LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, IV

LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

PHRASEOLOGISMS IN THE DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

Z. JONIKAITĖ

All languages have many fixed word combinations whose semantic meaning either does not depend at all on the meanings of the words that make them up, or is only potentially related to those meanings. These word combinations are called phraseological combinations, phraseological units, or phraseologisms.

Phraseologisms began to be studied only recently, and a separate branch of linguistics devoted to their study—phraseology—took shape only in recent decades. Russian linguists, F. Fortunatov and others, for example, drew attention to word combinations in their works on syntax. Later, Acad. A. Shakhmatov, studying word combinations as indivisible parts of a sentence, raised the question of fixed, non-free, semantically and sometimes syntactically indivisible word combinations—phraseologisms. In his studies of phraseology, Acad. V. Vinogradov¹ proposed a classification of Russian phraseologisms that is now followed by almost all Soviet scholars of phraseology.

Taking into account the degree of semantic cohesion of fixed word combinations and the degree to which their semantic meaning is motivated, Acad. V. Vinogradov divides Russian phraseologisms into three groups.

V. Vinogradov assigns to the first group of phraseologisms fixed word combinations whose semantic meaning is entirely unmotivated, does not depend on the meanings of their constituent components, and which are semantically and sometimes grammatically cohesive and indivisible. This group of phraseologisms includes obsolete words, incomprehensible as a result and used only in the combination, or obsolete, fossilized word forms that do not conform to the rules of modern language, e.g.: кузькина мать (a threat), бить баклуши ‘to idle, loaf’, и вся недолга ‘and that’s all, it’s over’. Expressiveness and emotionality are also characteristic of many phraseologisms of this type, e.g.: пиши пропало! (said in disappointment after a failure), вот тебе и на! ‘well, I never!’. V. Vinogradov calls the phraseologisms in this group “phraseological fusions” (фразеологические сращения), or idioms.

1 See В. В. Виноградов, Основные понятия русской фразеологии, как лингвистической дисциплины. — «Труды юбилейной сессии Ленинградского государственного ордена Ленина университета», Л., 1946; Об основных типах фразеологических единиц в русском языке, «А. А. Шахматов, Труды комиссии по истории АН СССР, вып. 3, М.—Л., 1947.

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V. Vinogradov assigns to the second group of phraseologisms fixed word combinations whose structure is freer than that of idioms, but which are also semantically indivisible. Their semantic meaning is motivated and related, albeit potentially, to the literal meanings of the components of the combination. They are readily deciphered as figurative expressions with transferred meanings, e.g.: держать камень за пазухой ‘to be secretly prepared to take revenge’, убил бобра ‘he made a mistake’. V. Vinogradov calls phraseologisms of this type “phraseological unities” (фразеологические единства).

V. Vinogradov also assigns some compound terms to this group, e.g.: белый гриб ‘porcini mushroom’, дом отдыха ‘holiday home’, сестра милосердия ‘nurse’.

V. Vinogradov assigns to the third group of phraseologisms fixed word combinations whose semantic meaning depends on the literal meanings of the components, but which are not entirely free, since one of their components has a bound meaning, that is, it is used in the combination with only one word or a very limited set of words, e.g.: безпросыпное пьянство ‘perpetual drunkenness’, щекотливый вопрос, положение, обстоятельство ‘a delicate question, a difficult situation, circumstance’. A component with a bound meaning may be replaced by a synonym without affecting the semantic meaning of the combination as a whole. V. Vinogradov calls word combinations of this type “phraseological collocations” (фразеологические сочетания).

This classification of Russian phraseologisms by V. Vinogradov is quite comprehensive, and provides a detailed characterization of the individual groups. However, as he himself acknowledges, there are many transitional categories between the three groups, the examination of which he leaves to stylistics².

V. Vinogradov’s classification of phraseologisms is synchronic. Acad. B. Larin³, however, viewing phraseologisms from a historical perspective, divides them into only two types, namely, idioms and metaphorical word combinations. Since V. Vinogradov’s third type of phraseologism has almost no idiomaticity and lacks characteristic, clearly distinguishing features, B. Larin does not regard such combinations as phraseologisms and does not include them in his classification.

Research on Russian phraseologisms provides a solid foundation on which Lithuanian phraseologisms can also be studied successfully.

Lithuanian phraseologisms have scarcely been studied at all. Acad. B. Larin was one of the first to draw attention to them, using examples of Lithuanian phraseologisms in the aforementioned article to support his arguments. However, the editorial practice of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language makes it necessary to study, analyze, classify, and present them in one way or another in the dictionary. This article approaches phraseology from a lexicographic perspective and therefore does not provide a detailed classification of phraseologisms; rather, it characterizes in general terms, insofar as necessary for practical lexicographic work, the main types of phraseologisms and their features, and raises the question of their

² See V. V. Vinogradov, On the Main Types of Phraseological Units in the Russian Language, “A. A. Shakhmatov,” Proceedings of the Commission on the History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, issue 3, 68, Moscow–Leningrad, 1947.

³ See B. A. Larin, Essays on Phraseology. — “Essays on Lexicology and Stylistics, Leningrad State University named after A. A. Zhdanov” (“Scholarly Notes” No. 198), 222–223, Leningrad, 1956.

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the question of presentation in the Dictionary, taking into account their characteristic semantic and structural properties and achievements in Russian phraseology and lexicography.

1. Types of phraseologisms in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language and their characteristics

In the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, phraseologisms are divided into two groups: idioms and metaphorical phraseologisms. The “phraseological formations” mentioned in Acad. V. Vinogradov’s classification of phraseologisms are transitional-type word combinations and are difficult to identify in lexicographic practice; therefore, they are not distinguished here as a separate group of phraseologisms.

a) Idioms. Idioms are the easiest of all phraseologisms to distinguish. They are fixed word combinations whose meaning as a whole is unmotivated and does not depend at all on the meanings of the components that make them up. If a component of an idiom sounds similar to a word with a nominative meaning, the resemblance is entirely homonymous, e.g.:

put in the eye ‘sleep’: I was tired—I slept almost until noon. Slnt⁴. witch’s tears ‘vodka’: He drank witch’s tears. Ds. a worthless end ‘nonsense’: They argue over nothing. rš.

As we can see from the examples given, none of the words that are components of the idioms (dėti, akis, ragana, ašara, dykas, galas) has a nominative meaning within the phraseologism. Therefore, idioms cannot be translated literally into another language. An idiom is the equivalent of a word, a semantic unit resembling a compound or derived word, whose components are not independent but are merely parts of a word, e.g.: darb-inink-as, vėja-vaikis, bet kas, kas nors, čia pat, kaip nors, and so on.

Idioms may have homonyms, that is, in another context the same word combinations have no idiomatic character, and their meaning corresponds entirely to the literal meaning of their constituent components, e.g.:

catch a hare ‘fall face down’: Running, he fell flat on his face. Ds (cf.: Our dog caught a hare yesterday). skin goats ‘vomit’: Having drunk vodka, he began vomiting. Ad. Eating green apples, you’ll have to vomit. Gs (cf.: Nobody wants to skin a goat—they smell terribly). go to Riga ‘vomit’: Don’t eat too much, or you may have to go to Riga afterwards (cf.: You can go to Riga now by train or bus). get pepper ‘be severely scolded’: You’ll get pepper from your father for disobedience. Als (cf.: If you get pepper, buy about a hundred grams). bake crayfish ‘blush with embarrassment’: I alone was blushing and smiling through my tears. A. Vien. (cf.: Nobody bakes crayfish; they boil them).

Other idioms of similar formation have no homonyms, because combinations of components understood in their nominative meanings do not correspond to reality, e.g.:

birch porridge ‘a birch rod used for beating; a beating’: If you gave him some birch porridge, he’d stop stealing. Švnč. Children don’t like birch porridge. Prn. wind’s whip ‘a frivolous person, a scatterbrain’: Why listen to a wind’s whip? Sln. The rascal lad, a little wind’s whip. d. wind child ‘a frivolous person, a scatterbrain, a flighty person’: Don’t associate with that wind child. rš. break one’s head ‘run, travel quickly

⁴ Abbreviations of the sources of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language used in the article.

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where’: Where will you break your head now? Ėr. galus greiti ‘to fret’: He is dying, fretting himself to death, and they are not taking him to the doctor Šts. gyvas kelmas ‘a great many’: He kept a great many goats Ggr. He did a great deal of work in a day Lkv.

The phrases beržinė košė, vėjo botagas, vėjo vaikas, trūkti galvą, galus greiti, gyvas kelmas and so on have no real basis for a literal meaning in language.

Idiomaticity is easiest to identify in those phraseological units whose components include unfamiliar, incomprehensible words or forms used only within the phrase, for example:

kepėnda: į kepėndą išankinti ‘to deceive’: You won’t trick an old wolf like me into a kepėnda Krt.

kėreža, kėrežas: kėrežos velėna J. (said of a very foolish person) nuo (pat) kėrežos (kerežo) metų ‘since time immemorial’: And so people have been struggling since time immemorial rs. And what of the songs, tales, riddles, sayings, proverbs, where the wisdom of the people has flowed since time immemorial rs.

marūšė: kiemo marūšė Škn ‘someone who is never at home and does not return until the eve’.

gaismas: vienu gaismu ‘without taking a breath, in one go’: I got home in one go Užp.

kadaibos: iš (kažin) kadaibos ‘from long ago, since ancient times’: The names of these meadows also go back to long ago Švnč. I’ve had it stored away since who knows when Švnč.

kāduonės: kádār kāduonės ‘a very long time ago’: Those yeasts were brought over so very long ago—what more could one expect than that they would stop fermenting Ggr.

pagalė: ant galo pagalės ‘finally’: Finally, they too acknowledged it Pc. galų pagalėj ‘finally’: After struggling and struggling, they finally reached their destination Grž.

nėmetas: dieną nėmetu (nėmet) a) ‘with great difficulty, somehow’: These two rode to Plungė with great difficulty in one day M. Valanč. Somehow she managed to escape digging those potatoes Plt. b) ‘over a longer period’: I teach the child prayers day after day, that is, over several years J. When my clothes wore out over time, S. Povilas tore broad leaves lengthwise from a tree, wove himself a coat, and once again lived neatly like a bear M. Valanč.

There are idioms whose component word is otherwise familiar and may even have several meanings, but in the phraseological combination it has no nominative meaning and is incomprehensible; its relationship to the familiar word is one of homonymy, for example:

diñderis, diñderas, dindera ‘a loafer, idler’: diñderį (diñderą, dinderas) mušti ‘to idle’: They drive the cows into the enclosure, while they themselves sit around Kv. They spend whole days idling without doing anything Slnt. Those women are idling, that is, walking around doing no work J.

gāras ‘liquid turned into gas, fog, mist; fumes; dizziness; the upper part of a stove’: gyvu garu ‘intensely’: He suddenly took it into his head to go by carriage Užv. duoti garą ‘to frolic, run wild’: The children are raising a racket in the yard Als. garu gerti ‘to want very much’: I’d dearly like to acquire that thing, that is, I really wanted to get it J. All the daughters’ parents were very eager for them to marry Tupikis Žem. garu trokšti ‘to want very much’: She is desperate to leave here Kltn.

gyvas ‘alive; awake; clear, bright; real, pure; important; vivid; nimble...’ gyvas likęs (gyvà likusi) ‘very much wants’: Still alive—

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…to play some sort of joke on someone KlvrŽ. The woman has remained alive on vodka, that is, she wants it very much J.

kótas ‘a tool’s handle, the part by which it is held; the stem of a herbaceous plant, a stalk; a mushroom stem; a fruit core; a little tail by which a fruit, leaf, or flower is attached to a branch or stem; the rachis of a bird’s feather’: į (pat) kótą ‘just right, suitable’: Those trousers fit him just right Skr. That girl would be just right for him to marry (in terms of maturity and age) J. kótas į kótą ‘exactly alike, identical’: Both of them were alike—kotas į kotą KrvP.

galas ‘the place where a longer object ends; one side of a dwelling or other building; an edge, wall, boundary; death; misfortune...’: dykas galas ‘nonsense’: Such a journey is pointless rš.

There are many idioms in Lithuanian, especially in everyday spoken language, that are expressive and emotional in character. They are generally fixed in form and invariable, though they may have several variants. Most often they express emphatic negation, a negative answer to a question, surprise at an unexpected or unforeseen event, praise, affirmation, and the like, for example:

be kas!, be kas jau!, be ką jau! ‘no!, that’s not so!’: Is the child still ill? — No! He’s running around the yard with the others Als. Is the patient better? — No, not at all! He’ll die Šts. Are you healthy? — No, not at all! I’m ill Šts. kas dès!, kas tau dès! ‘no!, there isn’t!’: Is the hired hand at home? — As if he were! Er. Is there a frost? — As if there were! Šts. Are there many apples this year? — Many? Vvr. kas tau davė! ‘no!’: As if! I can’t stop it, and that’s that Alk. kas ten duos! ‘there’s nothing there, there won’t be anything!’: As if there were wonders there! He’s pulling the wool over our eyes, and that’s that Kair. ko klausai! ‘that’s not true!, that isn’t so!’: I thought he was fat—but no such thing! Šts. kur tau! ‘not at all!’: On his way to Riga, Raulas thought he would soon find plenty of work there, but no such luck! J. Bil. še tau!, še tai tau!, še tai tau, kad nori! ‘there you are’ (an exclamation of surprise): Well, look what happened! Als. Well, there you are, it got knocked off! Grž. Well, I never! Why didn’t you say so earlier?! Rm. jau ką gi!, tai ką gi! ‘excellent, very good!, needless to say’: The wedding was—excellent! Skp. Dressed up so well—excellent! Slm. nieko bėdos ‘quite pretty, quite good, fairly large’: Is the bride pretty? — Not bad at all! Vvr. The horse would be all right, except that it can’t see out of one eye Als. Did you bring back a large load of hay? — Not bad at all! Als. kas nekai(t) ‘easy for you to say’: Easy for the parson’s housekeeper, the miller’s pig, and the farmstead dog Skd. kas buvo ‘so what’: So what if they were poor, as long as they lived decently Lnkv. So what if they killed him in a fight Š. Dauk. kaip tat ‘yes, of course’: Were you at the fair yesterday? — Of course Dr. nė kam ko nė į galvą neatėjo: It never occurred to me that he might get angry Alk. toli gražu ‘far from’...: The bourgeois fear of criticism has by no means been eradicated in our republic tsp. You are still a long way from being like your brothers Slm.

The semantic juxtaposition of concrete things or opposites may also be idiomatic, since the meaning of the whole does not reflect a connection with the meanings of its components, for example:

Nei į tvorą, nei į mietą ‘neither one thing nor another; poor’: That was a job that was neither one thing nor another Als. nei šuo, nei kėdalė; nei velnias, nei gegutė; nei ratai, nei rogės; nei vienas, nei du; nei penki, nei devyni and so on, ‘neither this nor that’. nei štai, nei antai ‘neither this one nor that one’: And now he said something neither here nor there Srv. nė (nei) juodo, nė (nei) balto a) ‘neither bad nor good’: I didn’t say a word to you,

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neither good nor bad—so why are you angry? Skr. b) ‘neither for nor against’: He answered neither yes nor no Vvr. nė (nei) dėkui (ačiū), nė (nei) išlup (išgrauž) nepasakyti ‘to fail to thank’: Without saying so much as thank you, he left Lnk. When they grew up, they abandoned their stepmother without saying thank you Blv. nė rask, nei pamesk ‘hard to come to an agreement or communicate’ (said of a foolish person): With a person like that, it’s hard to get anywhere Sim. You can’t get anywhere with people like that! LžP. nei būtai, nei kliūtai ‘she got an idea neither here nor there’: She wants to carry water, neither here nor there Erž. nei (čia) ko, nei (čia) ką ‘a trivial matter, there’s nothing at all!’: She slaughtered a little hen and ate it—nothing to it Pc. There’s nothing to it—within an hour I had cleaned out the chimney Pc.

The relationship between the meanings of the idioms presented and those of the words that constitute them, as well as the morphological characteristics of these phraseological expressions, reveal the principal features of Lithuanian idioms and make it possible to determine their place among phraseological units as a whole.

b) Metaphorical phraseological units. Language contains fixed word combinations whose semantic meaning is motivated, that is, depends on the literal meanings of the components and is clearly or only vaguely associated with them. The most precise term for phraseological units of this type is metaphorical phraseological units, since the most characteristic feature of many of them is their figurative, transferred meaning—their metaphoricity—for example: senas vilkas ‘a person who has seen and experienced a great deal’: “You can’t fool that man: he’s an old wolf” L1. In another context, the same combination senas vilkas is understood literally, for example: “An old wolf doesn’t put its tail into an ice hole” rš. Another example: samtį atiduoti ‘to hand over the running of the household’: “Soon, auntie, you’ll hand the ladle over to your daughter-in-law!” Alk. Knowing that the ladle is a symbol of managing the household, it is easy to understand what the phraseological unit samtį atiduoti means for someone. A dead person no longer eats, so it is clear that in the sentence “She has already put down her spoon” Slv, the word combination padėti šaukštą is a metaphorical phraseological unit meaning ‘to die’. Likewise, knowing that when something is hewn, a wood chip and a piece of timber often break off, it is easy to understand that in the sentence “Well, if you’ve got a man like that, then it really is a stroke of luck,” the word combination kirtis su paplėšais means ‘a good catch’. Lithuanian has very many such metaphorical phraseological units with figurative, transferred meanings: už nosies vedžioti ‘to fool, deceive’: Are you going to let him lead you by the nose? Jnšk. pro pirštus žiūrėti ‘to turn a blind eye’: I myself take a lenient view of it Ašb. palikti be kojų ‘to feel great fatigue in one’s legs’: You’ll be worn out by the time you’ve visited all the relatives Als. pirštais badyti ‘to mock, laugh at someone’: The whole town points fingers at him Kt. sparnus kilnoti ‘to prepare to leave, to move elsewhere’: The tailor Zokas has already started packing his wings rš. kreivais keliais eiti ‘to behave improperly’: He goes down crooked paths Kll341. į akį kristi kam a) ‘to appeal to someone’: She caught his eye Rm. b) ‘to attract someone’s attention’: His lack of concern for you caught our eye too J. Jabl. akis muilinti ‘to deceive’: You can’t pull the wool over my eyes here—you won’t fool me Alk. kalnus nuversti ‘to accomplish a great deal’: If I were healthy, I could move mountains Gs. ant kulnų lipti ‘to follow close behind, to urge someone to hurry’: Spring work is hot on our heels tsp. If you stay on his heels, he’ll work Srv. paimti į nagą ‘to scold severely, reprimand’: When she gave him a good scolding, the child began to howl (cry) Vvr. ant liežuvio užpilti ‘to drink vodka’: He’s looking to pour some onto his tongue Skr. amžinai už

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to fall asleep ‘to die’: So she has now fallen asleep forever Žem. to reach the end of the gangplank ‘to find oneself in a situation where there is nothing to be done’: Bourgeois politicians have reached the end of the gangplank and are ready to rush headlong into the abyss trš. to live under a cap ‘to have neither a home nor any property’: He lives under a cap Yl. right under one’s nose a) ‘right here’: Why, the rye harvest is already right under our noses Užv. b) ‘very clearly’: If you don’t show it to him right under his nose, he won’t know how to do it Alk.

As we can see, the meaning of metaphorical phraseological units is connected with the literal meaning of the word combination, but sometimes that literal meaning may have no real basis, for example:

hare’s cake ‘treats for children’ (sweets, pretzels, and the like): Don’t cry, little Antanas, your aunt will bring you hare’s cake Pmp. siskin’s milk ‘poppy-seed or hemp milk’: Throughout Lent we used to eat siskin’s milk Brs. to milk a siskin ‘to make poppy-seed or hemp milk’: We’ll milk a siskin and make ourselves some porridge Brs. to chase the wind ‘to behave frivolously’: Don’t chase the wind; pay attention to life Užp. to lose one’s legs ‘to tire one’s legs greatly by walking a lot’: Those stragglers must have lost their legs Šts. to wrench out of one’s finger ‘to make up’: All those stories are made up Žem. That’s what people say; I’m not making it up Užp. to twist someone into a goat’s horn ‘to get the better of’: He soon twisted him into a goat’s horn Gs. with one foot in the grave ‘near death’: Though he already has one foot in the grave, he still talks his own way Pnd. A chauffeur’s life: one foot stands at the grave, the other at the prison KlvrŽ. to stab with one’s eyes ‘to look reproachfully, to mock’: There’s nowhere to go—everyone is stabbing me with their eyes. Srv. to go head over heels ‘to romp, go wild’: Those children are going head over heels like mad Vkš. to go up the walls ‘to romp, go wild’: Leave the children alone and they’ll go up the walls Gs. to turn upside down a) ‘to change fundamentally’: Then came spring, which turned Pranas’s life upside down P.Cvir. b) ‘to make a great mess’: The children turned the whole house upside down rš. to have a pig’s eyes ‘to feel no shame’: If you have a pig’s eyes, you’ll get in anywhere Plv. to prick up (point) one’s ears ‘to listen attentively’: Lithuanians, listen up, prick up your ears! O. The maiden listened, her ears pricked up Žem. to hang one’s lip ‘to start crying’: At the slightest thing, you immediately hang your lip Alk. to hang one’s teeth on someone ‘to constantly harass, scold someone’: All you know how to do is hang your teeth on me Žem. to hang one’s teeth on a beam ‘to live on near-starvation rations’: Today we’ll eat; tomorrow we’ll hang our teeth on the beam BzF53. to leap out of one’s skin ‘to make a great effort’: He’s working so hard he’s almost leaping out of his skin Ds. to burst (split) with laughter ‘to laugh a lot’: The father looks at the children and bursts with laughter Ds. We were splitting with laughter (convulsed with laughter) J.Jabl. to drink someone’s blood ‘to exploit someone greatly’: You won’t drink our blood any longer, you idle gentlemen! trš.

The literal counterparts of all the metaphorical phraseological units cited here—hare’s cake, siskin’s milk, to milk a siskin, to chase the wind, to lose one’s legs, to wrench out of one’s finger, and so on—have no real basis, because hares never bake cakes, siskins have no milk and no one milks them, no one chases the wind either, it is impossible to lose one’s legs, and likewise no one can wrench anything out of a finger, and so forth.

Metaphorical phraseological units also include verbal word combinations that denote the movement or gesture of a person (and sometimes an animal),

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associated with a particular state of mind. In such cases, says S. Ozhegov⁵, a word combination denoting a movement seems to signal a particular state, to symbolize it, and this association gives the combination a new meaning. For example, in the sentence “Don’t scratch your head while your hair is being cut,” the word combination to scratch one’s head is understood literally. But in the sentences “The shepherd shakes his head; he doesn’t believe what I say” Vb and “Many men shook their heads in astonishment” rš, the word combination to scratch one’s head means to express doubt or surprise by moving the head from side to side. Here, head movement is a means of expressing a particular state of mind not in words, but through an outward movement.

The degree of idiomaticity in the meanings of this type of phraseological unit varies greatly. In some cases the movement is so closely and inseparably connected with the state of mind expressed that it is almost a necessary means of expressing that state. In expressing some state of mind, the agent also performs a particular movement or gesture. Therefore, the meaning of such a phraseological unit is only minimally idiomatic, but it is not equivalent to the concrete meaning either, for example:

to nod one’s head 'to express agreement or dismay about something by moving the head up and down': The sick man is too weak to speak: when he likes something, he nods his head; when he does not, he shakes his head LzP. The courtiers nod their heads and sometimes talk among themselves: “The lords have no heart, since they do not know how to love the land” LzP.

Let us compare the same word combination in another context: “The little horse, nodding its head, set off at a trot” rš. Here the little horse does not mean anything by nodding its head; it simply nods its head in rhythm with its legs. Other examples:

to shake one’s head 'to express denial or disagreement by moving the head from side to side': Don’t shake your head: you’ll have to go anyway, even if you don’t want to Als. When he doesn’t like something, he shakes his head Skd (cf.: He shakes his head because of illness rš. The horse shook its head, broke the little aspen fence d). to shrug one’s shoulders 'to express surprise or uncertainty about what to do by moving the shoulders up and down': He was amazed, constantly shrugging his shoulders J.Balč (cf.: Why are you shrugging your shoulders—is something pressing on you?). to wring (gnaw) one’s hands 'to express great grief by twisting one’s own hands in a particular way': Mother went out to the great manor, wringing her old hands and shedding tears V.Krėv. Don’t wring your hands like a wrathful wind breaking birch branches Mair. And in terrible grief you will wring your hands S.Nėr (cf.: The machine broke both arms). to show one’s teeth 'to grin while laughing': They gathered and showed their teeth all lovely day long Alk (cf.: One must show one’s teeth to the dentist). to raise (take off) one’s hat to someone 'to greet someone by removing one’s hat': I raised my hat—she didn’t say a word to me Klvr. Noreika took off his hat to the approaching Lomsargis J.Avyž (cf.: The child lifted his hat, and a little bird flew out from under it rš). to fold one’s hands on one’s chest 'to die': I will rest then, when I fold my hands on my chest Arm (cf.: He folded his hands on his chest and sits).

⁵ See И. С. Ожегов, О структуре фразеологии. — «Лексикографический сборник», вып. 2, 17, АН СССР Институт языкознания, Москва, 1957.

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For other phraseologisms of this type, a particular movement is no longer necessary to express a state of mind. The image of movement has receded but has not disappeared, so the meaning of such a phraseologism is now metaphorical, e.g.: wave one’s hand ‘stop paying attention, renounce, leave to take its course’: Both gentlemen, having waved their hand at all traditions, stayed at the Green Manor until evening A.Vien. To wave one’s hand at the peasantry means to commit a crime against the workers and the peasants trš. scratch one’s head (the back of one’s head) ‘scratch’ ‘think’: Ask your eyes—you’ll see; scratch your head—you’ll manage it KrvP(Ds). You’ll have to scratch your head hard yet VIkv. let one’s hands drop ‘give up continuing to act, capitulate’: He worked and did not let his hands drop Ėr. Let us not give up, and let us not lose hope A.Vien. hang one’s head ‘become dejected’: The miller hung his head—he realized that he had been deceived J.Balč. gnaw one’s nails ‘regret deeply having done something wrong’: Perhaps one day you’ll be gnawing your nails over it Užp. shake one’s hands ‘refuse, renounce’: Everyone walked away, shaking their hands, while the sick man alone languished inside, wrestling with death Žem. shake one’s legs ‘die, perish’: He shook his legs, and that was that Dkš. twitch one’s ears ‘listen attentively, watch’: Prick up your ears—you may overhear something Ktk.

And these phraseologisms scratch one’s head, let one’s hands drop, hang one’s head, gnaw one’s nails, shake one’s hands, shake one’s legs, twitch one’s ears do not have the meanings specified above in another context, but are understood literally, e.g.: He fell asleep and snores like a dog, scratching his head M.Valanč. Why do you let your white hands drop onto your knees? d. It is neither proper nor healthy to gnaw one’s nails with one’s teeth Als. He washed his hands and, finding nothing to wipe them on, simply shook them and waited until they dried rš. The beast shook its legs and died rš. Little Širvukas, twitching his ears, trudged through deep snow rš. Even a donkey can twitch its ears, but try teaching it to pull a plough PPr37.

Metaphorical phraseologisms should also include established, fixed expressive-emotional word combinations used in speech to convey surprise, admiration, joy, satisfaction or dissatisfaction, disappointment, confusion, indignation, irritation, and other feelings, as well as ill wishes. Their semantic meaning varies, since it generally depends both on intonation and on context, where the same expressive-emotional phrase may be used to express different emotions, e.g.:

damn you! Look, damn you, how scared I got! Gž. damn your head! Damn your head, how good he is! Ėr. He remembers a lot—damn your head Ėr. Those potatoes grew so big—like balls, damn your head! Lp. oh, damn you! Oh, damn you, I left the knife at home! Grž. Oh, damn you, how soaked I got! Ds. a hundred curses on her! A hundred curses on her, that girl! Ašb. to the dogs! If only they’d scold me, to the dogs with it! Žem. Let it go to the dogs! Tl. to the devil! Either get to work or do something, to the devil with it! Als. by thunder! You, by thunder, could at least have harnessed the horses! Alk. a hundred thousand pipes! A hundred thousand pipes, what a mess he’s got himself into! Žem. But, a hundred thousand pipes, I did the right thing! J.Balč. Damn you to a hundred thousand pipes! Šmk. one hundred and fourteen: Now, one hundred and fourteen, they no longer know how to work as they used to Žr. damn you to a hundred and fourteen! Ah, damn you to a hundred and fourteen! Skd.

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Very close to metaphorical phraseologisms are fixed word combinations established in speech that vividly express, by way of comparison, the resemblance of an object or action to something, e.g.:

to be like a kidney in fat, live ‘have everything in abundance’: He lives like a kidney in fat Skdt. He’s there like a kidney in fat Pln. live as if behind God’s stove be ‘without worries or hardship’: We live quietly, as if behind God’s stove Als. as in a bear’s ears ‘warmly’: He lives as in a bear’s ear J.Jabl. like a pea by the road ‘bullied and picked on by everyone’: I live like a pea by the road Švnč. like a mouse under a broom ‘quietly’: He lives like a mouse under a broom Kp. as if dragged through a wall ‘very hungry’: I’m as if dragged through a wall Klvrž. like someone who has bitten a fly ‘having achieved nothing, disappointed’: He drove home like someone who had bitten a fly M. Valanč. They left for home like someone who had bitten a fly BsM133. He went out as if he’d bitten a fly Vlkv. as if something had bitten his leg ‘restless, worried’: I’m restless all the time, as if something had bitten my leg Krž. as needed as a fifth leg is to a dog ‘completely unnecessary’: He needs it as much as a dog needs a fifth leg Iš. stand as if on a chicken’s leg ‘stand unsteadily’: He stands as if on a chicken’s leg Sim. as if risen from milk ‘very fair, with a handsome face’: Handsome as if risen from milk J.Jabl. guard like the eye in one’s forehead ‘guard very carefully’: Guard the child like the eye in your forehead, beat him like a dog Als. as if plucked (pulled) from the eye ‘very much like someone’: That child is the spitting image of his father, as if plucked from the eye Tl. Oh, he looks like his father—as if pulled from the eye. Tr. as if taken away by a hand ‘remove immediately, suddenly’: As soon as he took the medicine, the illness was taken away as if by a hand Lnkv. And that same health was taken away as if by a hand Krtn. appear like the young moon ‘appear briefly’: He appeared like the young moon and was gone again Slm. rain (pour) as if from a bucket ‘rain very heavily’: The rain poured as if from a bucket A.Vien. as if pulled out of a cow’s throat ‘very wrinkled’: Your clothes look as if they were pulled out of a cow’s throat Als. search for something like a drunk looking for a fence ‘grope around’: He searches like a drunk looking for a fence Rs. throw (toss) back over one’s ear(s) ‘drink or eat very quickly and willingly’: Just give him something to drink—he throws it back as if over his ear Kp. In the evening Father tossed that porridge back as if over his ears BsPV624. He tossed it back as if over his ears Ds. sit as if on an awl ‘be very restless’: He sits as if on an awl Vj. like two drops of water ‘exactly alike’: The two of them look alike as two drops of water Žg.

There are quite a few intensifying phraseologisms in Lithuanian, formed by repeating the same word in a different case, e.g.:

for ages and ages ‘for a very long time’: The dowry chest lasts for ages and ages Als. from ages and ages ago ‘from a very long time ago’: Impenetrable pine, spruce, birch, and oak forests had been growing there since ages and ages ago S. Dauk. crowds upon crowds ‘many crowds’: People are getting ready and leaving their homes in crowds upon crowds Žem. knots upon knots ‘many knots’: So much has already been written—knots upon knots Jrb. medicines upon medicines ‘a lot of medicine’: All the windows were shuttered—the rooms were thick with the smell of medicines upon medicines LzP. generation after generation ‘many times’: I told you generation after generation not to meddle where you’re not needed Jnšk. It’s been said generation after generation, but still Kp. not even a day to days ‘not long ago’: It hadn’t even been a day to days before he came to visit Šts. year upon year ‘a very long time ago, over

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‘for many years’: She gazed... at the window with panes that had not been washed for years and years A.Gud-Guz.

Intensifying phraseologisms can be formed by juxtaposing words that sometimes even have opposite meanings, e.g.:

day and night ‘all the time’: He works day and night, yet has not a penny—he drinks it all away Als. summer and winter ‘all the time, always’: He wears the same hat summer and winter. briefly and plainly ‘clearly and briefly’: He does not talk much: he says it briefly and plainly, and that is all.

Repeating the same adverbs without any conjunctions, and sometimes joining them with a conjunction or linking them with a preposition, also intensifies the impression, e.g.:

‘a great deal, a great deal’ ‘at most’: At most, there’ll be enough hay until Easter Vvr. At most, if you’re lucky, you’ll get thirty pūrai Kv. dearly, dearly ‘at the highest price’: If you get three hundred at the highest, you won’t get more for a sheep Als. just barely ‘barely’: If you’re travelling by vehicle, then it’s just barely all right, but I don’t want to go on foot Als. The spring crops just barely survived, but the rye perished completely Rod. how much and how much ‘a great deal, for a very long time’: There was so much laughter in the king’s castle Jrk131. I could have searched and searched, and still wouldn’t have found it Plt. this much and that much ‘a great deal’: There are berries galore in the forest—just pick them Als. face to face ‘directly, in someone’s presence, with them watching’: Speak to me face to face, not behind my back Slnt. Now you must see your creator face to face MP189. man to man ‘together’: Let us set to work, man to man Mair. word for word ‘exactly’: He told it word for word as I had said Als. one just like the other ‘all equal in size and beauty’: All three of his daughters are just alike BsMtI12. shoulder to shoulder ‘together’ Dž. day after day ‘every day’: He goes out day after day—he is never at home Gs. Once again the graves have lured their victims—day after day they find so many of them! Mair. year after year ‘every year’: It had been that way year after year Lp. morning after morning ‘every morning’: Get up morning after morning and drive the livestock out Gs. day in, day out ‘every day’: They all waited for him day in, day out M.Valanč. He is on his feet day in, day out KBI22. year after year ‘every year’: Year after year they bred more horses rs. end to end ‘continuously, from beginning to end’: He knows just how things are and tells it all from beginning to end Skr. The fields are manured end to end Er. I read the newspaper from cover to cover Sts. from time to time ‘at set times, regularly’: He eats from time to time, three times a day J.

Although metaphorical phraseologisms share certain features with idioms, both in their monolithic character and in terms of structure, they are nevertheless still connected with the literal meanings of the words that comprise them. This characteristic makes it possible to distinguish them as a separate, large group of phraseologisms.

c) Transitional phraseologisms. Dividing phraseologisms into two groups does not mean that a strict boundary can be drawn between them. Transitional phraseologisms always arise, giving rise to doubts as to whether a phraseologism is still metaphorical, or whether its semantic connection to the literal meaning of the phrase has faded and become imperceptible to such an extent that it can be considered an idiom, e.g.: to talk someone around ‘to try to persuade someone, talk someone into something; to calm or deceive someone by talking’: He is just talking me around so that I’ll do that Pn. You won’t talk him around, don’t think so—he understands, even though he’s a child Ut. to catch little roosters

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‘to go off-key while singing in a shrill voice’: What kind of singing is this? They’re just catching little roosters Gs. put into one’s pocket someone ‘to defend, praise, or excuse someone excessively’: Don’t put him in your pocket, either! Srv. put someone through a dog’s days (work someone hard) ‘to denigrate, reprimand, and curse someone severely’: He gave him a terrible dressing-down VP17. They gave each other a terrible dressing-down Skr. to pull someone through one’s teeth ‘to ridicule someone, make fun of someone’: He makes fun of everyone Dkš. bend over the handle ‘to grow old’: The lad has already grown too old and can no longer get a wife Šts.

At first glance, it seems that the semantic meaning of the phraseologisms given here has no connection with the meanings of their constituent components. But on closer examination, that connection can still be felt. For example, comparing the phraseologism to talk someone around with the expression “He talks away the toothache” Km, where the verb to talk away means ‘to heal by incantations, to bewitch’, seems to clarify why the phraseologism to talk someone around means ‘to persuade, to calm someone by talking’. The same applies to the phraseologism to catch little roosters, whose semantic meaning, ‘to shriek while singing, suddenly going off-key’, can be associated with the squealing of a little rooster that someone is catching or has caught. By reasoning similarly, the other examples given here can also be linked to corresponding expressions with literal meanings: put into one’s pocket, put through a dog’s days (work hard), pull through one’s teeth, bend over the handle. Whether they should be considered idioms or metaphorical phraseologisms may be a matter of differing opinions, since the phraseologisms themselves are transitional in nature. That is why in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” similar phraseologisms are sometimes grouped with idioms and sometimes with metaphorical phraseologisms.

The same applies to transitional word combinations, which lie between free word combinations and metaphorical phraseologisms. For example, the combinations shed tears ‘to weep bitterly’, shed sweat ‘to work hard, sweating’, shed blood ‘to fight a bloody battle’, can still be considered metaphorical phraseologisms, since they retain a certain degree of metaphorical meaning. But there are fixed word combinations in which a word’s restricted meaning is realized—that is, a meaning it has only in combination with a limited range of words, e.g.: turn one’s eyes, turn one’s attention ‘to take an interest’, turn one’s gaze ‘to look’, give a question ‘to ask’, give an order ‘to order’, give an answer ‘to answer’, hold breakfast (lunch, etc.) ‘to have breakfast (lunch, etc.)’, raise a noise ‘to make a noise’, hold a wedding ‘to prepare, hold a wedding feast’, take shame ‘to be ashamed’, take sense ‘to come to one’s senses, become sensible’, and so on. Word combinations of this type have almost no metaphorical quality, because their semantic meaning depends on the meanings of their constituent components; therefore, they are not considered phraseologisms.

Transitional phraseologisms are relatively numerous in language. Therefore, in lexicographic work, when different places in a dictionary entry are assigned to individual groups of phraseologisms, it is necessary to recognize the characteristic features of those groups very clearly. Only in this way can major inaccuracies in presenting phraseological material be avoided.

d) C o m p o u n d t e r m s.

Compound terms from various fields of science, technology, production, and other areas are also fixed word combinations. Some are more or less free, reflect objective reality, and their components are understood in their literal sense, e.g.: table salt, writing

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desk, houseplant, lengthened vowels, productive forces, warmongers, peace advocates, pneumonia, wandering magpie, criminal law, light industry, narrowleaf plantain, etc. These are conventional fixed word combinations, often merely indicating a type, but not idiomatic, and therefore should not be considered phraseologisms.

Other compound terms, mostly formed in Lithuanian folk speech, are nomenclatural names for objects or phenomena. In this type of compound term, the literal meaning of the components disappears, is no longer felt, and the meaning of the term is not derived from them. There are especially many terms of this kind in botany, zoology, and other fields, e.g.:

a) botany: cuckoo’s slippers ‘orchid’ (Orchis), hare’s cabbage (Oxalis acetosella), Mary’s sword ‘milk thistle’ (Silybum marianum), sun’s tears (Drosera); b) zoology: thunder’s snipe ‘a bird of this kind’ (Scolopax gallinago), fairy’s horse ‘a beetle of this kind’ (Libellula), sea pig ‘a marine animal of the whale family’ (Phocaena), Adam’s head ‘a large nocturnal moth’ (Acherontia atropos); c) geology: axe stone ‘nephrite’, bloodstone ‘hematite’, devil’s (fairy’s) finger ‘belemnite’; č) hydrology: fairy’s belt ‘rainbow’; d) astronomy: the Plough ‘a constellation of seven stars in the northern sky’ (Ursa Major), Milky Way ‘the appearance of distant regions of the Galaxy’; e) chemistry: living silver ‘a liquid, white-colored metal’ (Hg), etc.

Among these compound terms are also the compound names of various folk games, e.g.: to kick shoes, to bake bread, to break hemp, to go with roosters, to carry coffee, to beat the clumsy one, to drive a pig to the manor, to beat a pig, to chop cabbage, to catch a fox, to catch pine trees, to pull a radish, etc. Since the components of compound terms of this kind lose their literal meaning, they are classified among idioms in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language.

There are also other compound terms whose meanings can be related to the literal meanings of their components, e.g.: registered nurse, nurse ‘a woman with secondary medical education working in a healthcare institution’, kindergarten ‘an institution for the care and education of preschool-age children’, emergency medical service ‘a sanitary organization providing urgent medical assistance to people who have suddenly fallen ill or been injured in accidents’, and so on. In the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, they are grouped among metaphorical phraseologisms.

2. The presentation of phraseologisms in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language

When compiling an explanatory dictionary, a phraseologism must be treated like any individual word, since it too is a linguistic unit that cannot be semantically divided into separate words. In a dictionary, like an individual word, a phraseologism must have its own entry, where its meaning is explained and an illustration of that meaning is provided.

1) T h e m a i n w o r d o f a p h r a s e o l o g i s m. A phraseologism must be listed in the dictionary as many times as it contains full-content words, but its meaning and an illustration must be given in only one place, namely, in the entry for the headword regarded as the most important, the main word in that phraseologism. In the entries for the other words that form part of the phraseologism, its meaning is no longer explained and

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It is no longer illustrated; instead, a reference is given to the entry where it is explained and illustrated with examples.

One of the most difficult questions in phraseology arises in lexicographic work: how to determine the headword of a phraseological unit, that is, the component on which the semantic meaning of the phraseological unit depends and which renders the word combination phraseological.

Although S. Ozhegov says that “one must abandon the nihilistic notion that it is supposedly impossible to determine the headword of a phraseological unit”⁶, in practical work, when determining the headword of a phraseological unit, we often encounter considerable difficulties, since it is not always clear which word is the phraseologizing one.

The same author goes on to acknowledge that, when determining the headword of a phraseological unit, no single principle can be applied to all types of phraseological units. In some cases the phraseologizing word coincides with the grammatically governing word, in others with the governed word, and in still others it may be the first full-meaning component of the combination. The identification of the headword of a phraseological unit depends both on its structure and on the semantic weight of its components, which is not easy to determine, nor is it determined uniformly by everyone. Therefore, it is impossible to establish clear and strict principles and criteria for determining the headword of a phraseological unit.

On the other hand, resolving the question of the headword in a phraseological unit was not necessary when editing the first edition of the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” since that solution could not yet have been applied in practical work. Lithuanian phraseological units are presented for the first time in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” as independent semantic units, and only beginning with the third volume; consequently, it is impossible to place them in the appropriate dictionary entries. If phraseological units were placed and explained where they ought to appear according to their headword, it would often happen that the explanation and illustration of the phraseological unit being entered would have to be deferred to later, as-yet-unprinted volumes of the dictionary, or to the first two printed volumes, where they had not yet been entered. The dictionary user would then be unable to know the semantic meaning of certain phraseological units until all the volumes of the Dictionary had been published and the first two had been revised. For example, the headword, or phraseologizing word, of the phraseological unit varnas ganyti ‘to gape, look around’—the entry under which this phraseological unit should be entered and explained—is, let us say, varna, but that word’s entry will appear only in the penultimate volume of the dictionary. The phraseologizing word of the phraseological unit dinderi mušti ‘to idle’ is dinderis, which had already appeared in the second volume of the Dictionary, where phraseological units had not yet been entered and explained as independent linguistic units.

For these reasons, in the first edition of the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” so as not to have to refer explanations to volumes I–II that were either not yet printed or already in print, phraseological units are presented with definitions and illustrations not always under the headword entry, even when the headword is clear. Each phraseological unit is entered as many times as it has

⁶ С. И. Ожегов, О структуре фразеологии. — «Лексикографический сборник», вып. 2, 41, АН СССР Институт языкознания», Москва, 1957.

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full-meaning words, and sometimes even words without full meaning. Its meaning is explained and illustrated in the entry for only one of its words. In the entries for the other words, instead of an explanation, a reference is given to the word whose entry already explains the meaning. In the second edition of the Dictionary, it will be possible to present all phraseological units as they should in fact be presented.

2) The place of phraseologisms in a dictionary entry.

When phraseologisms are presented as separate lexical units, their place in the entry for the headword must be determined.

In the Russian dictionaries edited by D. Ushakov (1935–1940), S. Ozhegov (1952), and the four-volume dictionary of the USSR Academy of Sciences’ Institute of the Russian Language (1957–1961), phraseologisms of all types are placed at the end of the headword entry, after all the meanings, beyond a diamond. The same arrangement is used in the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (1954) and the Latvian-Russian dictionary (see “Latviešu-krievu vārdnīca”, 1953), except that a triangle sign is used instead of a diamond. In the Great Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language (see “Словарь современного русского литературного языка”), published by the USSR Academy of Sciences’ Institute of the Russian Language, in the first three volumes phraseologisms, highlighted in spaced type, were placed after a small diamond in the illustration accompanying the meanings. Only starting with the fourth volume are idioms and metaphorical phraseologisms highlighted in bold type and placed after a tilde (∼) in two locations in the headword entry. Those that can be associated with any meaning of the word are placed immediately after the illustration for the relevant meaning; others, which are not associated with any meaning of the word, are placed at the end of the entry on a new line. Only “phraseological collocations” (фразеологические сочетания) remain after the small diamond in the illustration, as was done in the first three volumes for phraseologisms of all types. In the Polish dictionary (see “Słownik języka polskiego”, vol. I, A—C, 1958), edited by V. Doroszewski, phraseologisms, much as in the aforementioned Great Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language, are given partly alongside the word’s meanings and partly at the end of the entry, with the difference that both groups are given on a new, indented line after the diamond and the label fraz. (◊fraz.). The same diamond also distinguishes figurative meanings (◊przen.) and proverbs (◊przysł.). The prospectus for the explanatory dictionary of Ukrainian (see “Проспект тлумачного словника української мови”, Київ, 1958) shows that phraseologisms are likewise intended to be placed in two locations: alongside individual meanings and at the end of the entry.

All the old Lithuanian dictionaries—for example, those by K. Širvydas, J. Brodovski, P. Ruigys, K. Milkus, and later G. H. F. Nesselmann, F. Kurschat, and especially A. Juška—contain more or less phraseological material, consisting mainly of sayings and proverbs. Only in A. Juška’s dictionary, in addition to sayings and proverbs, are there already many idioms and metaphorical phraseologisms. In all the dictionaries mentioned, however, phraseologisms are presented not as independent units of language, but as illustrative material for the meanings of individual words.

In the first two volumes of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, phraseologisms are likewise not given separate entries, but are left in the illustrations of word meanings, with their meaning explained—and often left unexplained—in parentheses, for example:

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balsas noun (4)... 6. meaning, sign: I have little voice there Švnč. He has not a sound Sch107. After a little while not a sound of bread remained (ate it all) Ž. We struggle and tear at each other, but not a sound of vodka Ž. The sun is nowhere to be seen Ž. Not a sound of the little mouse to be seen (while searching) Šts. I’m afraid of onion soup, not a sound of it Nt.

Here the phraseologism nė (nei) balso ‘not a sound at all’ occurs in the illustration of a word meaning, even without an explanation. Another example:

dantis, -ies noun K, Tlž; noun, masc. B, R408, MŽ550, N; masc. SD374 (4), dantis, -čio (3, 4) 1. anat. dens: A chair-tooth, a molar Kl167... He brought only a little milk on one tooth Ll. As you can see, this food is not on your tooth (you don’t like it) Vrn....Brother has long had a tooth for her (he likes her) Gs. I have long been sharpening my tooth against him (I’m angry) Rdm....She has long had a toothache over how to buy that dress Lkš. Why are you trying to charm a healthy tooth here—you’re guilty, that’s all! Rgv. He kept trying and then bit off a tooth (got nowhere) Jnšk....

Here the meanings of some phraseologisms are explained in parentheses, while others (dantį skauda ‘to become restless, to be concerned’, dantį užkalbėti ‘to try to persuade, to calm someone by talking, to deceive’) are left unexplained.

Leaving phraseologisms in the illustrations proved inaccurate; therefore, beginning with the third volume, various phraseological units began to be taken out of the illustrative material and presented separately. Some of them, those that are more idiomatic, are highlighted in bold type and, after their meaning has been explained, are placed at the end of the entry for the relevant headword, after all the meanings, on a new line after the diamond (◊). Others, which are less idiomatic, are not highlighted in any typeface or given separate entries, but are left in an illustrative sentence, with their meaning explained in parentheses (though not always); the sentence is placed after a triangle (△), at the end of the illustration for the meaning of the headword. Still other phraseologisms are left directly in the illustration, often without even explaining their meaning, for example:

galas noun (4)... 9. perishing; death, dying: The imminent and inevitable end of the imperialists drives them mad Tiesa1953, 67. Meister’s father Kastantas ate a little pot of sour milk just before the end P.Cvir. On the battlefields the regiments of fascist army divisions met their sorry end A.Vencl. He screams as if being put to death J.Jabl. To make an end of oneself (to commit suicide) BŽ267. △ If you fall ill, that’s the end (very bad) Sml. Many people went to their end (perished) Š. Everything is already going to ruin (perishing) J.Jabl. The stick has not turned to an end (has not perished)—I found it Šts. 10. fig. evil, the devil: Damn you! An. The devil brought you here! Vrn. The devil carried you here! Dkš. The devil, you don’t see him! Ds. The devil will get you, just you wait (he won’t come)! Alk. The devil will do that to you so quickly (he won’t do it quickly)! Lp....A cursed devil with her Dsn. || pl.: The devils know where he went! Sk. For a hundred devils, how cold it is here! Vs. Go to the devils! rš. After all the devils, at least come home! Lp.

◊ all sorts of ends... everything: Petras was a man of all trades (he knew how to do everything, was suited to everything) J.Jabl. For money you can get all sorts of things OG91... They are full of everything (they have everything) Lp. Everything of theirs (everything) has burned down Lnkv....

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Under sense 9, the sentence “He screams as if being put to death,” containing the phraseological unit galą daryti ‘to kill’, has not been listed after the triangle; it has been left in the illustrative material without even explaining its meaning. galą pasidaryti ‘to commit suicide’ is also a phraseological unit, but it has not been listed after the triangle, although its meaning is explained. Under sense 10, all the examples contain phraseological units of an expressive-emotional nature, but they have not been listed after the triangle, and the meaning is explained for only two of the phraseological units.

In later volumes of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, phraseological units left in the illustrative material without even being explained are encountered less frequently, for example:

kálnas noun (3).... (1)... 1. a high elevation of land:... The hills are covered with stumps, the hill-slopes bare! Who believes in your ancient beauty? A. Baran. Grey eagles soar in the hills S. Nėr... He sets the fish-trap facing upstream (against the current) Ds. Spring is not far off (near) tsp. The harvest is not far off either (not far away) Pc. They heap mountains upon one another (all sorts of bad things, proverbially) Skd. 2. figurative: a large amount of something: He cooked up mountains of game rs... You won’t find mountains of gold anywhere Ds... △ If I were healthy, I would move mountains (I would get a lot done) Gs. He is determined to move mountains (to accomplish a great deal) Šl. 3. a pile: The cart will be loaded high Krtn. ♢ *iš kalno (or. zgóry) adverb before the appointed time, in advance: Will you be able to pay in advance? Pn...

In the illustration for the second sense, the sentence “You won’t find mountains of gold anywhere” has been left without being listed after the triangle, and the meaning of the phraseological unit aukso kalnai ‘a great deal of wealth’ has not been explained.

Nevertheless, the presentation of phraseological units in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language is still not good enough.

First, it is inappropriate to place proverbs, sayings, riddles, and other figurative expressions alongside phraseological units under the same symbol (△). The literal meanings of the words in them do not disappear, and therefore they can serve as illustrations of the meaning of the headword.

Second, it is not advisable to leave the phraseological units placed after the triangle unlisted and unmarked in a different typeface, or to omit explanations of their meanings. A phraseological unit that is neither separated from the sentence nor marked in a different typeface seems to disappear and becomes harder to notice; sometimes, too, an explanation given in parentheses applies more to the whole sentence than to the phraseological unit itself, for example: “After a little while there was not a crumb of bread left (they ate it all)” Žem. Here the explanation they ate it all applies not to the phraseological unit nė balso, but to the verb nebliko.

Every phraseological unit in the Dictionary must be presented as a separate lexical unit, a separate word, rather than left in the illustrative material.

Metaphorical phraseological units that can be associated with any sense of the article’s headword should preferably be placed immediately after the material illustrating the relevant sense (not on a new line), following the triangle (△). Idioms and those phraseological units that are not associated with any sense of the headword should be moved to the end of the article, after all the senses, and placed on a new line after the diamond (♢). Proverbs, sayings, and other figurative expressions in which word combinations are not yet very fixed in the language, such that

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if it were possible to regard them as phraseological units, it would be better to place them at the end of the word’s definition under a caret (∧), and, if possible, explain their meaning in parentheses. Then, for example, the entry for the word ganyti would look like this:

ganyti, gano, ganė 1. tr., intr. to tend (livestock, birds) in pasture: Ganau pekų SD242. The shepherd is tending the livestock J. Whose cattle are being pastured here? J.Jabl. While I was tending my brother’s well-fed young oxen, three young lads rode up KlvD7. I found a little shepherd tending horses J.Jabl. When I was young, I tended goats in the forest (song) J.Jabl. I won’t tend those goats, nor wander among the willows (song) Krž. I tended geese in the green meadow, and walked there too (song) Sn. He tends them where the animals eat Dkš. Mother sent me out to tend J.Jabl. The shepherdess has been a long time coming back from tending the flock Ds. Yesterday was a day for us to tend (yesterday we had to tend) Rm. There are many meadows for grazing (where livestock are pastured) OG404. ∧ Tend sheep and don’t see the wolf (always be alert) S.Dauk. Don’t let a pig into the garden (don’t let an untidy, dirty person into a clean, beautiful place—they’ll make a mess) TŽIII382. What you have tended, keep tending B. ∧ to pasture one’s eyes rš to admire something. Good day to you, shepherd! Sut old-fashioned greeting to shepherds tending their flocks. Go tend the dogs! Ašb curse. get out of here, don’t show yourself! I didn’t tend pigs with you (him) Mlt vulgar. you (he) are no equal to me. || refl.: A man walks farther on and sees an ox grazing Sl59. Perhaps you would run and see how the horses are grazing Mš. Not far from them a large herd of pigs was grazing rš. ∧ one’s eyes graze over something to admire something: My eyes graze over beautiful sights rš. 2. tr. fig. to look after, supervise: Grandfather tends the orchard so the children don’t pick all the apples Švnč. Mother looks after the children J. You have to look after those children all day long; there’s no time to get any work done Rs. The children still need looking after (they need care and upbringing) Dr. There’s no time for evening leisure—you have to tend to life Er. You look after those bees (make sure they don’t swarm) Grg. The wolf quickly ran to the village, not as a guest, but to save his own life V.Kudir. Everyone should know how to look after their health rš. Guard her like flax from fire! Lš. ∧ Everyone looks after themselves as best they can (each gets by as best they know how) Ds. That’s why he has a goiter: to tend frogs Jnš. ∧ to tend the house joc. to stay indoors all the time, never leave the house: Cats have got used to staying indoors Krkl. 3. tr. fig. eccles. to save, deliver: While saving the souls of others, I lost my own. Sln. I commanded him to shepherd my people ChlKrn17,6. 4. refl. to feed horses during a journey: You won’t travel that far without stopping to feed the horses Er. Traveling by carriage to Panevėžys, we stopped to feed the horses twice Slm. 5. refl. fig. to eat: Let’s eat while there’s food on the table Vj. The snake’s house is full of everything—just eat and be merry! ps. ◇ to pasture something with one’s eyes to mock, laugh at someone: May butter pasture your little eyes! Arm. not to pasture one’s eyes to be shameless: Ona won’t be shy—she’ll say whatever comes to her (say) Užp. Whoever isn’t shy about asking gets fed (whoever isn’t ashamed to ask gets what they need) Prng. to herd goats to be obstinate, act up: My children are herding little goats Skr. to herd crows to look around, gawk: Read, don’t gawk! Žem.

If several phraseological units are to be listed in one place, they should be arranged alphabetically (cf. the first definition of the word ganyti given above

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entry). When there are several variants with the same meaning, the alphabetical order need not be followed; they should instead be placed in one group. Function words are arranged alphabetically only when the phraseological unit begins with a function word and that word is, as it were, a signal for the whole phraseological unit, e.g.: še tau, kaip mat, and so on.

A phraseological unit may have not just one meaning, but several. In such cases, its meanings are differentiated just like the meanings of separate words: first the most common meaning is given, followed by the less common one and then the figurative one, if there is one. Meanings should be distinguished by the letters a, b, c, and so on, e.g.:

atkąsti tr..... 3. to blunt, wear down by biting (of teeth): The bread was full of grit—I chipped a tooth (my teeth hurt; I couldn’t bite) Ds. He chipped a tooth while chewing VP8. Even the dog chips a tooth Kp. △ to chip a tooth a) to lose heart, become less enthusiastic: At first he was very keen to get into that forest, but later he lost heart Lkč. He worked so hard at first, but now he’s lost his enthusiasm (he got bored with it) Grž... b) to be disappointed, make a mistake: The enemy, trying to destroy us, suffered a painful setback rš... He misjudged this teacher Nč... c) to take revenge: Have you taken your revenge yet? Grž.

This way of presenting phraseological units in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language would clearly distinguish them from free word combinations and figurative expressions, which lack the essential features that would allow phraseological units to be regarded as linguistic units that have become the subject of research in a separate branch of linguistics—phraseology. By presenting a wealth of processed phraseological material, the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language would lay the groundwork for comprehensive research into this interesting linguistic phenomenon.

This article puts forward for consideration new proposals for presenting phraseological units more accurately in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. If they prove sufficiently well-founded and feasible, they could be applied in subsequent volumes of the Dictionary.

For now, the most urgent task is to eliminate inaccuracies occurring in the Dictionary’s editorial practice as a result of the incorrect treatment of phraseological units.

As noted above, phraseological units as a whole began to be studied only very recently, while Lithuanian phraseological units, one might say, have hardly been studied at all. Without sufficient theoretical knowledge of the nature, characteristics, and types of phraseological units, it is not always possible to distinguish them from free word combinations; consequently, dictionaries often contain inaccuracies in the selection of headwords, the explanation of meanings, and the use of phraseological units as illustrative material. Many such inaccuracies can also be found in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language.

As work on the Dictionary continues, and efforts are made to identify and present phraseological units accurately, it is essential to bear in mind the following key points concerning their lexicographic treatment and analysis, insufficient understanding of which gives rise to errors and inaccuracies in lexicographic work.

a) A word used only in a phraseological unit is not independent and, taken by itself, has no semantic meaning; therefore, it cannot be extracted from the combination and entered as a headword

18. Kalbotyros klausimai, IV

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in the headword of the entry for the word, to explain its meaning, which it does not have when taken separately, for example:

kadė sf. (2) time: Kuri tat kadė Kos152.

The word kadė is not used outside the phrase and does not mean ‘time’. Only the whole phrase kuri tat kadė means ‘a very long time ago, when was that’ (cf. Kos152’s explanation of this phrase in Polish: które to czasy, kiedy to było rzeczy!).

Another example:

kanka sf. (2) beginning, occasion: They felled one tree at a time Vkš. Since we have started, let us finish it in one go Vkš. Townspeople spend money in one go (receive and spend it) Kal.

The word kanka is likewise not used outside a phrase and does not mean ‘beginning, occasion’—this meaning has been extracted from the phrases viena kanka, ta kanka, ta kanka ‘with that beginning, right away, without waiting’. Since the component kanka of the phrase has no meaning of its own and is not used outside the phrase, other variants of the phrase also arise in speech, sometimes even with grammatically mismatched components, for example:

When they manage to remove the peat from the pit in one go, it is easier to take it out LK.

Thus, in place of ta kanka, expressions with the same meaning, including tuo kanka, are used in speech.

The dictionary contains more similar cases in which a word is extracted from a phrase and assigned a meaning that it does not have outside the phrase, for example:

abejas sm. (1) doubt: Without a doubt, I will get up; I won’t oversleep Slnt. No doubt he is lying Grž. As for me, I could still get up early (literally, ‘with doubt’) Ob. That girl, too, is uncertain whether she will go Alk. What kind of craftsman is he—he works on a gamble: if it works out, fine; if it collapses, it will come to nothing Lnkv.

The word abejas is not used outside a phrase and therefore cannot have an independent meaning. It occurs only in phrases: ant abejo būti ‘to be unsure, to doubt’, ant abejo dirbti ką ‘to do something without knowing how it will turn out; whatever happens’, be abejo ‘clearly, certainly, without a doubt’, su abejų ‘doubtful’.

A striking example of how it is sometimes impossible to state a nonexistent meaning for a word extracted from an idiom is the entry for the word dinderis:

dinderis sm. (1) 1. derog. idler, vagabond: What will that dinderis do—he just wanders about, that’s all Lž. Petriuk, you lazy good-for-nothing, won’t you get to your books? Sd. 2. ‘?’ (in expressions): He spends whole days beating the dinderis (idles, loafs about), and is afraid of work Kl.

The second meaning of the word dinderis is unclear and is marked with a question mark; it is only noted that it is used in expressions. In fact, the word dinderis has only one meaning: ‘idler, vagabond’. It has no second meaning at all; rather, there is only the word combination—an idiom—dinderį mušti, which means ‘to idle, to loaf about’. It should be noted that the compiler of the entry considered and deliberated over a second meaning for the word dinderis, but since in the first two volumes of the Dictionary idioms, as independent units,

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Since they were not singled out, no way was found to present the phrase dinderį mušti in a word entry.

b) The semantic meaning of a phraseologism cannot be attributed to any one of its components, since no component can have that meaning. There are cases in which a word with at least several meanings is assigned a meaning it does not have, but which belongs to the entire phrase containing that word, for example:

aušinti, -ina, -ino... 3. to talk pointlessly: I don't want to cool my mouth, i.e. talk J. Cool your mouth all you like—you won't get anything Gs. Don't cool your throat Vv. Don't cool your teeth—you won't get paid Kair. Don't cool your tongue for no reason Dov. He [the dog] cools his snout even more at night than during the day Ms.

In the sentences given here, the word aušinti does not mean 'to talk pointlessly'. That meaning belongs to the phrase aušinti burną and its variants: aušinti kakarinę, aušinti dantis, aušinti liežuvį and aušinti snukį figuratively, 'to talk idly'.

Other examples:

dumti, dumia, dumė... 12. to lie, deceive, hoodwink; bewitch: Don't cloud my eyes for no reason; I'm not so foolish as to believe it Jrb. Who would believe in miracles there—they cloud your eyes, that's all Kair. They cloud our eyes with their pretty little speeches Vaižg.

The verb dumti, by itself and not in a phrase with other words, does not have the meaning 'to lie, deceive, hoodwink'. It is derived from the meaning of the whole phrase dumti akis 'to deceive'.

galvà sf. (3) 1. part of the body... 5. life; death: Better to die without a head than without honor (honor) Kt. Without the press we are as if without a head Blv. After his death, only she and the children remained BŽ325. I don't know, children, how you will live after my death (when I am dead) Jnšk. The new son-in-law... became king after his death Sch171. We ought to take care of those who will live after us A.Baran. The whole garden falls to me after your death Ašb. He will begin to rule only after my death Srv.... Don't lean on me, people, while I'm alive Jnšk. If only everyone lived as they did while their father-in-law was still alive (while the father-in-law was still alive) Lp.... One lieutenant... was sentenced for life (sentenced to death, for life) Kel1862,100. I stake my head, or give my head, if that is not true S.Dauk. One little brother appeared, staking his head for the wreath (agreeing to die) Sln.... In the war the enemies laid down many heads (many enemies perished) rš. One can lose one's head very quickly BM83. The daughter-in-law grieved for three weeks, the sister for three years, and the dear mother raised her child until her own head was alive (until death) StnD28. For all his life, as long as his head is alive JV655. He did it at the risk of his own head (risking his own life) J.Jabl.

In the first two sentences illustrating the fifth meaning of the word galva, the word galva has its first meaning—'part of the body'. In all the other examples, the word galva occurs only in phraseological expressions, which have their own meanings, namely:

after someone's death (literally, after someone's head) 'when someone has died', while someone is still alive (literally, at/behind someone's head) 'while someone is still alive', until one's dying day (literally, until the living head) 'until death', to stake one's life (literally, to give/lay one's head

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‘meet death’, while the head is alive ‘while alive’, to do something at the risk of one’s own head ‘to do something at the risk of one’s life’, to put one’s head in ‘to perish’.

Thus, the word galva does not have the meanings ‘life, living; death’.

c) A phraseological unit cannot illustrate a word’s meaning, because it itself has an entirely different meaning that does not coincide with the meanings of its components, for example:

apkąsti tr. 1. to grasp with the teeth: He holds it, having bitten down on it B. Bite your tongue; don’t bleat needlessly J. Ans bit the whole board KlvRž. || Praniukas looked at his sister and bit back his words (fell silent) LzP. He also bit his teeth (stopped talking nonsense) Dbk.

In the phrases apkąsti, dantis apkąsti ‘to fall silent after speaking’, the verb apkąsti does not mean ‘to grasp with the teeth’; therefore, sentences containing these phrases are placed among the parallel examples that are usually used to distinguish a nuance of meaning. But here, alongside such examples, are also given not nuances of meaning but genuine fixed idiomatic phrases, which should be listed separately as independent units and their meanings explained. The phrase liežuvį apkąsti has the same meaning; it may also be used literally to mean ‘to grasp the tongue with the teeth’, but in this context (“Bite your tongue; don’t bleat needlessly”) its meaning is figurative and idiomatic—‘to fall silent after speaking’.

There are still quite a few cases of this kind, in which a phraseological unit is left in an illustration of a word’s meaning in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, for example:

galva sf. (3)... 3. intellect, understanding; thought: Drūktenis surpassed both brothers-in-law in stature, intellect, and eloquence Žem....He’ll keep asking until he turns your head Srv....

In the last sentence here, galvą susukti is a phraseological unit meaning ‘to bewilder’. It should not be left as an illustration of the word’s meaning; instead, it should be listed separately, its meaning explained, and the sentence cited as an illustration of that meaning in use. Another example:

kaulas sm. (1, 3) Klm, Arm 1. SD106, R, MŽ210, N, K, LSB194, M, AruP56, Slnt hard body tissue, part of the skeleton: Bones form an animal’s skeleton (frame) out.... The chores have become annoying to the point of living bone (very much) Jns.

In the last sentence, the phrase įkyrėti iki gyvo kaulo is a phraseological unit meaning ‘to annoy greatly’; therefore, it is unsuitable as an illustration of the first meaning of the word kaulas and should be listed separately.

It should be noted that extracting from a phraseological unit a word that is used only within the phrase, assigning to that word a meaning that belongs to the phrase as a whole, and illustrating a word’s meaning with phraseological units are common in volumes I–II of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, but occur less frequently in volumes III–V. This shows that those writing the dictionary do not always succeed in distinguishing phraseological units from free word combinations.

CONCLUSIONS

1. In the „Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language“, it is appropriate to divide phraseologisms into two groups: idioms and metaphorical phraseologisms. Word combinations in which a word’s meaning is realized only partly freely, and whose semantic meaning

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depends on the meanings of their components, are not distinguished as a separate group and are left among the illustrations of word meanings.

2. Idioms are considered to be fixed word combinations whose semantic meaning is monolithic and unmotivated, that is, it does not depend on the meanings of their constituent components, and which cannot be translated literally into other languages.

3. Metaphorical phraseologisms are considered to be fixed word combinations, usually with figurative-transferred meaning, whose semantic meaning is only potentially connected with the meanings of their constituent components.

4. Compound terms, formed mostly in Lithuanian folk speech and serving as nomenclatural names for objects or phenomena, are also considered phraseologisms. Those whose semantic meaning does not depend on the meanings of their constituent components are assigned to the group of idioms, while those whose meaning has some connection, however remote, with the meanings of their components are assigned to metaphorical phraseologisms. Various compound terms from science, technology, manufacturing, and other fields, whose meaning depends on the meanings of their components, are not considered phraseologisms.

5. A word used only in a phraseologism has no nominative meaning. Likewise, the meaning of a phraseologism cannot be assigned to one of its components. A phraseologism has a specific meaning and cannot illustrate a word’s meaning.

6. Every phraseologism in the Dictionary should be set in bold type as many times as it has full-meaning (and sometimes also function) word components. However, the meaning of a phraseologism should be explained and illustrated in the entry for only one component. In the entries for the other components, instead of an explanation, a reference should be made to the word whose entry explains the meaning of the phraseologism.

7. The explanation and illustration of phraseologisms should be given in the entry for their main component-word. However, this principle cannot be followed in the first edition of the „Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language“, because it is impossible to refer the explanation of phraseologism meanings to volumes I—II, which have not yet been printed or published, where phraseologisms had not yet been set out.

8. Metaphorical phraseologisms are given in the entry for the headword, after the illustration of the relevant meaning and following a triangle (△); idioms and those metaphorical phraseologisms whose meaning is unrelated to any meaning of the headword are given at the end of the entry, on a new line and following a diamond (◊).

If several phraseologisms occur in one place in a word entry, they are listed alphabetically. However, phraseologisms with similar meanings should be grouped together, even if this runs counter to alphabetical order.

9. Proverbs, sayings, and other figurative expressions that cannot yet be considered phraseologisms should be set apart at the end of the illustration of a word’s meaning, after a separate symbol, namely a caret (Λ).

PHRASEOLOGISMS IN THE “DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE” OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE LITHUANIAN SSR

Z. K. JONIKAITĖ

Summary

Lithuanian phraseologisms are considered in this article from the perspective of practical lexicographic work. The question of how phraseologisms should be presented in the explanatory “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” has not been fully developed. There is a lack of theoretical generalizations about the nature, characteristics, and types of Lithuanian phraseologisms, and about their placement in the Dictionary; consequently, phraseologisms are often confused with free word combinations: in some cases, individual components of a phraseologism are assigned a meaning characteristic of the phraseologism as a whole, as a distinctive lexical unit; in other cases, phraseologisms are presented as ordinary illustrations of free word combinations.

In the Dictionary, Lithuanian phraseologisms are classified into two main groups: idioms and metaphorical phraseologisms (called phraseological unities in Academician V. Vinogradov’s classification). Those stable word combinations in which a word’s bound meaning is realized (called phraseological combinations in Academician V. Vinogradov’s classification) are not set apart as a separate group and are placed in the Dictionary as illustrations of the meaning of a word.

Phraseologisms, as integral, monolithic expressions in which the lexical meanings of their components have been lost, should have a specific place in the dictionary entry, where their meanings should be explained and illustrated. In the first two volumes of the Dictionary, phraseologisms were placed alongside illustrations of the individual meanings of a word and were distinguished neither by symbols nor by typeface. Beginning with the third volume of the Dictionary, phraseologisms are placed in two locations within the entry. More idiomatic phraseologisms are set in bold type and placed at the end of the entry in a new paragraph after the diamond sign (◊). Less idiomatic phraseologisms are listed under the corresponding meanings of a word after the triangle sign (△), but are not set apart. Their meanings are explained in illustrative examples in parentheses. Under this same sign, the Dictionary includes sayings, proverbs, riddles, and unstable figurative expressions. This arrangement of phraseological material is not entirely satisfactory; therefore, this article proposes: 1) to set both idioms and metaphorical phraseologisms in bold type and place them separately in the dictionary entry; 2) to place idioms and metaphorical phraseologisms that have lost their connection with any particular meaning of the word being defined after all the meanings, at the end of the entry in a new paragraph after the sign ◊; and to place other metaphorical phraseologisms that have a perceptible connection with a particular meaning of the word being defined under that meaning after the sign △;

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under the corresponding meanings of the word after the sign △; 3) to place compound terms whose meaning cannot be derived from the lexical meanings of their components after the sign ◊, and compound terms whose components’ meanings can be related to the literal meanings of the corresponding words after the sign △; 4) to place proverbs, sayings, and unstable figurative expressions separately from phraseologisms, using a special sign Λ for this purpose.

One of the most important issues in the practical work of phraseology is determining the headword of a phraseologism, that is, the component on which the phraseologism’s semantic meaning depends. Once the headword has been identified, it becomes clear under which word the phraseologism should be placed, explained, and illustrated, and under which words it should merely be listed with a reference to the relevant dictionary entry, where the phraseologism is explained and illustrated with examples of usage.

Since phraseologisms are being marked out for the first time in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” it is considered inadvisable to refer to the first two volumes, whether not yet printed or already published, in which they were not yet distinguished, because the meaning of a phraseologism would for some time remain unknown to the Dictionary’s user. Therefore, in the first edition of the Dictionary, a phraseologism is included as many times as it has full-fledged (and sometimes even incomplete) components, and its meaning is explained and illustrated not always under its headword, even when that would be clear. In the second edition of the Dictionary, it will be possible to explain and illustrate phraseologisms under the word of their head component, while listing them under the words of the other components only with a reference to the relevant entry.