewhat less frequently the calque sutvėrėjas, which later became widespread in religious writings. Cf. padaryti and sutverti.

often and frequently

often prš. tankel [= taķei] 18 (:częšto); often and taķei 124 (: częšto).

Most commonly, dažnai (dažniaus) is used in the text (18, 85, 89, 109, 111, 117, 124, 127, 128, 134, 142, 143, 161, 175, 187); tankiu (tankiaus) occurs much less frequently (89, 159). The two words are synonymous. Tankiai is used in the Samogitian dialect in the sense ‘often’. Cf. dažnas and tankus.

frequent and dense

frequent and dense use 19 (: czętym).

Tankus is used in the sense of “frequent” in the Samogitian dialect. Cf. dažnai and tankiai.

burning and melting

burning love cf. leizdączios 161 (: paląčey); ugnimi… dėganczia 161 (: gorączym).

The participle leisdanti is recorded only in DK and has an unclear derivation. For now, it may be tentatively linked to the verb leisd yti (: leisti) “to melt”.

misfortune and trouble

Deia cf. Beda 143 (:Biáda).

Deja “misfortune, trouble” is occasionally used by Daukša, Širvydas, and in other writings.

greatest, life-destroying, and moribund

greatest sins cf. marinaçzias 130 (: głownych); greatest sins 90 (: głownych); marinançzomis 90 (91,92,93) (: śmeertelnymi); mortal sins 186 (: śmiertelnego).

Mortal and mortifying are good equivalents of the Polish śmiertelny (grzech), in place of which the loanword smertelna (sin) later became established.

pride, arrogance, and corpulence

didžęwimu cf. Lāpumu 11; Didžiāwimas cf. putumas 91 (: Pychá).

Didžiavimas ‘pride’ is found in the writings of Bretkūnas and Daukša. Lepumas in Daukša’s writings most often means ‘pampering of the body’; sometimes it is used somewhat unusually in the senses ‘vanity, arrogance’; moreover, it is also found in the sense ‘greed’ (cf. troškumas, lepumas, godas). Putlumas (putlavimas, putlus, putlauti), meaning ‘arrogance, pride’, is frequently found in Daukša’s writings. It is not attested in other 16th–17th-century writings. It reappears in later writings. It is also familiar from folk speech, from which it may have entered Daukša’s writings as a vivid, expressive word.

to tremble and quiver

The stems of the daigas tremble and quiver 148 (:drżą)

These synonyms (also found in other old writings) are used to intensify the impression.

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butterfly and moth

little butterfly cf. with butterflies 148 (: motylki).

These synonyms are rarely encountered in old writings.

longing, hopefulness, belief, and hope

by faith cf. Tikėjimuojį 50 (123) (: dufnosčia, vfnosči); Tikėjimuji cf. Padukjiu 49 (: nadzieja); padukji cf. Tikėjimasi 153 (: nadzieje); Padukji, or wilty 44 (: nadziei); by faith 122 (135, 152, 167) (: dufnosčia, dufanie, vfanıe); Pádauk jis 22 (62, 100, 103, 121, 135, 139, 153, 155, 182) (: nadzieia; vfanıe 182)

Most commonly used is padūk sis, corresponding almost everywhere to Polish nadzieia; dufanie, vfanıe and dufność are translated almost everywhere as longing; only hope is attested once. Compare to hope and to long.

an opening and a track

ing... ėkėtę impūlau prš. walkJna 144 (:łomia).

These synonyms have so far been recorded in old writings only from the DK.

most miserly and dearest

gądžeus, speaking well of all things, prš. mielaus 87 (: rather); gądžeus 138 (: rather); mielėus 157 (:mile).

Gandžiaus is recorded only in DK and the writings of V. Kudirka.

good deed (translation), good-doing (translation), good-making (translation), goodness and beneficence

The Polish dobrodzieystwo is translated by several words: geribės prš. gerodariums 124; geropadárima prš. Geradžia 162; géradárimus 180 (188…); gerodárimu 60 (69, 183…); géribės 68 (124, 152, 163, 167…). These are synonyms formed in various ways. The most commonly used is gerybė. This word also corresponds to the Polish dobroć (140, 142, 144…).

death, death, dying, and passing away

Giltines or death 13 (169); dying prš. mirtis 19; death prš. giltines 142; giltines 34; death 41 (108, 138, 142, 177); dying 35 (58, 99, 185, 187…); numirime 168.

The Polish śmierć is translated by four words; the most commonly used are mirtis and mirimas.

mother and parent

gimdiwė 30 (63) (: mother); Gimditojėmus 7 (35…) (: parents).

In Old Lithuanian writings — gimdyvė; the word gimdytoja has not been attested; only the plural form gimdytojai. is used.

life and living

The Polish żywot is translated almost throughout as gyvata, e.g.: giwątą 24 (36, 42, 44, 62, 67, 92, 99, 142, 145, 162, 168, 177, 183, 189…); only very rarely as gyvenimas, e.g.: giwėnimu 177; the loanword żywałas in the sense of “life” is unattested.

to embrace and to hug one another

glápJro cf. apJikabineja ‘embraces’ the groom 157 (: obłapia).

Glapstyti is a rare word in Old Lithuanian writings (recorded from Daukša’s Postil and Knygos nobažnystės).

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crumbly texture and crushing

crâudumą cf. Zutrinimą (= Sutr(i)n imą)... Birdės 97 (: įkruche); graudumą 139 (: įkruche).

The first Polish śkrucha equivalent (crumbly texture) is emotional, colloquial, and very apt; crushing is an excessively rough and coarse calque.

inspiration and outpouring

of inward inspiration and exhalation Dwaijos 123 (: nádchnienia).

Recorded only in Daukša's writings; probably neologisms, close in their figurative meaning to “to provide something to the spirit.”

especially and separately

įpacčęi ir įskirumi... Jaugot 126 (: osobná); įpacčęi 121 (: osobná); elsewhere in the text (18, 22, 68, 76, 89, 125), ypačiai is used in the sense “especially, most of all.”

These adverbs are used in writing and in spoken language. Cf. ypačias ir skyrius.

ypatis and skyrius “separate”

įpacčio daikto “of a particular thing,” as opposed to įskireus 95 (: osobliwey).

In old writings, ypatis is used with the meanings “separate” and “special” (rarely). Skyrius is most often found meaning “difference,” and very rarely “separate.”

įstojimas and pritarimas “intercession”

prafáu... įstojimo... mėrgós Marios, as opposed to pritarimo 132.

Both words are used as synonyms; occasionally they are also found in other old writings alongside užtarymas and other substitutes.

to save, deliver, liberate, and redeem (translation)

išgánitas 22 (141) (: zbáwion); išgélbėtų and atpirktų mus 34 (: odkupił); Išgélbėjęi 142 (: Wybáwiłes); išbwádūt 106 (: odkupić).

These words, occurring in various parts of the text, are very close in certain instances of usage, principally in the meaning “to save.” Cf. išganytojas, išgelbėtojas, išgelbėjas and gelbėtojas.

savior, deliverer, rescuer, and savior

The Polish zbáwiciel is rendered as: Išgánitoies or išgélbetoies 13; Išgánitoiau prš. išgelbėie 140, gelbėtoies 94 (98); išgélbėtoiu 36; išgánitoii 15 (148).

The most commonly used is išganytojas.

to beautify and wash

If I am dirty, you can beautify me, prš. wash me 137 (: oczyścić).

These substitutes differ in meaning and may be associated with distinct instances of usage. The more precise equivalent is išgražinti ‘to clean up’.

wise and mudru sekes (?)

wise, adj. Wise-minded 32 (: mądry).

Išmintingas occurs comparatively often in old writings; mudras is very rare, and we probably also find it in the marginal note Mudrusiakės (= mudru sekes?).

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to confess, to express, and to declare

Nūdemės... įbąžįsi 89 (: Spowiada[y]); having expressed... sins 100 (141...) (: wypowiadawby); Tė pa[s]i[r]ākai jog... nė vsilaike 126 (: jie [spowiada).

Three equivalents of spowiadac się are used in various parts of the text. Cf. confession, declaration and spaviedis (loanword).

summoned (translation) and banished

having into, summoned [= summoned], and banished from the heart 124 (: wywołanego).

The creatively chosen equivalent is banished, used figuratively (banished from the heart); the semantically inept calque is summoned.

insolence, crookedness, and injustice

insolence instead of crookedness 137 (: grzechy); insolences instead of injustices 137 (: niepra-wości); crookednesses instead of insolences (:nieprawości).

The best equivalent is injustice; colloquial, less precise alternatives are insolence, especially crookedness.

prisoner and captive

Prš. kālinį, jaitini 106 (: Więźnia).

Kalinys is also found in other old writings (Mažvydas, Sirvydas, etc.); in the Catechism and Postil, Daukša (210, 382...) uses kalinį and saitinį in parallel, the latter probably being a calque from Polish więźń; outside Daukša’s writings, saitinys appears here and there in writings from the late nineteenth century.

to crucify and to hang

On the cross, kārączem, prš. kabączam 134 (: wisząc emu).

These synonyms are used in written texts and in spoken language.

blood flow and blood flux

Kraujo plūdimą, prš. krauplūdi 152 (: krwotok).

The phrase kraujo plūdimas is replaced in the margin by the neologism kra(u)plūdis, which has so far been attested nowhere else.

good and great

very: dõwanai prš. didei 163 (: wielkiemu); didė 37 (70, 142, 168) (: wielką).

The adjective good (gift) is used in the sense of “good, valuable”; the substitute great describes a thing from another perspective, making it possible to regard a great (gift) as good.

to behave and conduct oneself

to behave and live 83 (: zachować przeciw Pánu); thus you behaved 166 (167) (: obyść); not behaving 128 (: obchodząc).

Laikytis also has the meaning “to behave,” and for this reason it draws close in usage to elgis.

to pamper and spoil

to nurture, infinitive; to pep 83 (: rospųbczāiac).

Pepinti in the sense of “to pamper” is found in Daukša’s Postil (65, 586, 662...), where it is used in parallel with lepinti. The word probably passed from Daukša into the dictionaries of Nesselmann and Kurschat. It is not recorded in other sources.

to order and command

who are to command us and to order 73 (: roskazanie); commanded 14 (79, 80, 81) (rozkazuje).

These synonyms differ somewhat in their shades of meaning.

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ill, sick, and unable

I am ill and unable to walk 151: (niemocy); ill and unable 162 (: niemocnego); ill 137 (138, 143) (:chory, niemocnego).

These substitutes are similar, but do not entirely coincide in meaning.

love and loving

The Polish miłość is translated as meile ir mylėjimu (once), e.g.: Mėile 22 (51, 62, 69, 70, 80, 158, 160, 167, 181...), mileymu 167; it seems that in the latter instance mylėjimas is used for stylistic reasons, to avoid repeating the word meilė a third time in the same sentence; once (81) mylėjimą is found used inaccurately in place of the Polish czczeniu [= czczeniu] “veneration.”

to beseech and to ask

Polish prosić is most often translated as melsti, much less often as prašyti, e.g.: melst 49 (50, 53, 55, 61, 66, 68, 85, 106, 134, 135, 138, 139, 163, 169, 170, 171, 173, 176, 181, 189...), prašom 51 (77, 131, 172, 174...).

Synonyms with slightly different nuances of meaning, also used in contemporary language.

compassion (translation), compassionateness (translation), and sympathy

Polish miłosierdzie is translated as mielaširdyste (73, 106, 137, 142, 189...) and mielaširdumu (60, 62, 138, 173, 180, 183).

The first two variants are derivational synonyms. On one occasion, an accidental and inaccurate equivalent of miłosierdzie is found: susimilimas (137).

to mutter and to grumble

neither muttering (participle) nor grumbling 86 (: nie bemrząc).

In the writings of Vilentas, Bretkūnas, Daukša, and others, ruzgėti is used as a synonym for murmėti. Today it is found in written texts and colloquial speech in the sense of “to move.”

to make angry and to enrage

not to make angry prs. to enrage 83 (: nazbyt karząc).

Nartinti (especially įnartinti) is used in the sense “to enrage” in the writings of Mažvydas, Vilentas, Bretkūnas, Širvydas, and others. Cf. nertėti ir rįstauti.

to be unable to speak out (to be unable to speak oneself out) and to be unable to express oneself (to be unable to speak oneself out) “not to renounce”

and no one could utter it prs. could not express it 153 (: się niewymowi). Cf. byloti ir kalbėti.

inexpressible and unspeakable

gerbė nė išbilomoji 144 (164, 171, 185) (:niewy stawiony, niewymowney); nė iškalbama 142 (: niewymowną). Cf. byloti ir kalbėti.

not to tire and not to run short of “not to lack”

nor pavyltu ant kelo prs. nepristoktu 156 (: nie wystali).

Nepristokti is frequently used in old and later writings in the sense “not to lack.” The use of nepailsti (on the way) alongside nepristokti “not to lack, not to be short of” slightly supplements the sentence’s meaning.

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without concealing and covering up (trans.)

nieko nōpĮpęs ir ne vždėgęs 147 (: nie žakrywßy); to cover and to conceal.

These words are close in meaning only in particular cases of usage; the second is a calque, more concrete and vivid, but not as precise and appropriate as without concealing.

unviolated and not anointed

unmarried girls, not anointed 141 (: niepokáléney); nor anointed hearts 104 (:čžy/tego).

“Unviolated, untainted, pure, chaste” is used by Daukša, Širvydas and in other writings, as well as in spoken language. Later, the loanword čysta became established; it is not yet found in DK.

to be angered and to grow wrathful

Polish się gniewać is translated as: nertėt, variant ruſtaut 138; Nė nèrtek 151; ne apjirūſtawai 151.

In old writings, rūstauti is used very widely; nertėti is rarer. Cf. nartinti and rūstauti.

niekanieķė and tuškimas “vanity”

prabókſta niekánieke compared with tuſkimas 169 (:prożność); niekáńiekių 81 (122) (: márnościách).

rūškimas “trifles, vanity” is not recorded in other writings. In folk speech (Pasvalys, Joniškis…) it is used with the meanings “frolicking, making a noise,” which in context may be associated with the word niekaniekė.

not to become tiresome and not to grow weary of

nė nubostumbime compared with ne įjilgſtumbime 117.

To long for in the sense “to become tiresome, to annoy” has so far been recorded only from DK; to long is used in that sense in A. Juška’s dictionary and in Rodūnė. Not to become tiresome and not to long for are used synonymously.

apportionment and reimbursement

drin… of the grace of concealment cf. Awiržimo 95 (: wyżczenia).

In Daukša’s writings, atviržti is used with the meanings “to repay, to give back, to distribute.”

to bow and honor

bending the knee, you prš. honoring 83 (: showing him respect); Wßras must love and bow to his mother 102 (: hold in reverence); Gérbiu 65 (74): Czynią… poczciwość).

Both variants are used in the writings of Daukša and Sirvydas. Nulenkti has the transferred meaning “to show respect,” and can therefore be compared with gerbti.

sin, sinning, guilt, transgression, and debt

Nūdeme prš. Nujideiimas 56 (131) (:sin); ſkotas tai yra kaltės 54 (: sins and transgressions); nūdėmes 13 (24, 33, 34, 35, 41, 43, 57, 58, 68, 89, 93, 107, 130, 131, 139, 145, 146, 149, 151, 153, 185…) (:sin); nujideiimus 130 (:sins); kaltės 43 (46, 61, 106) (:guilt); pražengimus 100) 112, 117, 124, 134, 139, 188) (:transgression, offenses 134).

The most commonly used word is nuodėmė, corresponding to Polish grzech. Its exact synonym, nusidėjimas, is encountered very rarely. Polish wina is translated—

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as guilt, while wysiępek and przewinienia — pražengimu; an incidental and imprecise equivalent is skola, used once (54).

Kaltė and pražengimas in DK are close in meaning to nuodėmė, since the discussion concerns guilt and transgressions as religious offenses. In some instances (134, 139), nuodėmė and pražengimas occurring in the same or adjacent sentences may also have been used for stylistic reasons, to avoid repeating the same word.

opinion and sensation “perception, feeling”

nūmonių cf. pajautimu 114 (:smyślow); pajautimais cf. numanomomis 126 (: zmysłami); Nūmonia 103 (174) (: Roztropność, namętności); pajautimai 108 (127) (: Smyłów, zamysłami).

An attempt is made to translate the Polish term smysł “perception,” and opinion and sensation are used inconsistently as alternatives.

despondency and doubt

Despondency cf. Doubt 107 (: Ro[páč]); of doubt 56 (: poch yby).

These are words with different meanings; abejojimas is used imprecisely in the margin as an equivalent of the Polish ro[pácz “despondency”; elsewhere (56), it has its usual meaning and corresponds to the Polish pochyba.

humiliation, humility, and abasement

by humility 49; of humility 166; of self-abasement 172 (174).

An attempt is made to create an equivalent for the Polish pokora “humility.” One of the variants (nusižeminimas) is well formed. Later, the loanword pakara became established in religious writings.

creature and creation (trans.)

Polish stworzenie is translated as padaras and sutvėrimas, e.g.: padaro 10 (136, 148, 150), sutwerimop 122 (172).

Sutvėrimas is a calque that became very established in later writings. Cf. padaryti and sutverti.

padaryti and sutverti (trans.)

Diewas created man 21 (29, 30, 51, 134, 185) (: stworzony, wcżnić 29); sutwer-ti 27 (160) (: stworzeni); cf. padaras and sutvėrimas, as well as darytojas, sutvėrėjas and sutvertojas.

Most frequently used is padaryti, “to create, make”; in many places it is also found in the sense of “to act” (55,66).

confirmation and strengthening

Padrūtinimas vs. paſtiprinimas 94 (: Bierzmowanie); padrūtinimo 96 (: bierzmowania).

A term is sought to name the sacrament of confirmation (“dirvavonės”), and two closely related equivalents are coined. Cf. padrūtinti, pastiprinti and patvirtinti.

to strengthen, reinforce, and confirm

padrutink manę ‘strengthen me’ 136 (: wzmocni); paſtiprino ‘strengthened’ 136 (: wzmocni); padrūtino ir patvirtino ‘strengthened and confirmed’ 75 (:potwierdził); padrūtinai ‘confirmed’ 152 (potwierdził); paſtiprink ‘strengthen’ 136 (:wkrzep).

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In old writings, padrūtinti and patvirtinti are also used in the sense of ‘reinforce’, so all three equivalents can be regarded as partial synonyms. Cf. padrūtinimas and pastiprinimas.

admonition and exhortation

Pagraudimas [= Pagraudinimas] or įgraudinimas 20; Pagraudinimas 15 (44); Įgraudinimas 80.

Both equivalents of the Polish napominanie ‘reminder’ are colloquial, with strong emotional overtones and too narrow a range of meaning. A more precise equivalent could have been formed from priminti, unattested in DK (only atminti is used — 60, 67, 74, 139, 151, 162).

temptation and tempting

pagūndos cf. pagundimo 169; pagundas 101 (122, 188); pagundima 46 (55, 87).

The Polish pokusa is translated by two synonymous deverbal forms, which continued to be used in parallel in later writings.

assistance, aid, and helping

Polish pomoc is translated by three synonyms that are still used today, e.g.: pagalbą prš. pašalpą 55 (57); pašalpos prš. pagalbos 64; pašalpa prš. padėjimu 86; pagalbą 55 (122, 129, 135); pašalpos 64 (85, 159). Cf. pašelp­ti, padėti ir pagelbėti.

suffices and enough

pakáks prš. gana 156 (: enough); gana 43 (156) (: sufficiently); cf. pakąką 42 (: enough); pakaktinai 112 (: perfectly).

Pakaks ir gana are still used synonymously.

buried, interred, and blushed

dead and pakąstas prš. Palaidotas 33 (: buried); paraustas prš. Pakąstas 137 (: buried); pakąstas 23 (: buried).

The most common equivalent is palaidotas; pakastas has an imagistic sense, while paraustas also carries a vulgar connotation. Cf. palaidoti ir praleisti.

to bury and to omit

“Numirusi palaidot” prš. “praleist” 106 (: pochować); cf. “pakastas, palaidotas ir paraustas.”

The substitutes differ in meaning: “praleisti” is used in the sense of “to accompany,” whereas “palaidoti” is used in its usual sense.

blessed, deified, praised, and glorified

“palaímintoₚ giwatoₚ” prš. “padeiwintoₚ” 36 (:blogosławionemu); “wiſsiemus pagirtiémus” prš. “Palaimtiemus” 53; “palaimintos mergós” 64 (105, 155, 157, 164, 181) (:blogosławioney); “padeiwintas” 36 (42, 65) (:wielbiony); “pagirtos mergós” 32 (53, 58, 63) (: blogosławioney); once (2) blogosławiony is translated by the word pa-garbintas, which elsewhere (36, 179) corresponds to the Polish chwale bny.

These variants are somewhat related in their general meaning, but are not very close. In the Polish text they correspond to three words, translated almost regularly by the respective Lithuanian substitutes (except blogosławiony — “pagar bintas”). The most frequently used is “palaimintas.” The word “padeiwintas”, unusual to us today, is also very rarely found in Daukša’s writings.

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ordinary and subordinate

“paprãte darit” prš. “paiunk” [= “paiunke”] 20 (: zwykli).

The Lithuanian equivalents are used as synonyms. Cf. “paprotys ir pajunkimas.”

custom and subjection

custom (gen. sg.) var. subjection [= subjection] 123 (: zwyczaju); by custom [= by custom] 6 (7) (: zwyczájách).

Custom and subjection function as synonyms. Cf. to accustom and to subject.

to surrender and purpose (to assign oneself)

paſsidůme... maldomus var. páſkiremes 61 (: zálecamy); cf. paſsidãwes 124 (175) (: podawȳ); páſkiru iam dũbia 69(: ofiaruie).

Near-synonymous substitutes. In place of purpose, older texts, especially later ones, also use in part the borrowing afieravoti, which does not occur in the DK.

drowning, condemnation, destruction and perdition.

Adam brought... drowning var. destruction 35; it would not be to my condemnation var. drowning 173 (: skarániu); and to eternal destruction 179 (172) (: zátráceniu); leads us into perdition 11.

The first three equivalents differ in meaning. Drowning is a vivid, popular expression of the concept of “perdition”; condemnation is less concrete and vivid; destruction and perdition are derivational synonyms.

last, final, and latest

Four final things of man prš. Pakucžiausei 108 (: oſtáteczne); pástaroi 38 (94) (: nakon'cu, oſtáteczne); paſkujeiais métais 5 (: ná potomne czáły).

Pastaras in old writings is used in the sense of “last” and is synonymous with the word paskutinis.

to greet and to heal

paſwẽikintumbei prš. išgydintumbei (151) (: vzdrowić); paſwẽikint 137 (140, 177), (:vzdrowić); išgĩdžẽu 110 (141, 151, 152) (: vleczyć, vzdrowić).

In old writings, pasveikinti is also used in the sense of “to make well, to heal” and alternates with išgydyti. Cf. išvaistėjimas, išvaistymas, išgydymas, pasveikinimas ir išliečijimas.

to succor, to help, and to assist

paſʒelpt iůs prš. help them 81 (: wspomagać); padék 139 (159) (:wspomóż, dopomoc); pagelbėk 136 (: porá­tuy).

Pašelpti ir pagelbėti can be considered synonyms, with padėti “to help” being very close in meaning.

to make chaste and to multiply

paƀwąkinai tawů ateimů prš. dauginai 164 (: vśláchčil); dáugsindamas 52.

In Daukša’s Catechism and Postil, pašvankinti is used in the sense of “to beautify, adorn,” in parallel with gražinti. daug­sinti is also found with this same meaning, though it has other meanings as well (“to increase, enlarge…”). Cf. švankus ir gražus.

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to turn into, become and to become (calque)

Pawirſta ir tampa ſunumi 11 (: Stawa ſie); Pawirſta prš. Tampa 12 (: Zoltáie); tám pamė prš. ſtojames 96 (:ſtawamy); pawirſta 99 (: odmien ia); nė tapit 7 (10, 17, 32, 43, 57, 63, 95, 150, 160, 184) (: nie ſtániecie); ſtojėſi 56 (: stał).

Of the three parallelisms that coincide in the meaning “to become something,” tapti is used most frequently. The calque stotis became established in later writings, but is very rare. Once, Polish ſtanie (143) is translated as veiksis (Ir kasg vienok ju manim weiksis). In this case, veiksis can also mean “will happen,” and is therefore not included among the parallelisms.

to mark and to indicate

paženklina prš. pažimina 94 (: názná czy).

The meaning of Polish naznaczyć, “to appoint, designate,” is rendered somewhat imprecisely by the synonyms paženklinti ir pažymėti. Cf. ženklinti ir žymėti.

bread, eating and devouring

penas and gerimas manas prš. valgymas 160 (: pokarm); valgimė prš. edėyia 126 (: w jedzeniu); pena 171 (182) (: pokarm, żywność); Kelentis Nůg Walgimo 183 (: od stołu); ėdesių uždrautų... nėwalgysi 89 (162) (: pokármow).

In old writings, especially Daukša’s Postil, penas is often found in the sense of “food.” When referring to human food, valgymas is also used (rarely). Only occasionally does Daukša use ėdesį alongside peno ir valgymo, which, judging from its current usage, may have had a vulgar connotation (usually one speaks of animal fodder, or ėdesys “food” in vulgar speech). So far, the words maistas and valgis have not been recorded in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century writings.

feeding and satiation

nourishment, or feeding of the body 54 (: pożywieniem); satiation 175 (:náżycenie).

The first component of the parallelism is too concrete and therefore perhaps too narrow; satiation is better, although once it is used inaccurately: instead of the Polish poślenie (a pit) “reinforcement,” there is paſſotinimas (a pit) 156.

comprehension and understanding

Understanding, or comprehension 104 (: Wyrozumienia).

A term is sought for naming the intellect, one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and two variant derivatives are offered—understanding and comprehension. Permanyti “to understand” has been widely used since Mažvydas, in writings and in the spoken language.

pigiaus ir gandžiaus “more easily, better”

pigėus numirt turimė nėkaip prš. gądžeus 70 (: rá cze y); pigiaus (: łatwie). In old writings and dialects pigiau (pigiaus, pigesn) is also used in the senses “more easily, better.” Gandžiaus has so far been recorded only in the writings of Daukša and V. Kudirka.

prabingusiai ir prašmatu “excessively, very much”

iž to prabingųfei apmauduiė prš. praſmatu 111 (: zbytnie); prabingufei ape tatai apmaudawo 122, 167 (: zbytnie); praſmatu 119 (: zbytnie).

Prabingusiai “very, excessively” is found in the works of Daukša and Širvydas. Much more widely used in writings is prašmatas “abundance, excess, luxury, pride.” Cf. prabingęs ir prašmatus.

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prabìngęs ir prašmatus “too large, excessive”

Prabìgęs dukšėjimas prš. prašmatus 107 (: Zbytnie). Both words occur in old writings, especially those of Daukša, where they are used as synonyms.

priejáuta, priežinė (?) ir siela “conscience”

priejáutos prš. sielos 100 (112) (: summienium); sielós prš. priejáutos 111 (: summienia); siela prš. peiežinė [= priežinė?] 125 (: summienie); siela 68 (69, 118, 130) (: summieniem). A term to express “conscience” is being sought. Most often used is siela, which later acquired the meaning “soul.” In DK, the Polish dusza is everywhere rendered by the borrowing dušia. The word priejáuta “conscience” is also found in Širvydas’s writings; it has also been recorded several times in dialects with the meanings “intuition, foreboding.” Priežinė (?) is attested only in DK.

to gather and tend

That it may gather food for us prš. Apveizdėtu 54 (: opatrzył); prikūpia, apveizdi 31. Prikuopti is used with the meanings “provide for, look after” in the writings of Daukša and Bretkūnas. Cf. apkuopti and apčystyti.

to get ready and prepare (to get ready)

And how are you to prepare prš. prierektis [= prirektis] 97 (: nágotować); prirektis 99 (: przygotować). Prisitáisyti has the meaning “to get ready,” with which it is closely associated with prirengtis

oppression and hardship

The oppression of the righteous prš. prie spauda 108 (: Včisnienie); prie spaudos 57 (125) (: utrapieniem, doległościach); cf. prispaustas 151 (: vtrapiony). The alternatives are used synonymously. Prislėgimas is recorded only in DK and may be regarded as a neologism coined by Daukša. Prespauda is widely used in the writings of Daukša, Širvydas, and others.

obligation and need

we find ourselves in some obligation, or need 18 (: w...potrzebe); need or obligation 71 (77) (: potrzeba); in needs 122 (158) (: potrzebách). The Polish potrzeba is translated by two words; most commonly used is reikalas, “necessity, need, want.” Cf. privalomas, privalus and reikalingas.

necessary, obligatory, and mandatory

The Polish potrzebny is rendered with three words: ápe daiktus jam reikalingus ir privalomus 21 (71, 72); daiktą… privaloma prš. reikalingę 69; reikálingų 22 (44); privalómu 53; privalús 1 (3, 70). Reikalingas and privalomas most often occur together. Once privalomas is used in place of the Polish przytomny (czáju przytomnego – metu privalomu 182). Cf. privalymas ir reikalas.

to say and to speak (to utter)

In various places in DK, words of similar meaning sakyti ir tarti (taryti) are used, e.g.: Sakíkig 12 (94), sakíd amas 156; tari 12, taríd amas 16. It seems that most frequent-

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ly used is tarti (taryti). In individual cases these alternatives occur in parallel with byloti and kalbėti.

sweetness and sweet quality

sweetness prš. saldybė 62 (: słodkości); saldūmę 170 (:słodkości); saldybei 155 (160, 177) (: w słodkości).

Both derivative synonyms are used in parallel; saldybė is also found in other old writings.

structure and coordination

has a structure... 102; has concordance (with the church) 103.

Structure is widely used in old writings; coordination should be regarded as a neologism coined by Daukša, used, most likely, for stylistic reasons, to avoid repeating the word structure.

to protect and guard

In various passages of the text, the Polish zachować ir strzedz is translated as to protect (most often) and to guard, e.g.: keeping the commandments 27 (55, 69, 70, 71, 78, 80, 89, 93, 126, 180, 181); guarding the eyes 87 (120, 122, 123, 145). Vows, feast days, fasts, and other things are kept (guarded); one keeps oneself from sins, temptations, all evil, etc. Here and there, explanations and additional equivalents are added to to protect and guard, e.g.: Jaugot ir laikyt turėjo [tvarką] 126 (: zachować miał); Jėrgedamies, apžiakdami ir węgdami wiffjokiu biėurūbių 84 (: strzegąc ję). In some places (84), to protect is followed by to guard for stylistic reasons, to avoid repeating the same word immediately. Cf. to avoid, shun, and guard against.

grief and resentment

Jielwartūſe cf. apmauduofe 122 (: frąsunkach).

Grief has been used in written texts since the time of Mažvydas. It is a more literary word compared with resentment “anger, wrath, dissatisfaction, restlessness,” which is characteristic of colloquial folk speech and has a slightly different semantic nuance. Cf. to resent, to worry, and to grieve.

fierceness and roughness (trans.)

never at any time with... fierceness... appetite cf. devour 126 (: Jurowością).

Smarkumas ‘sharpness, severity, roughness’ is used in Daukša’s writings, Sirvydas’s dictionary, and elsewhere; šiurystė is a calque recorded only in DK (Sirvydas’s dictionary has šiurybė).

throne and chair

ſó]to cf. krėſlo 147 (:ſtolice).

In Old Lithuanian writings, sostas is most commonly used; krėslas ‘throne’ is encountered occasionally (in the writings of Mažvydas, Daukša, and others).

to resist, oppose, and strengthen oneself

so that he could resist hardships cf. strengthen oneself 101 (: przećiwić); Stęmbt cf. Priebin tis 107 (: Przeciwiąć ję); Stęb dama 123 (:przeci wiając ję).

In Old Lithuanian writings, especially those of Daukša, stembti is most commonly used; priešintis; stiprinti(s) is considerably rarer. The latter is encountered with the meaning ‘to affirm (oneself)’, and only Miežinis’s dictionary also gives the meaning ‘to fight’, which could be connected with the meaning ‘to resist’.

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lap and hem

a synonym of lap: hem 152 (: kráiu).

Lap in old writings is mostly used with the meanings “skirt, apron”; in some places (in the writings of Daukša, Širvydas, and Morkūnas) it is also found in the sense of “edge of a garment, hem.” Hem (of a garment) is neutral, whereas lap is a colloquial word.

joined and united

united with him 98 (156 (: ziednoczona); joined without fault 4 (: złączone).

To join and to unite are used as synonyms.

to bandage and to bind up “to bandage.”

he bandages wounds, a synonym of binds up 143 (: zawęzuje).

Both words are attested only in Daukša’s writings, where they are used very rarely.

chasteness and beauty

βw akumas prš. beauty 158 (: ozdoba).

Chasteness, “beauty, purity, decency,” is also found in Daukša’s Postil. Cf. chaste and beautiful.

chaste and beautiful

βwąkų prš. beautiful 157 (:nadobnego); grąžųs 42 (56) (: piękni).

Chaste, “beautiful, decent, polite,” is used in other writings alongside beautiful.

intercessor (-trix), advocate (-tress), and supporter

intercessor fem. gen. pl. intercessor 63 (: Orędowniczko); intercessors and mediators 67; intercessor 59 (: Orętowniczka); for intercessors 64 (: pomocnikom); intercessor 62; for advocates 64 (: przyczyn’com).

Intercessor is widely used in old writings and later; advocate (-tress) is attested in later writings and colloquial speech. In a few places (64), the Polish pomocnik is inaccurately translated as intercessor, elsewhere (139) correctly as helper.

people and kin

of all peoples or kin groups 40.

In Daukša’s writings, alongside the frequently encountered tauta, giminė is also used in some places (after the conjunction arba). This shows that the meanings of these words had not become established in written usage.

to flow, to flow toward and to run

tekėt maldum[p] prš. beǵt 87 (136); (: vćiekáć); Tawęsp pasitekėjo wįsi ligónis prš. bego 152 (:uciekali); tekėt 87 (167) (: vćiekał); pasitekėju 136 (167) (: ućiekę); Bėgu 48 (136, 150).

In Old Lithuanian writings, tekėti is used in the sense of “to run” when referring to people. Thus tekėti, pasitekėti and bėgti function as synonyms.

inheritance and succession

“succession, inheritance”

kurią turime vǯ tėwainumą prš. tewikßkawima [= tewikßtawima] 96 (: dziedzictwo); tėvainumo 12 (142).

These equivalents of the Polish dziedzictwo are recorded only in Daukša’s writings; elsewhere, tėvainystė, tėviškystė, and so on, are found.

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to hope and to expect

Probably tikies prš. dukſies 44 (: spodżiewaß); tikimes 45 (: spodżiewamy); dukſetis 176.

They are used as synonyms. Daukša’s Postil and other old writings also attest viltis. Cf. dūkšėjimas, padūkšis, tikėjimasis and viltis.

perfection and completion

apturėtumbime wiſſókią tôbulumą prš. paginėjimą 98 (: doſkonalości); tôbulumop 117 (147) (: doſkonalości).

Tobulumas “goodness, fullness, completeness” is widely used in Daukša’s writings; elsewhere we find tobulystė(-a) and tobulybė. Paginėjimas “completion, ending” is rare in old writings; in DK it is used imprecisely also in the sense of “completeness, finished state” and is juxtaposed with tobulumas.

greed, indulgence, and avarice

Desire for wealth instead of greediness. Godas 91 (: Lakomſtwo).

Troškumas “desire,” lepumas “desire for indulgence, self-indulgence,” godas “greed” are frequently used by Daukša and in other old writings; troškimas, troškulys are also attested. Cf. didžiavimas, lepumas and putlumas.

constantly and always

Laupįnkt tuintimpos prš. wiſſados 163 (: vſtawićźnie); wiſſados 20 (85, 161, 176, 181) (: záwſze, záwždy).

Tuointimpos “constantly, always” is familiar from the writings of Daukša and Daukantas. This is a word characteristic of the Samogitian dialect.

chilled, cooled, and frozen

made a person sluggish and languid in the years, cf. vźbałusiu 93 (: ozięblego).

Synonyms of similar meaning, the last of which most strongly expresses the degree of cooling. They are used figuratively when speaking of a person's spiritual passivity.

to cover oneself and keep covering oneself “to cover oneself”

with wings... covered, cf. dałktos 148 (: zakrywać).

The first is a semelfactive verb, the second a frequentative verb, perhaps not expressing the meaning of the sentence as precisely as to cover oneself (= to cover oneself).

to descend upon and to attack

upon us, to descend upon, compared with to attack, 169 (: vpadły).

The first word is highly expressive; it is used metaphorically, vividly describing nights descending upon people; its substitute to attack is also vivid and expressive, perhaps having arisen under the influence of the Polish text, although, in general, metaphorical expressions such as “night (evening...) attacked” are used in contemporary Lithuanian.

hardening and becoming hardened

Hardening, compared with becoming hardened, 107 (: Zátwardziałość).

Daukša began using these names for one sin; of these, hardening survived in religious writings. Compare to strengthen, reinforce, and confirm.

cooling and freezing

cooling... growing cold, compared with freezing, 121 (: oziębłości). Compare to cool down, grow cool, and freeze.

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children and sons

milėtis kaip brólei ir waikai wieno téwo prš. sūnus 50 (:brácia á Synowie); elsewhere (11, 26, 32, 37, 61, 167), forms of the word sūnus are used in their usual meaning.

In old writings, children is often replaced by sons.

will and desire

tur sawimp tris galibes... will or desire 27 (: wolą); will 29 (42, 127, 166); desire 42 (123, 129, 166) (: chęć, myśli, ochotą).

The Polish equivalents show that desire is used too broadly to serve as a substitute for will.

to shun, avoid, and beware

wągśtit kitų priepūlų prš. to beware 87 (: wiárować); węgt draugės piktós prš. Zaugotis [= Saugotis] 85 (: strzedz się); wegdami 84 (176, 177) (: guarding oneself, niewyłydzę).

All the parallel components are similar in meaning; the first two are synonyms. Vangstyti(s) ‘to avoid’ is found in written sources and dialects alongside the more common vengti.

deed and work

wėikalųse ‘in matters’ (prš. darbuose ‘in works’) 123 (: w|prawach); elsewhere, in various passages of the text, darbas ‘work’ is most often found (10, 14, 22, 38, 41, 66, 67, 71, 76, 79, 80, 91, 131, 181), used to translate the Polish vėcynok; veik(a)las ‘deed, activity, action, thing, matter’ is used (11, 18, 33, 123, 125, 150, 181) less frequently, corresponding to Polish sprawa (most often), obrzed, wrzęd (very rarely), and is also found in other old writings.

in one way and in a single way

wienėłopai (‘in one way’; = wienėriopai?) believes in God, prš. vienaip ‘in a single way’ 39.

In old writings, vieneriopai and vienaip (‘in one way’) are used. The form vienėłopai is recorded only once, in DK, so it is most likely to be emended to the form vienėriopai, found in Daukša’s writings and elsewhere.

to promise and to intend

which he promised and paketino ‘intended’ to God 78 (: obiecanych); žada ‘promises’ 10 (11, 68, 78, 92, 170) (: obiecać); cf. kėtindamas ‘intending’ 68.

They are used as synonyms; very common in old writings is žadėti (‘to promise’: pažadėti, atsižadėti, apžadėti, apsizadėti...); much rarer is ketinti (‘to intend’: paketinti).

to mark and denote

we mark the forehead, the sign of the cross, etc. We denote 20 (: znáčzymy); we mark ourselves 17 (18).

Both are widely used as synonyms in written texts, especially older ones, and in spoken language (here the less common žýminnti). Cf. pažėklinti and pažymėti; žymė and ženklas.

march and step

he would make a march of some kind, a plundering, etc.; steps [= step] 121 (: potępek).

In old writings both substitutes are used; the more common is — žygnsnis.

16. Kalbotyros klausimai, III

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mark and sign

Which is a mark, or sign of the Trinity 15 (: znamię); elsewhere mark (9, 16, 20, 67) and sign (17, 18, 19) are used separately.

Both words are used in parallel in various meanings in old writings and later (sžymuo, pažymys, coat of arms, seal…). Cf. to mark and to denote.

candle and lamp

źwákes or žiburo 19 (: świecy).

The substitutes differ in meaning — žvakė is a much narrower term than žiburys, since žiburys refers not only to the light of a candle but also to that of a splinter torch, a lamp, and other sources of light. We may suppose that this was the translator’s effort to supplement and clarify the sentence, rather than treating the candle (:świec) as the sole means of illumination, by adding žvakės alongside žiburį as a broader term (in sixteenth-century Lithuanian households, a candle could not have been the principal means of illumination).

to glance and to look

upon me… ówilkteret versus pavizdet 134 (: weyrzeć = weyrzec); żwilgterés 136(: poyžrzy = poyrzy); pawiżek 140 (: weyžrzy).

In Old Lithuanian writings, žvilgterėti is used more often, while pavyzdėti is much rarer.

Among the Lithuanian lexical parallelisms mentioned in the DK, there are many synonyms—words of similar meaning whose usage overlaps in part. They are used to supplement and clarify an idea (especially substitutes following the conjunctions and, or, that is), to explain and bring out concepts and the semantic, figurative, and emotional nuances of the words that express them, and to make the content clear, vivid, and appealing, insofar as this can be achieved in a catechism translation expounding the truths of faith.

The DK uses the following synonymously: neišbyloma and neiškalbama; nemibosti and nešiilgi; paprotys and pajunkimas; pagalba, pašalpa, and padėjimas; pakaks and gana; pastaras and paskučiausias; paženklinti and pažyminti; prabingęs and prašmatus; saugoti(s) and sergėti(s); sujungti and suvienyti; tikėtis and dūlksėtis; žadėti(s) and paketinti; žymė and ženklas, along with many other lexical parallelisms. Their semantic proximity can be inferred from their Polish equivalents, from the usage of these parallel components in the Lithuanian text of the DK, and, in part, from the present-day usage of the substitutes, which in many cases can attest to the synonymy of their various components.

Most synonyms have approximately the same meaning, differing only slightly in semantic, figurative, emotional, and stylistic nuances, for example: didžiavimas and pūtumas; melsti and prašyti; murmėti and rūgėti; nartinti and rūstinti; pakastas, palaidotas, and paraustas; sielvartas and apmaudas; užgrūti and užpulti. Some substitutes used synonymously are highly colloquial, vivid, and expressive, for example: giltinė “death,” pūtumas “pride,” padaras “creature,” prislegimas “oppression,” and so on.

In some cases, words from the vernacular are used figuratively, in an abstract sense, for example: įkvėpimas and išlėkimas; užaušęs, užvėjęs, and užšalęs; neįžagta “pure, chaste,” nulenkti “to respect,” nusižeminimas, etc.

In some places, synonyms or words of similar meaning are placed side by side to reinforce the idea and its impact, for example: The stems of heaven tremble and quiver 148; I have thirsted and yearned 155.

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In some places, synonyms may have been used for the stylistic reason of avoiding an immediate repetition of the same word, which could impair the fluency of the language, e.g.: Dųbia maná kūno táwo gėidžia, širdis maná trókšta but su tawimi 155; Kaip turimė šáugot bėbta priákimą... šėrgedamies, apląkdami ir węgdami wisókių biėuribų 84.

Among the DK’s synonymous parallelisms, one can also look for words from various dialects. Daukša was a central Lithuanian but lived in Samogitia and elsewhere. In his language, he sought to appeal to the broadest possible readership, and thus the vocabulary of various dialects could have entered his writings. Today it is difficult to determine precisely how widely some words were used in Daukša’s time; only from the incomplete data available in the modern language and old writings can one attempt to provisionally localize some DK parallelisms dialectally. For example, the words tankiai “often,” tankus “frequent,” tuointimpos “constantly, always,” and veikiai “quickly” may be regarded as dialectal forms characteristic of Samogitian dialects. The word versmė is known in eastern Lithuanian dialects (Kupiškis, Utena, Linkmenys, Tverečius, Adutiškis, etc.). Other DK words, especially those used rarely, have also been studied from a dialectal perspective, e.g.: atviržti “repay,” bingusiai “very,” algoti “call, name,” gandžiaus “dearest, more,” glapstyti “surround, embrace,” godas “greed,” y pačiai “separately,” karoti “hang,” lcisdyti (?) “heat, burn” (?), nartinti “anger, vex,” nertėti “be angry, be annoyed,” pastaras “last,” paginėjimas “completion” (?), petelškė “butterfly,” primitinti “deceive,” pepinti “spoil,” stembti “resist,” švankus “beautiful,” troškunas “greed,” valksna “pouch,” and others.

Among the DK parallelisms, there are synonyms formed by different word-formation patterns, e.g.: aklatis and aklystė; giltinė, mirtis, mirimas and numirimas; meilė and mylėjimas; saldumas and saldybė; sandara and suderėjimas; tevainimas and tevy kštavimas, etc. Among the variants formed differently are also Daukša’s neologisms, proposed to name new concepts. The shortage of terms and new words was considerable, and Daukša devoted himself to seeking Lithuanian equivalents. Several words are offered to name some things, e.g.: išgelbėtojas, išgelbėjas and gelbėtojas; niekaniekė and tuškimas; nuodėmė, nusidėjimas, kaltė, pražengimas and skola; nuomonė and pajautimas; nužeminimas, nusižeminimas and pasižeminimas; padrūtinimas and pastiprinimas; pagalba, pašalpa and padėjimas; paprotys and pajunkinimas; paskandinimas, pasmerkimas, prapuolimas and prapultis; permanymas and supratimas, etc. This impeded the stabilization of literary vocabulary, but lexical variation was inevitable in the early period of Lithuanian writing.

Some DK parallelisms seem distant to us today because the meaning and usage of their variants have changed, but from the perspective of usage in that period they may be considered synonyms, e.g.: algoti and vadinti; deja and bėda; dūksejimas, padūkis, tikėjimasis and viltis; gandžiaus and mieliaus; gyvata and gyvenimas; ypačiai and skyriumi; įstojimas and pritarimas; lepinti and pepinti; pasveikinti and išgydyti; prabingęs and prašmatus; tekėti, pasitekėti and bėgti; tikėtis and dūkseti. and others.

Some DK parallelisms differ more or less in meaning and usage, e.g.: alpti and gaišti; išgražinti and nuprausti; laikytis and elgtis; liepti and įsakyti; ligotas, sergantis and negalės; nepailsti and nepristokti; prikuvoti and apveizdėti; privalymas and reikalas; sutarčiori and užrašiuoti.

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Some parallelisms of this kind have somewhat broader meanings, e.g.: apmaudoti, rūpintis and sielotis; penėjimas and pasotinimas; vaikai and sūnūs; žvakė and žiburys and others.

Other components of parallelisms with unequal meanings bring out different features of the same thing, phenomenon, and so forth, e.g.: didžiausia, marinanti and mirštama (sin); nešągta and nepapetpta; nenubosti and neišilgti; palaimintas, padeivintas, pagirtas and pagarbintas, etc.

There are also cases in which the members of a parallelism are too distant in meaning and ineptly juxtaposed, e.g.: atminti and minėti; daryti, teigti and veikti; iščiūlamas, kreivumas and neteisybė; nusiminimas and abejojimas; tobulumas and paginėjimas; tarpininkas and užtarytojas.

Sometimes variants appear unusual and semantically unrelated at first glance, but closer examination of the context may reveal that they are related in their secondary meanings and usage, e.g.: neapslėpęs and neuždengęs; paskandinimas, pasmerkimas, prapuolimas and prapultis; prisitaisyti and prirengti; sterblė and kraštas; vaikai and sūnūs; veikalas and darbas.

Occasionally, one component of a parallelism is a straightforward, more extensive explanation, e.g.: atlažtina prš. worthy of forgiveness 91; artikulu, that is... the articles of faith 25.

Among Lithuanian parallelisms there are calques. They are relatively few. It appears that Daukša primarily sought to make use of familiar Lithuanian words and resorted to calques only relatively rarely, e.g.: atpirkimas (calque) and atvadavimas; apsiturėti (calque), dėtis and veikti; apturėjimas (calque) and įgijimas; darytojas, sutvėrėjas (calque) and sutvertotojas (calque); geradarymas (calque), gerodarymas (calque), geropadarymas (calque), geradžia and gerybė; graudumas and sutryminas (calque); iššauktas (calque) and ištrentas; kalinys and saitinys (calque), smarkumas and sūrustė (calque), and others.

There are cases in which one Polish word is translated by two Lithuanian words that are distant in meaning and do not form a lexical parallelism, but should be regarded as elements that expand the thought, e.g.: who wishes to receive well and beneficially 100 (: ku godnemu przyjęciu); he had patience in adversity or in troubles 125 (: w doległościach).

Most often, several Lithuanian parallel variants have only one Polish equivalent (cf. the parallel variants of the words algoti, atleistina, atpirkimas, darytojas, dažnas, drugelis, eketė, geradarymas, giltinė, gyvata, graudumas, ypačias, išganytojas, išgražinti, kalinys, karoti, lepinti, liepti, ligotas, melsti, reikalingas, stembti, troškumas, ženklinti and others, and their Polish equivalents). This abundance of Lithuanian equivalents attests to the translator’s creative efforts to make the language of the translation rich and varied. At the same time, it also reveals the considerable difficulties and fluctuations involved in searching for equivalents, as well as, in part, the author’s lack of stylistic experience. Sometimes, having failed to determine word meanings precisely or find the necessary equivalents, Daukša translates several Polish words with a single Lithuanian word, e.g.: łaskawy (63, 171, 180, 188) and miłościwy (141, 142) correspond to malonus; various forms of the words pewny (4,122), prawdziwy (7, 154, 170, 172), własny (126, 151), Boży (138), and czyły (168) are sometimes translated by different inflections of the word tikras.

It also happens that several Lithuanian substitutes correspond not to one, but to several Polish words of similar meaning. In that case, Lithuanian parallelisms are Polish parallel-

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as a result, e.g.: about the foulness and filthiness of sins 58 (: o sprośności á brzykádości grzechu); Thou art my hope, and my trust 135 (: Tyś nádziejá moia y dufánie).

Some of DK’s lexical parallelisms, especially those found in different parts of the text, may also be regarded as the result of the translator’s creative freedom. After all, in general, every writer uses synonyms and words of similar meaning freely, without attempting to follow any strict order; as a result, various lexical and semantic variants may occur in almost any work.

Finally, some parallelisms may also result from differing understandings and interpretations of the original text (expressions and words).

* * *

Among the lexical variants in DK are several dozen cases in which, alongside a Lithuanian equivalent (in the same place, in the margin, or elsewhere in the text), a loanword is given, or a Lithuanian word is added to a loanword. Comparing DK with the Polish text of Ledesma’s catechism shows that most of the loanwords found in the Lithuanian text may have been taken from the Polish text. This indicates the influence of Polish on such a prominent renewer and cultivator of the Lithuanian language as M. Daukša, who paid great attention to linguistic purity. Apparently, when translating from Polish and seeking Lithuanian equivalents—especially terms and other words for expressing new concepts—it was sometimes necessary to borrow words from the Polish text. Some loanwords may also have come from other sources. With Polish influence exerting itself strongly, and the Lithuanian nobility becoming Polonized and using Polish most of the time, various foreign words could also have entered written works from spoken language. Some may have been taken from Belarusian, which at that time had become established as an official written language in the administration, courts, and elsewhere. There is no doubt that there were also cases in which M. Daukša and other sixteenth-century and later writers were unsure which word was native Lithuanian and which was a loanword. At that time, without Lithuanian dictionaries, this was difficult—almost impossible—to determine.

The lexical parallelisms given in the margins, among which loanwords also occur, should also be viewed as glosses (explanations of unfamiliar words), which were widely practiced abroad at the time and were later replaced by dictionaries. Following the example of Polish writing, M. Daukša also used marginal glosses: in some places he explained Lithuanian words with loanwords familiar to clergy who did not know Lithuanian well, and explained loanwords with neologisms of his own making or words taken from folk speech, thereby seeking to enrich the literary language with Lithuanian vocabulary. At a time when the literary language was only taking shape and its vocabulary, especially its terminology, was not yet established, loanwords could help readers who knew Lithuanian and Polish to understand more precisely a text translated into Lithuanian.

For these reasons, M. Daukša, too, could not avoid loanwords. A significant proportion of them are used alongside Lithuanian equivalents.

In Daukša’s catechism we find such borrowed religious terms as: altar, church, soul, heresy, host, priest, catechism, Mass, prayers, persona, Trinity and others, which are used without Lithuanian substitutes. In DK we find not only religious terms taken from Polish texts and other sources, but also other words, most of which are used interchangeably with Lithuanian equivalents

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(e.g., to fast and to abstain, friend and companion), while no Lithuanian substitutes for others have been found in DK (e.g., afiera, thanksgiving, mustard, grave, murinas, miernybė, disregard, Sunday, indecency, manor estate, to ponder, chest, judgment, judge and others).

The usage parallelisms of Lithuanian words and loanwords are presented below in alphabetical order.

to fast and to abstain from food (loanword)

alkintis cf. Paśnikaut 114 (: to fast).

In Daukša’s writings, alkintis is used most often; later, the loanword pasninkauti gains wider currency.

to clean up and to cleanse (loanword)

apkūpdawai 153 (: you have cleansed); apčįstįące 161 (: cleansing).

Daukša uses apkuopti, apgražinti and other Lithuanian substitutes for “to cleanse,” in place of which the loanword apčystyti later gains currency. Cf. prižiuopti ir apveizdėti.

article (loanword) and member (calque)

artikulu, that is… sąnariu tikėjimo 25 (: articles, that is, members); artikulai 25 (31); sąnariu 178 (: members).

In older writings, several terms are used to name a particular part of a religious text: the loanword artikulas, the calque sąnarys, and straipstis (article). The latter began to be used by Mažvydas; it is occasionally found in the writings of Bretkūnas, Daukša, and others with the meanings “part, member, step.”

fellowship and comradeship (loanword) “company, friendship”

będri̇te]p Angehu priwādžioia 8 (24, 41) (:company, association); śébri̇tę 5 (: company).

Both substitutes are rarely encountered in old writings. More often used are draugysta, draugystė, draugė.

making and teaching (loanword)

dārime adv. c̨wic̨yime 114 (: doing).

The loanword čvičijimas (čvičyti) is very rare and incidental in Daukša’s writings. It is replaced by making, teaching and other Lithuanian words. Cf. to do, state, and act.

friend and companion (loanword)

As an equivalent of the pleasant częſtawóia draugą, bursinika is given at 157 (: towarzýſba).

Both substitutes are rarely used in old writings. Besides draugo, bendras is also encountered.

sorrow and repentance (loanword) “penance”

Sorrow instead of repentance 94; of sorrow 73 (96, 138, 140, 150, 186, 188); repentance 132.

The Polish pokuta “penance” is translated as sorrow; the loanword pakūta, which became established in later religious writings, is used only a couple of times.

power, strength, might, priima (?) and syla (loanword)

power went forth from you 152 (37) (: strength); power 51 (120) (: capacity); by power 135 (: by strength); by strength 29 (: by capacity); with strength 37 (: with capacity); strength 100 (126) (: strength).

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The Polish šila, moénosc, moca „stiprybé, galia, galybé“ are most often translated as galybé; here and there stiprybé and stiprumas occur; the loanword sylą is used a few times.

The marginal word priima (with an a presumed at the end), recorded only in DK, is unclear, and its association with galybé is questionable.

nature and cnata (loanword)

małóne Diewo [u wiſsomis gám tomis instead of cnátomis 96 (:cnotámi); the loanword cnata is used only a couple of times; elsewhere (3, 4, 7, 59, 67, 73) gamta “virtue” is found.

Gamta “virtue” is found only in Daukša’s writings.

honor, respect (loanword), praise and honoring

A dozen or so times, the Polish cześć y chwała is translated as garbé(-a) and liaupsé, e.g.: garbé[p and laup[ep [= laup[ep]p] 18 (51, 53, 68, 69, 145, 154, 158, 159, 180, 181); in one place — pagerbimu and laupę 155; once chwale á sławie — laup[ep’ and garbé[p 172; garbés cf. czéſties 163 (: czči); elsewhere in the text, garbé occurs separately, corresponding to Polish chwala (65, 92, 108, 146, 164), cześć (180, 181), and czétnosć (78), or it appears without a Polish equivalent (67, 68, 178); and, somewhat more often, liaupsé, corresponding to Polish chwala (51, 52, 64, 75, 90, 102, 157, 164, 170, 172, 180, 181, 189), or appearing without a Polish equivalent (11, 31, 80); several times cześć is translated as pagerbimu (155, 165). Thus garbé, čestis (only once cf.) liaupsé and pagerbimas (very rarely) are used synonymously when translating Polish chwala (liaupsé, garbé), cześć (garbé, pagerbimas, čestis), sława (garbé), and czciwość (garbé). Cf. garbinti, gerbéti, liaupsinti and slovyti.

to honor, revere, praise, and slovyti (loanword)

garbintumbimé and łaupſintumbimé 67; gárbinu cf. słowiu 142 (:wysławiam); kurių gárbinas deiwíſte 37 (52, 60, 67, 69, 76, 77, 80, 102) (:czyniemu mu cześć: Dziękuję; we czci go mając chwaląc); Łaupſinkite 2 (76, 90, 163) (:Chwalćie, Błogosław); gerbéio Diewą 67.

The most frequently used form is garbinti; the loanword slovyti is attested only once. Cf. garbé, čestis (loanword), liaupsé and pagerbimas.

to desire, long for, want, and žýčyti (loanword)

ko geiſt’ir trokšt turiu 155 (: žadąc); Géiždami cf. Zičídam 71 (: Zycząc); geiſt, ir norét jam’ géro 71 (: życzyć); geiſt 49 (62, 64, 74, 84, 122, 155) (:żądąć); noréio 24 (76, 79, 87, 134, 138, 153, 156, 165, 166) (: chcieli).

The first three substitutes (geisti, trokšti, and noréti) are very close in meaning. The most frequently used is noréti. The loanword žýčyti is attested only once, and it has more of the meaning ‘to wish’.

gentis and prietelis (loanword)

as a friend 127 (157) (: as a friend); friends 153 (154) (: friend)

In Daukša’s and other old writings, the loanword prietelis is used most often; occasionally Daukša also uses gentis, “friend, companion,” which generally means “relative.”

griešnas (loanword) sinful and sinful

grieśbas (= grieśnas) cf. unodėmetas [= nuodėmetas] 119 (: grzeſzny); nuſsidėjęs cf. nuodėmetas 149 (150) (:grzeſzny) nuſsidėjęs 134 (153, 154, 162, 170, 173) (: grzeſzny).

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Daukša uses Lithuanian substitutes for Polish græſmen almost throughout: musidėjes (most often) and nuodėmes (occasionally). The loanword griešnas occurs only once in DK, but later became very widespread in religious writings. Similar in meaning to these equivalents is katas (41, 92, 120), corresponding to Polish winien.

purity and poverty (loanword)

grįnumo cf. ubagistės 129 (: niedostatkami).

In Daukša’s writings, almost exclusively grynumas; an occasional loanword is ubagystė. Also attested is grynas, “poor, destitute.”

womb, entrails, and belly (loanword)

in the womb cf. žiwate 17 (58, 149, 172) (: żywoćie); entrails cf. įčios 159 (: wnętrzności); iščiū 63 (164, 167) (: żywota, wnętrzności).

Most frequently used is iščios; later, the loanword žyvatas gains currency.

confession, avowal, and spaviedis (loanword)

Confession cf. Spawiedies 119 (139) (: Spowiadánia); Avowal, or confession of sins 109 (133, 139) (: ſpowiedźi); Confession 119 (146, 138, 141, 145, 146, 188) (: ſpowiedź).

Most frequently used is išpažinimas; later, the loanword spaviedis gains currency.

faithful and viernas (loanword)

because of the likeness of the faithful cf. wiernųju (: wiernych) 156; ištikimą 157 (167, 168) (: wiernych).

The loanword viernas occurs only once; it is used in older and later writings. In its place, tikras could often be used; it is attested in DK (4, 7, 122, 126, 138, 151, 154, 168, 170, 172).

completely and fully (loanword)

shortages… entirely… the statement cf. fully (: completely) 141; to confess it fully 97 (: completely).

Both substitutes are rarely used in old writings. Daukša begins translating Polish zupełny and zupełnie as ištisas and išizai; there is no adequate equivalent for this purpose.

wasting, dissipation, healing, recovery, and cure

(loanword)

the wasting of that evil cf. healing 116 (: treatment); wasting cf. curing 87; for wasting 142 (: in treatment); recovery 137 (: restoration to health).

Of the Lithuanian substitutes, healing is used least often. wasting and recovery (“healing” and “recovery”) occur more frequently in old writings. Cf. to restore to health and to heal; healer, liekoris, and vaistytojas.

little hut (loanword) and small cottage

little hut cf. small cottage 163 (: little cottages).

Both substitutes are rarely used.

creed (loanword), confession and composition (translation)

kredo, arba ſámbareś 22—23 (: Kredo); Krėdą arbá ſudeiimą 24 (: Kredo ábo ſkład); krėdoie 22 (27); ſudeiime 24.

In early writings, sambarės is most commonly used (Bretkūnas, Daukša, Širvydas, etc.).

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leprosy (loanword) (is ill) and to be covered with sores

leprosy are ill prš. to be covered with sores 152 (:tredowáci).

Leprosy occurs in Daukša’s writings. Elsewhere (in Bretkūnas, Širvydas, etc.), leprosy (sores), sores and leprous sores. are widely used.

estate and status (loanword)

milet’ according to estate prš. įtona 82 (: įtanu)

In Daukša’s writings, estate is most commonly used; later, the loanword status becomes more prevalent.

teacher and master (borrowed)

môkitojei, or mîstrai 82 (: Miŋtrowie).

The word teacher appears in literature in the earliest writings and is widely used; master is much rarer.

unexpelled and immeasurable (borrowed)

nė išmetûiemą mielabirdįtę cf. neišmieruojemą 142 (: niezmiemę); nė išmetûiemosios geribės 162 (189) (: niezmiemey).

The form unexpelled (neišmestuos) is used most often. Cf. innumerable and immeasurable.

unfortunate and miserable (borrowed)

Drin our unfortunate people cf. miŋernu 33 (: nedznych); mižernú 181 (: nedzna).

Both substitutes are best known from Daukša’s writings, where they are recorded a dozen or so times each.

unlawful and false (loanword)

of the unlawful cf. falsewo 74 (: fáłbywego); falsewas 78 (: fáłbywa).

Neteisus is found in the writings of Bretkūnas, Daukša, Sirvydas, and others; much rarer is falsevas.

bed sheet and blanket (loanword)

paklódė cf. pratiria 166 (: prześcieradło).

In Old Lithuanian writings the loanword prastyria (-ė) is widely used; paklodė (recorded from DK) occurs very rarely.

to mention and to show (loanword) “to advise”

Abėiojančžem gėrai paminėt cf. parodit 106 (: poradźić); ſlaptų pirm paminėtu 20 (: przezecżonych).

These substitutes are recorded only from DK. Paminėti is also used in the unusual sense “to advise” (106).

world and svietas (loanword)

Páſaulis cf. [ſwietas 53 (: Świat); paſaulo 5 (11, 21, 24, 40, 53, 70, 73, 81, 141, 164, 170, 189) (: świata).

In Daukša’s writings, world is used almost exclusively; it was later displaced by the loanword svietas.

image and abrożas (loanword)

That is the image of that which cf. Abrožas 60 (84, 134) (: obraz); paweikſło 27 (60, 133, 185) (: wyobrażenie, obraz); po paweikſłu dūnos 98 (: under the appearance).

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In old writings (especially those of Daukša and Širvydas), paveikslas is most commonly used with the meanings “abrozas, form, example,” etc.; abrozas is much rarer, having become established in later writings and colloquial speech.

pazopostyti (loanword) and pataikinti “to prepare”

pazopōttiei cf. pataikinai 155 (: zgotował); ant to teip būtų paſsiżopōttieś 120 (: przygotował).

In Daukša’s writings, pataikinti is used in the sense “to prepare, make ready”; the loanword pazopostyti is found less often. Cf. prisitaįsyti and prirengtis.

pilgrimage (borrowed) and traveling

peregrinawōime noun: kelewime 156 (: w pielgrzymowaniu).

These substitutes are rare and attested in Daukša’s writings. Cf. peregrynavoti and keliauti.

peregrynavoti (borrowed) and to travel

peregrinawōia verb: keliauia 156 (: pielgrzymuie).

These variants are very rare in old writings. Cf. pilgrimage and traveling.

hell and inferno (borrowed)

prágarus noun: peklās (92, 164) (: Pieklą); pragaro (34, 36, 44, 92, 108, 185) (:piekłą).

From the available material, it appears that Daukša was the first to begin using pragaras, which is much more frequent in his writings than the loanword pekla.

adversary, opponent, and enemy (loanword)

príejakis instead of Priebinikas 122 (: nieprzyiaciół); priesſinikai instead of Neprietelus 53, (96); priefakių 174 (188) (nieprzyaciół); príebiniku 34 (55, 108) (: nieprzyiąciół).

Daukša begins to use the word for adversary, and it is very often found alongside the likewise frequent word for opponent; rare in his writings is the word for enemy.

to swear an oath and to swear (loanword)

priſſiekia 78 (79); priſſiegōia 77 (: they swear).

From Mažvydas onward, the native word for “to swear an oath” is most commonly used in old writings; the loanword prisiegoti is much rarer.

governor (loanword) and regulator

reditoiēs, or taiſitoiēs wiſſo ſutwerimo 26 (: ruling); reditoiuaus 76 (: Jprawce).

Daukša’s use of the word for “regulator” is rare; the loanword the word for “governor” is found somewhat more often. Compare to regulate and to govern.

to say and confess (loanword)

consecration, is... worthy that... said prš. confessed 124 (:spowiądáno).

To say “to confess” is used in DK only once; elsewhere (88, 91, 94...) it has the meaning “to utter, proclaim.” Cf. to confess, to express, and to state.

table (loanword) and table

ſkomios prep. ſtalo 133 (154); ſkómiep’ 19 (147, 153, 171, 182) (: ſtole).

Daukša most often uses table; table has not been found in East Prussian Lithuanian writings (only — table).

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mast and pole (loanword)

stems, dagaus drėba versus. columns 148 (: filary); stiebėp 179 (: w ſupā).

In old writings, stiebas “pole, pillar, stem” and the loanword stulpas are used in parallel. In Daukša’s writings, stiebas is more frequent.

subtilnas (loanword) and mandagus

subtīlnas, opposed to mandagus 124 (: subtylny).

Both substitutes are used relatively rarely in old writings. Apart from Daukša, mandagus is used by Sirvydas, Chilinskis, and others.

to commit adultery and prijerauti (loanword)

Nē ſwētimotéráuk, opposed to pryiérauk 74 (84) (: Nie cudzołoż).

In Daukša’s writings, svetimoterauti is used more often; prijerauti (priejerauti) is rarely encountered in writings.

taisyti and rėdyti (loanword), “to put in order”

in the waldžiōje, and taījo — Dwaĵĵia Bvetāia 40; apwēzdi, rūpinās, rēdo 31.

In old writings, the loanword rėdyti is used most often; in some instances, taisyti, “to put in order,” occurs. Cf. rėdytojas and taisytojas.

faith and viera (loanword)

tikėjimo compared with wieros 16 (:wiáry); Tikėjimas 22 (24, 26, 72, 80, 103, 105, 121, 122, 152, 174, 186) (:Wiārá).

In DK, tikėjimas is used almost throughout, whereas in other old writings the loanword viera is more frequent.

self-restraint and miernybė (loanword) “moderation, self-control”

Twárdimas compared with miernībe 103 (: Wſtrzymięźliwość); Twárdimas 105 (: Wſtrzy-mieżliwość); Miernībe 104 (: Mierność).

Tvardymas is recorded only in Daukša’s writings, while miernybė is also found (rarely) elsewhere.

waistas and liekarstva

wáistą compared with lekarſtwa 85 (: lekárſtwa); wajſto 76 (79, 142, 143, 159, 171) (: le-kárſtwā).

In old writings, especially those of Daukša and Širvydas, vaistas predominates; later, the loanword liekarstva gains wider currency. Cf. vaistytojas, gydytojas and liekorius; išvaistėjimas, išvaistymas, išgydymas, pasveikinimas and išgydymas; pasveikinti and išgydyti.

healers (-ias), physician and apothecary (loanword)

váijtitoiaus prieš. giditoio arba liekoreus 143 (: Lekárzām); váijtitoio 144 (150, 151) (: Lekárza); Giditoiēu 14 (: Lekárzu).

In old writings, especially those of Daukša, vaistytojas and gydytojas are often encountered, while liekorius is very rare. Cf. išvaistėjimas, išvaistymas, išgydymas, pasveikinimas and išliečijimas; vaistas and liekarstva; pasveikinti and išgydyti.

velnias, biesas (loanword) and šėtonas (loanword)

wēlino 34 (53, 56, 153) (: Dyábła); biéſſus 77; S ętono 55 (57) (: Szátánā).

These variants differ somewhat in meaning. Velnias is very common in old writings, šėtonas is less common, and biesas is encountered very rarely.

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slave and serf (loanword)

wėrgáis prs. newálninkais 34 (: niewolnikami); wergu 12 (:niewolnikiem).

Vergas is used more often in old writings than nevalninkas.

vicar (loanword) and locative

Vicarius means locative 39 (: Vicarius).

Vicar is recorded several times in Daukša’s writings; locative is more widely used.

wound and rona (loanword)

wounds: rona 140 (142) (: rany); wounds 176.

In the old writings, wound predominates; only occasionally is the loanword rona encountered.

harm and iškada (loanword)

harm: iškada 86 (: škody)

In the old writings, harm is used most often, while the loanword iškada is encountered only occasionally; later it became widely established in our written and spoken language.

In all, more than 50 parallels between Lithuanian words and loanwords have been recorded. Most of them (about 40) are given in the margins, a few (3) after the conjunction or, 2 after that is (est), while loanword substitutes for several words (apčiuopti, bendrystė, galýbė, gentis, nusikėminimas, priscėkti, velinas…) have been found in various places in the text, based on their equivalents in the Polish text (apčystyti, sėbry stė, syla, prietelius, nobážnystė, prisiegoti, biesas).

Among the loanwords, those taken from Polish predominate¹ (artikulas, bursiry kas, cnata, čičijimas, falšyvas, mistras, mizernas, pakūta, parodyti “to advise,” pekla, peregrynavojimas, peregrynavoti, spaviedis, spaviedotis, subtinas, zupelnai, žyčyti); a dozen or so loanwords may be derived from Belarusian (čestis, griešnas, kiželė, nešmieruojama, neprietelius, pasnykauti, prietelius, prasyria, prisiegoti, rėdytojas, sėbry stė, škoma, svietas, vierą); other words are of Slavic origin, but it is impossible to determine precisely from which Slavic language (Polish, Belarusian, or Russian) they were borrowed (abrozas, apčystyti, biesas, iškada, išliečyjimas, liekarstwa, liekorius, miernybė, nobážnystė, nevalnykas, pazopostyti, rona, syla, stonas, ubagystė, viernas, žyvatas); the Latin words kredo, vikarijus were taken from Polish texts, as was the German-derived prijerauti.

Calques are used alongside some loanwords, for example: artikulai (loanword) — joints, spaviedis (loanword) — confession, kredo (loanword) — composition.

Most loanwords are used only once or twice, e.g., pakūta, syla, cnata, čestis, slovyti, žyčyti, griešnas, žyvatas, spaviedis, išliečyjimas, svietas, abrozas, pekla, neprietelius, viera, liekorius, rona, while in other cases Lithuanian equivalents are used (gailėjimas, galýbė, gamta, garbė, garbinti, geisti, nusidėjęs, iščia, išpažinimas, išvais ymas (išgydymas), pasaulis, paveikslas, pragaras, priešinykas, tikėjimas, vaisytojas (gydytojas), žaizda). This shows that most loanword substitutes were incidental and had not yet taken root in the written language.

¹ In determining the origins of the loanwords, the study by P. Skardžius, “Die slavischer Lehnwörter im Altlitauischen,” Kaunas, 1931, was relied on primarily.

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Loanwords used in parallel several times (in the text and in the margin), namely:

abyda (borrowed) and krivda (borrowed) “wrong, injustice”

abidás... atlăistu cf. Kriwdas 55 (: krzywdy); Abida kántrei pakelt 106 (: Krzywdę).

No equivalent Lithuanian counterparts have been found for these borrowings, which are occasionally used in other old writings as well.

liudymas (borrowed) and śviečijimas (borrowed)

he forbids testimony, nor...prš. świeczijimo 86; lūdimo netėjšȧus 74 (: świa-dectwá.)

In old writings, liudymas (testimony) is more common; it has survived in the literary language to this day.

prisigatavi(ji)mas (borrowed) and pazopostijimas (borrowed)

to the previous one... Such additions of his cf. Pazopotyjimu 120 (: przyprąwą).

Words encountered very rarely. Cf. pazopostyti ir pataikinti; prisitaistyti ir prirengti.

strujus (loanword) and diedas (loanword) “grandfather”

Jtrūius Polish Diedai 82 (: dziadowe).

These loanwords occur several times in Daukša’s writings, and no Lithuanian equivalents have been found for them: elder, ancestor, great-grandfather.

The preface to Daukša’s Postil shows that Daukša consciously strove to make the vocabulary of his written language rich and varied, presenting numerous lexical parallelisms in various forms. They are provided not only to enrich the vocabulary, but also for various other reasons; the reasons for their appearance in the Lithuanian translation are diverse.

Some substitutions are rare, used only once or twice (e.g., aklatis and aklystė, apgauti and primintinti, drebeti and virpėti), but words frequently used in parallel also occur, continually needed when translating the catechism (e.g., byloti and kalbėti; melsti and prašyti; gilinė, mirtis and mirimas).

Most often, various synonyms are used in parallel, helping the translator convey the original’s ideas more fully, clearly, precisely, and stylistically. They are also deliberately employed to enrich and diversify the vocabulary of the writings and to make the translation understandable and appealing to readers of different dialects and educational backgrounds.

The placement of words used in parallel is not fixed: they appear side by side in the text (after the conjunctions and, or, that is) and in the margins, as well as in various places throughout the text. The same component of a parallelism may move from the text into the margin, and vice versa. These variations are clearly evident from the usage of the individual parallelism components presented.

The abundant and varied lexical parallelisms in DK demonstrate the author’s immense creative effort to translate Ledecma’s Catechism from Polish as accurately, comprehensibly, and idiomatically in Lithuanian as possible, and to make it in a vernacular, expressive language

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The aim was to reach as broad a readership as possible among those who knew Lithuanian. To this end, the rich and inexhaustible treasures of the folk language’s lexicon were extensively drawn upon. Many old Lithuanian words were given new meanings, acquiring new religious content. For example, in the Catholic DK, dievas, dangus, kaltė, nuodėmė, pragaras, siela, šventas, viešpats and other words took on new meanings. This enabled Daukša to avoid unnecessary loanwords, used by careless translators or appearing later as Polish influence grew through the church, estates, and other channels, in jargon-filled religious texts (e.g., griekas, pekla, dūšia, ponas, viera, vieryti, etc.). Daukša boldly incorporated words from the spoken language of the people into literary language, often giving them figurative, more abstract meanings and thereby enriching the semantics of literary language’s lexicon. To express new religious and various abstract concepts, Daukša coined many new words, which considerably increased the number of lexical parallels in the DK. Some of Daukša’s coinages (e.g., abejojimas, įkvėpimas, nusižeminimas, privalomas, pasmerkimas, supratimas) were skillfully formed and firmly established in literary language.

After J. Bretkūnas, the first Bible translator and a notable cultivator of literary language in East Prussia, who devoted considerable attention to finding Lithuanian equivalents and provided many lexical parallels in the manuscript of his Bible translation, Daukša is the most lexically rich author among the old Lithuanian writings, having contributed greatly to enriching and developing the literary language’s lexicon. This is clearly demonstrated by the rich vocabulary of his writings and their numerous and varied lexical parallels. The latter show how carefully and creatively Lithuanian equivalents were sought and how much attention was paid to the abundance and variety of words.

Daukša was usually successful in choosing suitable and precise equivalents and capturing the meanings of words and their various nuances. However, there are also cases in which the translator hesitates and consequently provides two or more equivalents, sometimes not entirely apt ones. This indicates the translator’s lack of experience and stylistic inexperience; it was also one of the reasons that led him to resort to parallel variants. This lexical diversity, these lexical variants, partly hindered the immediate establishment and consolidation of unified lexical norms for literary language; overall, however, they contributed to finding Lithuanian equivalents, creating Lithuanian terminology, and enriching the literary language’s lexicon. Such hesitation and variation were inevitable at the beginning of Lithuanian writing, as terms and words were sought to express concepts belonging to the new religion and other domains, writers adapted to readers speaking different dialects, and the influence of other languages could not be avoided.

The rich and varied Lithuanian vocabulary of Daukša’s Catechism and Postil was one of the richest sources for enriching the literary language’s lexicon in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as barbarisms from the feudal-ecclesiastical jargon were removed from the language (e.g., adyna, viečnas, ubagas, smertis, kožnas, svietas, liekarst(v)a, rona, kriv(i)-da and replaced with Lithuanian words taken from the writings of M. Daukša, K. Širvydas, and other early authors (e.g., valanda, amžinas, elgeta, mirtis, kiekvienas, pasaulis, vaistas, žaizda, žala). In this way, Daukša’s writings played a major positive role in the formation and development of the Lithuanian literary language’s lexicon.

LEXICAL VARIANTS IN M. DAUKŠA’S 1595 CATECHISM

I. R. KRUOPAS

Abstract

The translations of the catechism and the Gospel sermons by the outstanding sixteenth-century writer M. Daukša contain very many lexical variants (doublets) used to express the same concepts. Such lexical diversity and instability are characteristic of other written monuments of the Lithuanian language as well. This feature of the Lithuanian literary language arose from the effort to enrich its lexicon, from the attempt to make works understandable to speakers of different dialects, and also from the influence of neighboring languages, especially Polish, which was widespread among the feudal class and clergy.

The article analyzes the lexical variants found in M. Daukša’s first work, his translation of the catechism (1595) from Polish.

Lexical variants in the catechism occur either in the text itself, joined by the words arba, ir, tai yra (‘or, and, that is’), or in footnotes (in most cases), or in different places in the text.

More than two hundred lexical parallels consisting of two, three, four, or five variants have been identified.

In most cases, two or more synonymous words are used in parallel, for example: giltinė, mirtis, mirimas ir numirimas ‘death’.

These synonymous words have different shades of meaning and style; dialect forms and different word-formation variants are also found (e.g., gyvata ir gyvenimas ‘life’).

Sometimes a borrowed word is used alongside a Lithuanian word, or vice versa, for example: galėjimas and pakūita (‘repentance’), and mandagus and subtilnas (‘polite’).

The lexical parallels show how carefully M. Daukša translated and how much attention he devoted to enriching the lexicon of the Lithuanian literary language. In most cases, he succeeded in finding suitable expressions in the Lithuanian folk language, or else had to create new words. However, some parallel variants are not entirely precise or successful. They reveal the author’s stylistic inexperience and his hesitation when selecting Lithuanian equivalents in translation.

Although this lexical diversity partly hindered the standardization of the Lithuanian literary language’s lexicon, it nevertheless played a positive role in the development of the Lithuanian literary language.