The article aims to introduce the need for and possibilities of expanding the word-formation guide (ŽDV). It discusses some emerging problems that will inevitably arise when adapting this reference work on noun formation to word-formation data for other parts of speech. The first possibility for expanding the ŽDV is to use the existing database structure to supplement the reference work with new data, for example, derivational examples from seminal works on Lithuanian word formation, as well as notes on the usage of derivatives, tendencies in neologism formation, and so on. Another possibility is to modify the database structure to accommodate, as needed, data types other than those envisaged so far. Words from different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) differ in the structure of their word-formation data and in their word-formation categories (where they have such categories); consequently, the unmodified structural model of noun formation would most likely be unsuitable for describing the formation of other parts of speech. In addition, in the case of adjective formation, further problems would arise from the inconsistent application in grammars of the principle of synchrony in describing it.
ABSTRACT
The study aims to introduce the need and opportunities for the development of the Word Formation Guide (WFG). It discusses some of the emerging problems that will inevitably arise when adapting this noun formation manual to word formation data from other parts of speech. The first option for the development
1 The article was prepared on the basis of a paper presented at the 58th international scholarly conference in honor of Prof. Arturs Ozols, Grammar and Word Formation (Lat. Grammar and Word Formation), held on 16–17 March 2023 in Riga, at the University of Latvia.
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of the WFG is to use the existing structure of the database to add new data, for example, examples of derivatives and compounds from fundamental works on word formation in Lithuanian, as well as comments on the usage of derivatives and compounds, new word formation tendencies, etc. Another option is to modify the structure of the database of the WFG when it becomes necessary to collect data that are different from what has been foreseen so far. Words from the various parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) differ in the data structure of their formation, word formation categories, among other things, so an unmodified structural model for describing the formation of nouns from other parts of the language would probably not work. In addition, the data on the derivation of adjectives would pose additional problems, as the principle of synchronicity has been inconsistently applied in grammar to describe it.
INTRODUCTION
The Word Formation Guide (WFG) is a digital guide to the synchronic formation of Lithuanian nouns and one of the resources of the Lithuanian Language Resources Information System, E. kalba (https://ekalba.lt/) services. This system was developed at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language in 2018–2021 by modernizing and expanding the previously used Lithuanian Language Resources Information System (LKIIS). The WFG is one of the system’s innovations and, together with Language Advice, forms the electronic services group E. patarimai. This guide is intended to provide a quick and concise introduction to the word-formation devices of Lithuanian nouns and the main regularities of their formation, as described in grammars from the second half of the 20th century. It is based on descriptions of noun formation in two grammars—the Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian and the academic Grammar of the Lithuanian Language—with their information systematized according to several main aspects (word-formation devices and properties of the base, word-formation meaning, etc.). These grammars record a state of synchronic noun formation that was researched and summarized quite some time ago: the first volume of the academic grammar was published in 1965, while the fourth edition of the Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian appeared in 2006. However, at least as regards noun formation, the latter essentially presents the same information in abridged form as the academic Grammar of the Lithuanian Language. Nevertheless, the WFG offers opportunities to reflect more recent features of the state of Lithuanian today and of neologism formation.
The aim of the article is to introduce the possibilities for expanding the WFG and the emerging problems that arise in undertaking such an expansion. To this end, it analyzes
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the WFG’s data structure, its suitability, modification, and adaptation to new data; tendencies in neologism formation in the Lithuanian lexicon and their representation in the existing database; and the specific features of word-formation data for other parts of speech (adjectives, verbs, adverbs). The study employs analytical, synchronic word-formation analysis, and descriptive methods.
POSSIBILITIES AND CHALLENGES OF EXPANDING THE GUIDE
1. First, a very brief overview of the search options and the results obtained2. Taking into account the form and semantics of derivatives, two information-search routes are provided: by word-formation device and by meaning. In the first case, a word-formation device can be found using the classification scheme for derivatives or the word-formation device field (first selecting its type); alternatively, a specific device can be searched for directly by entering it or a fragment of it in the word-formation device search field. The search returns a list of devices matching the criterion, and selecting the desired device from the list opens its description (or one of several descriptions presented on separate “cards”). The descriptions provide information about the properties of the word-formation base and device, the formation process, examples of derivatives, and more. The second search route for word-formation devices is semantic. This route is used when the focus is on word-formation or lexical semantics—that is, data on word-formation categories, word-formation meanings, or semantic features—and the search is then conducted by selecting options from lists in the relevant fields. Information can be searched by several features; the advanced search is designed primarily for this purpose, allowing users to select a wide variety of combinations of search features. It is also very useful that the search can be narrowed and refined by searching again within the results already obtained. For example, after selecting devices for forming place names (61 are found) and seeing that these names can be based on words from various parts of speech, one can then focus only on those derived from verbs—by additionally specifying this part of speech for the base words, the first
2 Išsamiau žr. Murmulaitytė 2022: 9–12. E. kalbos Pagalbos skiltyje taip pat galima pamatyti trumpus filmukus, kurie vaizdžiai atsako į pagrindinius duomenų paieškos Žodžių darybos vedlyje klausimus: kaip jame pasirinkti paieškos linkmę pagal darybos priemonę; kaip pasirinkti paieškos linkmę pagal (darybos) reikšmę; kaip išfiltruoti sąrašą pagal darybos priemonę; kaip atlikti greitąją paiešką; kaip atlikti detaliąją paiešką (https://ekalba.lt/EKALBA%20Pagalba; žiūrėta 2023-11-05).
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The list of word-formation devices will be narrowed to 18. Finally, one can find that only five word-formation devices used to form place names from verbs are productive—they have the feature of a productive word-formation device, which further refines the search. These are the suffixes –ykla (čiūožykla), –ynas (vynuogynas), –ynė (usnynė), –uma (dykuma) and the ending –a (prieplauka)3.
2. Two possibilities should be noted with regard to expanding the WFG. The first is to add new data to the guide using the existing data structure; the second is to modify the database structure if it becomes necessary to collect data of a kind not envisaged so far.
2.1. In the first case, what is primarily meant is examples of derivatives—words formed using the word-formation devices described in this guide. Figure 1 shows examples of compounds formed from adjectives and nouns, both previously recorded forms and neologisms. The examples of derivatives are active links to lexicographic sources (if a derivative is listed in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (BLKŽ), the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (DLKŽ₈e) or the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽe), or if it is a neologism in the Lithuanian Neologism Database (ND)); that is, clicking on a derivative displayed in blue and underlined opens its entry in one of these Lithuanian dictionaries or databases, where one can view the definition of its lexical meaning.
At present, the WFG includes examples of derivatives from grammars only to the extent needed to illustrate word-formation regularities and show the process of word formation. In the near future, it is hoped that all the remaining examples of derivatives from grammars and fundamental works on word formation will be added (Urbutis 1961a, b; Keinys 1975, 1979, 1980, 1983; Paulauskienė 1994; Pakerys 1994, etc.), along with the most typical neologisms from the Lithuanian Neologism Database. The latter is continuously updated, so ideally the WFG could be updated in parallel. Thus, if earlier, synchronically attested derivatives and neologisms recorded up to the beginning of the 21st century are systematically compiled in the guide in this respect, a substantial collection should accumulate, making it possible to determine how a particular derivative was formed: when searching for information about the word formation of a given word, the description of its word-formation device opens, from which one can learn the word-formation type, word-formation category, word-formation meaning, and the derivational base and
3 This versatility of search may be more useful to word-formation researchers, but it is also needed by writers and editors looking for working synonyms, more varied means of expression, and the like.
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FIG. 1. Examples of compounds formed from adjectives and nouns
properties of the device, and so on. This latter aspect, which concerns explanations of how particular words were formed, is especially useful and important not only in teaching and learning word formation, but also in researching it, and thus matters not only to the general public but also to language and word-formation researchers.
2.2. A considerable amount of new information can be provided in notes fields. Notes are intended for information that, owing to its specific nature, does not fit into other data fields; they can be used, for example, to explain atypical cases of word formation or draw attention to other important points. Notes can be of two kinds—
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FIG. 2. Notes to the description of atypical derivatives with the suffix –uma2
of an individual description and general notes applicable to descriptions of several derivational devices of a particular type. For now, these note fields are also used minimally, only when necessary to draw attention to a feature observed in grammars, a possible multiple derivational interpretation, or the like.
For example, most place names with the suffix –uma are derived from qualitative adjectives: dykuma (from dykas, -a), sausuma (from sausas, -a), žemuma (from žemas, -a). However, a few are formed from words belonging to other parts of speech (aplinkuma is based on the adverb aplink or the noun aplinka, dauguma on the adverb daug, and plakuma ‘the flat part of a scythe, the scythe blade’ and šakuma on the corresponding verbs). Such cases are presented in a separate description of this suffix, and their atypical derivation is explained in a note to the description, which reads: “Atypical derivatives (not based on adjectives)” (see Fig. 2).
If it is necessary to emphasize matters common to several descriptions of the same derivational device, they are presented in the general notes field. For example, meat
FIG. 4. Derivational types formed with the suffix -iena
Serious attention was first paid to them at the beginning of this century (e.g., in Jurgita Mikelionienė’s (2002: 75–76) article on analogy in Lithuanian word formation), so enough time has now passed to identify changes in derivation with this suffix on a sound basis. In her recent work, Rita Miliūnaitė (2022: 280–282) cautiously assigns such neologisms not to the category of meat names, but to names of bearers of a nominal characteristic (that is, to another derivational category and, consequently, to a different, homonymous suffix), although the first neologism of this kind is laikraštiena, which, judging from the contexts in which it is used (associations with food and jelly), is undoubtedly based on the analogy of the word šaltiena (see Fig. 5). Elsewhere, for example, in Agnė Aleksaitė’s (2022: 89–90) dissertation, the neologism laikraštiena is tentatively assigned to the category of meat names, together with a large group of other pejorative names usually associated with the media and information channels. In the case of this new type, more precise formulations of derivational meaning may still need to be sought, perhaps helping to assign these neologisms more accurately to one or the other of the aforementioned derivational categories. And, of course, it must be borne in mind that what is being assessed is not one, but three homonymous suffixes.
Another example is the shift in the derivational meaning of names denoting sex-based distinctions. New derivatives formed with the suffix –inas and the ending –ė name not only the oppo-
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FIG. 5. An example of the usage of the neologism laikraštiena ‘newspaper stuff’ (ND)
opposite-sex animals, but also people. For example, those formed with the suffix –inas: auklinas, barakudinas, fyfinas, undinas, žvaigždinas, or with the ending -ė: budelė, kunigė, narcizė, šviesulė, kareivė, išmintė, etc. (see Fig. 6). Thus, not only these neologisms should be included in the WFG, but also a note about the new derivational tendency associated with the changed derivational meaning.
3. The main aim of the WFG, stated in its introductory presentation, is to help language users choose the most appropriate word-formation methods and means when they wish to name new concepts entering the Lithuanian language and coin new words4. For such users, information on noun formation should be the most relevant—it is likely that their first concern would be to form
FIG. 6. Change in the derivational meaning of neologisms naming entities according to gender
a Lithuanian name for a new phenomenon, a new or foreign reality, and so on—that is, a noun. The reference guide’s data structure was therefore initially designed specifically for noun-formation data. However, the guide could be expanded to include word-formation data for other parts of speech, describing the patterns of adjective, verb, and adverb formation. This would be useful not only for society’s practical needs but also for research: by collecting and structuring word-formation data for various parts of speech in one place, it would be possible to obtain a broader picture of Lithuanian word formation, identify systematic relationships among word-formation devices, perhaps discern tendencies in changes to word formation, and anticipate future developments.
Here we can already speak of challenges, since it would no longer suffice to add new data to the existing WFG database; its data structure would have to be revised. This is primarily because the current version, designed to collect data on derivatives belonging to one part of speech, does not provide for searches by the part of speech of the derivative. Once word-formation information for other parts of speech is added, such a search function would be essential. This feature—part of speech of the derivative—would make it possible to compile lists of word-formation devices characteristic of individual parts of speech and compare them from various perspectives (quantity, diversity, etc.). Word-formation researchers would be able to examine the specific properties of derivational formants used to form words belonging to different parts of speech, for example, the
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to examine nouns and adjectives with the same diminutive suffixes (cf.: baltutelė staltiesėlė, mažiukas namukas, etc.) or the semantics of prefixes of analogous form in derivatives of nouns, adjectives, and verbs (cf.: pamiškė, pasmakrė, patėvis, pavakarė, patarmė, pamuilės, pasukos; parankus, –i; paaugti, pakelti, palįsti, pavažiuoti, pamilti, pakapoti, etc.).
3.1. One problem is the relationship between synchrony and diachrony in descriptions of different parts of speech, more specifically, the diachronic aspect of at least some descriptions of adjective formation. In the aforementioned Lithuanian grammars and other descriptions of adjective formation, (extended) derivational adjective endings with (desemanticized) consonantal formants are distinguished; for example, the following derivational affixes are treated as variants–us, –i of the derivational ending5:
• –l–us, –i (taiklus, –i),
• –m–us, –i (tūžmus, –i),
• –n–us, –i (lipnus, –i),
• –r–us, –i (jautrus, –i),
• –sl–us, –i (dėsli),
• –s–us, –i (gausus, –i).
The WFG does not provide for such a heterogeneous structure of derivational devices (–l–us, –m–us, –r–us, etc.). From a contemporary perspective, however, these adjective affixes are elsewhere considered suffixes: –lus, –i, –mus, –i, –rus, –i6, etc. (Paulauskienė 1994: 181; Keinys 1999: 78, cf. Ambrazas 2011: 14), and could therefore be appropriately stored structurally in the database already created—as suffixes, with information about them presented in the same way as for noun suffixes. Among other things, this would eventually make it possible to provide a consistent description of synchronic Lithuanian word formation in a single source. As noted, grammars lack this consistency. Another point (whatever the views on the synchronicity of adjective descriptions in general7) is that it is clear that in the twenty-first century the adjective stiprus, –i
5 Plg.: DLKG 2006: 191–192, 202–203; LKG 1965: 551–555; Valeckienė 1998: 312; dar plg. Džežulskienė 2001: 60 ir ten nurodytą lit.
6 For example, in the Lithuanian Morphemics Database (LKMDB), when searching for information by the morpheme –r–, in the retrieved words j–vai–r–iai, jaut–r–iai, jaut–r–um–as, plėš–r–ūn–ų, ving–r–yb–es, etc., it could hardly be understood as anything other than a suffix (accessed 2023 11 07).
7 Šiuo aspektu plg. akademinės gramatikos recenziją (Girdenis, Žulys 1973: 204–206). Kai kurie LKG autoriai, atsakydami jos recenzentams, teigia (be kita ko, pasiremdami ir kita, Jono Kazlausko (1965: 174) recenzija), kad „būdvardžių daryba, kuri recenzentams rodosi „visai kitaip suprantama“, iš tikrųjų Gramatikoje parašyta pagal tuos pačius sinchroninio aprašo principus, kaip ir daiktavardžių daryba“ (Ambrazas ir kt. 1974: 185).
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can hardly still be understood as a derivative in –rus, –i (a variant of the derivational ending –us, –i with a consonantal formant) from the verb stipti ‘to die, perish’, even when it is explained that, derivationally, it denotes an opposite characteristic arising from the result of an action (LKG 1965: 552; DLKG 2006: 222). Perhaps some other adjectives, too, whose characteristics have become more or less distanced from and altered relative to the actions expressed by their base verbs, are now probably no longer associated by most Lithuanian speakers with those base verbs, which are understood only historically; cf. gau-sus and gauti, šau-nus and šauti, svar-bus and sverti, pil-nas and pilti, marg-as and mirgėti, apskri-tas and apskrieti, etc. (LKG 1965: 552–553; DLKG 2006: 203, 222–223). This raises the question of the morphemic segmentation of these adjectives in present-day language, as well as of the derivational means (suffixes, endings) that can or cannot be identified in them. It would seem that, before information on adjective formation is entered into the WFG, it should be investigated more thoroughly, taking account of neologizing tendencies and determining which data from grammars can be structured, and how, for presentation in the existing database, and which should instead be provided as notes or supplementary information. When structuring the data, the need and possibilities for multifaceted data retrieval should not be overlooked.
The issue of the heterogeneous structure of derivational means would also be relevant when presenting data on verb formation (from DLKG 2006: 385–410; LKG 1965: 218–298; Jakaitienė 1973, etc.), specifically variants of verb suffixes, for example:
• –yti (to braukyti: to braukti),
• –st-yti (barstyti: berti),
• –d-yti (guldyti: gulti);
• –oti (to buvoti: to būti (was)),
• –č-ioti (trūkčioti: traukti),
• –l-(i)oti (žergloti: žergti),
• –sn-oti (keiksnoti: keikti).
These derivational affixes, as in the case of adjectives just discussed, should be treated as suffixes. Given that the WFG also classifies derivational means according to their properties (they may be marked as productive, rare, dialectal, international, nonstandard, compounds, variants, and so on—the list of properties is not exhaustive), the aforementioned verb suffixes could be listed separately and marked as variants⁸. However, from the noun-
⁸ “In contemporary Lithuanian, verbs are formed with nine suffixal morphemes: –auti, –enti, –inėti, –inti, –yti, –oti, –telėti, –ėti, –oti. Each of them can have several variants. For example, the derivational morpheme –ėti has the following forms in individual derivatives: –ėti, –dėti, –lėti, –nėti, –sėti; the morpheme –oti has – –oti, –ioti, –čioti, –l(i)oti, –n(i)oti, –sn(oti), –šn(oti) <...> There are about 80 such specific verb suffixes in contemporary Lithuanian” (DLKG 2006: 386).
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Among the word-formation devices, only six dialectal prefixes have this property (an–, ažū–, in–, par–, pry–, už–), and their variation is not related to the structure of the word-formation device; variation among noun-forming devices is marked on a different basis (the relationship between the standard language and dialects). Thus, in the case of verbs, it is less clear whether the existing WFG database structure should be adjusted in order to show the relationships between variants of word-formation devices.
A different matter is the reflexive particle (reflexive affix), a word-formation device specific to verbs. Without entering into the discussion of whether reflexivity is word formation9, but following the position set out in Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje that “[L]ithuanian verbs are derived with suffixes, prefixes, and the reflexive affix. Thus, all derived verbs are derivatives” (DLKG 2006: 385), what matters essentially in the context of WFG development is that the current data structure, designed to describe noun-forming devices, makes no provision for the reflexive particle. Nouns are not formed with this affix. If they contain such a morpheme, they have inherited it from the reflexive verb serving as their base, e.g.: apsirik-imas (: apsirikti), rū-pin-imasis (: rūpintis), etc. Therefore, if WFG is expanded with verb-formation data and the reflexive particle is treated as a derivational affix, the list of types of word-formation devices would also have to be expanded (and the initial schema for derivatives adjusted), rather than merely adding new data to the existing data fields.
Finally, it should be recalled that derivatives belonging to the aforementioned parts of speech differ in their word-formation categories (adverbs are not divided into such categories at all). In developing WFG, it might in some cases suffice to expand the current list of word-formation categories. However, for example, descriptions of verb-forming devices make extensive use of group-level word-formation meanings alongside categorical ones, and these should be linked to one another. Such information would probably require additional data fields to support functional searching. In the current WFG, a single data field is devoted to word-formation meaning. In the shared list, categorical word-formation meanings for nouns can be distinguished from group-level meanings because they appear at the beginning of the list of word-formation meanings and are
9 There is no consensus on this matter, as can be seen simply by consulting Lietuvių kalbos enciklopediją: in the section on verb formation, written by Vincas Urbutis, reflexivity is not mentioned as a means of verb formation (LKE 2008: 593–594), whereas Vytautas Ambrazas states of reflexive verbs that they are verbs with the derivational formant s(i) (LKE 2008: 471). Cf. also the various accounts of reflexivity as a means of forming words or forms, and corresponding treatments of the reflexive affix, in the following sources: DLKG 2006: 406–409; LKG 1971: 190; LKŽin 1998: 170–171; Barauskaitė 1985: 29; Kuosienė 1986: 30; Paulauskienė 1983: 121–126; 1994: 289–291; 2007: 61, etc.
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they are numbered in the same order and using the same numbering as the corresponding noun-formation categories.
It is evident, nevertheless, that nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs differ in the structure of their word-formation data; therefore, an unmodified structural model for noun formation would most likely not be suitable for describing the formation of these parts of speech.
4. To introduce the public to word-formation patterns and advise them on how to form a new word correctly, WFG focuses primarily on typical (traditional) morphological word formation. A separate field of illustrative examples in the descriptions of word-formation devices is devoted to atypical derivatives. As noted above, when monitoring neologizing trends and seeing a need to draw attention to or discuss a word-formation innovation in greater detail, this can be done in the usual way, by providing notes. Nevertheless, structural adjustments to the database may be needed in this regard if, for example, certain word-formation features or trends prove to be characteristic of words belonging to more than one part of speech, and space must be found for this information in the descriptions of the relevant word-formation devices by creating additional data fields.
FINAL REMARKS
With all this in mind, the current WFG should probably be regarded only as a first step toward a comprehensive electronic guide to Lithuanian word formation. Creating such a guide will require more time and effort. Among other things, priorities would need to be established: what matters most and where development of WFG should begin. With the general public in mind, the existing database should probably first be supplemented with examples of derivatives—both those attested before the 21st century and newly coined ones. Assuming that the formation of a particular word may be more relevant to the public than abstract information about word-formation devices, as many derivatives as possible should be collected as soon as possible. In addition to the two envisaged search paths (by the form of a word-formation device and by (word-formation) meaning), the need to search by example would likely become apparent, and WFG would be used more often for this purpose. This search option is also available in the current WFG, but in the absence of sufficient data (derivatives), its results are currently limited.
Another possibility for developing WFG is to modify the database so that it can accommodate data other than those envisaged to date. This would allow the guide to
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to supplement it with word-formation data for other parts of speech—adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. This would be useful, for example, in using the WFG not only for teaching and learning purposes, but also for scholarly research into word formation. In Lithuanian grammars, the word formation of different parts of speech is described inconsistently; in the case of adjectives, the principle of synchrony is not followed consistently. In order to collect such heterogeneous data in a single functional database, its structure needs to be carefully thought through, especially if it is not being created anew but is based on an earlier structure designed solely for noun word-formation data. Implementing the second possibility for expanding the WFG would undoubtedly take more time—both because of the database modifications and because the updated database would also need to be supplemented with word-formation data for the newly included parts of speech.
ŠALTINIAI
BLKŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, vyr. red. D. Liutkevičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lki.lt/bendrinės-lietuvių-kalbos-žodynas. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/blkz.
DLKŽ8e – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, vyr. red. St. Keinys, 8-as patais. ir papild. leidimas (elektroninis / internetinis variantas). – Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2021. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/dabartines-lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/dlkz.
LKMDB – Lietuvių kalbos morfemikos duomenų bazė, sud. E. Rimkutė, A. Kazlauskienė, G. Raškinis, I. Markievicz, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. Prieiga internete: https://klc.vdu.lt/morfema (žiūrėta 2023 m. spalio mėn.).
LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20, 1941–2002 (elektroninis variantas), vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas.
ND – Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas (tęstinis internetinis žinynas nuo 2011 m.), R. Miliūnaitė, A. Aleksaitė, sud. R. Miliūnaitė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/naujazodziai (žiūrėta 2023 m. liepos mėn.).
ŽDV – Žodžių darybos vedlys (elektroninis išteklius nuo 2021 m.), D. Murmulaitė, A. Aleksaitė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: ekalba.lt/zodziu-darybos-vedlys (žiūrėta 2023 m. vasario – lapkričio mėn.).
LITERATŪRA
Aleksaitė Agnė 2022: Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių daryba (2011–2019 m. Naujažodžių duomenyno pagrindu), Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.
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A m b r a z a s S a u l i u s 2011: Būdvardžių darybos raida, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.
A m b r a z a s V y t a u t a s, S l i ž i e n ė N i j o l ė, V a l e c k i e n ė A d e l ė 1974: Keletas svarstytinių lietuvių kalbos morfologijos klausimų. – Baltistica 10(2), 177–186.
B a r a u s k a i t ė D a l i a 1985: Darybinė žodžių analizė, Šiauliai: Šiaulių K. Preikšo pedagoginis institutas.
DLKG 2006: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, red. V. Ambrazas, 4-as patais. leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.
D ž e ž u l s k i e n ė J u d i t a 2001: Asmenų pavadinimai, reiškiami veiksmažodiniais mobiliaisiais daiktavardžiais (substantivo mobilia). – Acta linguistica lithuanica 44, 55–69.
G i r d e n i s A l e k s a s, Ž u l y s V l a d a s 1973: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, I, II, rec. – Baltistica 9(2), 203–214.
J a k a i t i e n ė E v a l d a 1973: Veiksmažodžių daryba (Priesagų vediniai), Vilnius: Vilniaus V. Kapsuko universiteto leidybinis skyrius.
K a z l a u s k a s J o n a s 1965: Mokslinė lietuvių kalbos gramatika (rec.: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1, red. K. Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mintis, 1965). – Pergalė 10, 172–176.
K e i n y s S t a s y s 1975: Priesaginė lietuviškų terminų daryba. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 16, 7–56.
K e i n y s S t a s y s 1979: Galūninė lietuviškų terminų daryba. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 19, 155–183.
K e i n y s S t a s y s 1980: Priešdėlinė lietuviškų terminų daryba. – Lietuvos TSR Mokslų akademijos darbai. A serija 4(73), 69–83.
K e i n y s S t a s y s 1983: Lietuviškų sudurtinių terminų daryba. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 22, 70–123.
K e i n y s S t a s y s 1999: Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla.
K u o s i e n ė M o n i k a 1986: Morfeminė analizė, Šiauliai: Šiaulių K. Preikšo pedagoginis institutas.
LKE 2008 – Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija, par. K. Morkūnas, red. V. Ambrazas, 2-as patiksl. ir papild. leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.
LKG 1965: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1: Fonetika ir morfologija (daiktavardis, būdvardis, skaitvardis, įvardis), vyr. red. K. Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mintis.
LKG 1971: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 2: Morfologija (veiksmažodis, prieveiksmis, dalelytė, prielinksnis, jungtukas, jaustukas, ištiktukas), vyr. red. K. Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mintis.
LKŽin – Lietuvių kalbos žinynas, sud. P. Kniūkšta, Kaunas: Šviesa, 1998.
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Mikelionienė Jurgita 2002: Analogija lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryboje. Potenciniai ir okazininiai dariniai. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 46, 73–80.
Miliūnaitė Rita 2022: Įvairuojantys ir nauji lietuvių kalbos reiškiniai XXI a. pradžioje: sistematika ir pokyčių kryptys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. DOI: https://doi.org/10.35321/e-pub.42.lietuviu-kalbos-pokyciai.
Murmulaitytė Daiva 2022: Žodžių darybos vedlys plačiajai visuomenei ir specialistams. – Lietuvių kalba 17, 8–24. Prieiga internete: https://www.zurnalai.vu.lt/lietuviu-kalba/article/view/31437/30396.
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Paulauskienė Aldona 2007: Lietuvių kalbos morfologijos pagrindai, Kaunas: Technologija.
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Gauta 2023 11 27 Priimta 2023 12 06
DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ
THE GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORD FORMATION GUIDE
S u m m a r y
The digital Lithuanian noun synchronic word formation manual Žodžių darybos vedlys (Word Formation Guide, WFG) is one of the e-services of the Lithuanian Language Resources Information System E. kalba (E-Language). This manual is designed primarily to help language users to create new words. The data collected in the WFG allows us to choose the most appropriate patterns and means of noun formation, for it is nouns that are needed, as often as not, to name new
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concepts coming into the Lithuanian language. In the future, it would be worth extending the WFG to make it even more valuable, both to the general public and to researchers in the field of word formation.
There are two possible ways to develop the WFG. The first option is to add new data – firstly, examples of derivatives and compounds – to the manual using the existing data structure. At the moment, the amount of such examples provided is just enough to illustrate the patterns of word formation and show the process of it. As the number of derivatives and compounds in the manual grows, so will the likelihood of finding out the formation of a particular word of interest. The WFG will likely be used even more widely and frequently as a result. A lot of new information can be provided in the comment fields. Comments are designed for information that, due to its specificity, is not covered by other data fields, and can be used to explain, for example, cases of atypical word formation, or to draw attention to other important issues such as the latest research, emerging new word formation tendencies, recommendations on language norms, etc.
The second option for the development of the WFG is to modify the structure of the database if it becomes necessary to collect data different from what has been foreseen so far. An unmodified structural model of noun formation to describe the formation of other parts of speech (adjectives, verbs, adverbs) would probably not work. The current list of word formation categories could perhaps be supplemented in some cases (word formation categories are different for different parts of speech). However, for verbs, a single data field for derivational meaning data would probably no longer suffice: there are group derivational meanings widely used alongside categorical derivational meanings in the descriptions of verb formation. Words in different parts of the language differ in the structure of their formational data; for example, verbs have some suffixal variations. Some challenges will probably also arise because grammar does not always closely follow principle of synchronicity in its description of the formation of adjectives. However, word formation data for various parts of speech would be useful not only for the practical needs of society, but also for scientific research as well. Collecting and structuring these data in one source would make it possible to see a more general picture of the formation of Lithuanian words and the systematic relationships between the means of formation, and perhaps predict the tendencies and perspectives of the development of word formation.
KEYWORDS: synchronic word formation, new word formation, means of word formation, structure of database, grammar.
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DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ
ŽODŽIŲ DARYBOS VEDLIO PLĖTROS GAIRĖS
S a n t r a u k a
Skaitmeninis dabartinės lietuvių kalbos daiktavardžių darybos žinynas Žodžių darybos vedlys (ŽDV), kaip viena iš lietuvių kalbos išteklių informacinės sistemos E. kalba paslaugų, sukurtas pirmiausia siekiant padėti kalbos vartotojams, norintiems pasidaryti naujų žodžių. Jame sukaupti duomenys leidžia pasirinkti tinkamiausius daiktavardžių darybos būdus ir priemones, nes būtent daiktavardžių dažniausiai prireikia, pavyzdžiui, į lietuvių kalbą ateinančioms naujoms sąvokoms įvardyti. Tačiau, galvojant apie ateitį, būtų tikslinga ŽDV plėsti, kad jis būtų dar naudingesnis – tiek plačiajai visuomenei, tiek žodžių darybos tyrėjams.
Kalbant apie ŽDV plėtrą minėtinos dvi galimybės. Pirmoji – pildyti žinyną naujais duomenimis, naudojantis esama duomenų struktūra. Nauji duomenys – tai pirmiausia darinių pavyzdžiai. Šiuo metu jų pateikta tik tiek, kiek reikia darybos dėsningumams pailiustruoti, darybos eigai parodyti. Daugėjant žinyne darinių, didės ir tikimybė išsiaiškinti konkretaus rūpimo žodžio darybą. Tikėtina, kad ŽDV dėl šios priežasties bus dar plačiau ir dažniau naudojamas.
Nemažai naujos informacijos galima pateikti pastabų laukuose – tiek atskiro darybos priemonės aprašo, tiek bendrosiose, jei aprašų yra keli. Pastabos skirtos informacijai, dėl savo specifikos nepatenkančiai į kitus duomenų laukus, pateikti, jomis galima paaiškinti, pavyzdžiui, netipiškos darybos atvejus ar atkreipti dėmesį į kitus svarbius dalykus – naujausius tyrimus, ryškėjančius naujus darybos polinkius, norminimo rekomendacijas ir kt.
Antroji ŽDV plėtros galimybė – modifikuoti duomenų bazės struktūrą, jei prireikia kaupti kitokius, nei iki šiol numatyta, duomenis. Nepakoreguotas daiktavardžių darybos struktūrinis modelis kitų kalbos dalių (būdvardžių, veiksmažodžių, prieveiksmių) darybai aprašyti greičiausiai netiktų. Dabartinį darybos kategorijų sąrašą kai kuriais atvejais galbūt užtektų papildyti, nes minėtų kalbos dalių darybos kategorijos yra kitokios (prieveiksmiai darybos kategorijomis apskritai neskirstomi). Tačiau veiksmažodžio darybos reikšmėms pateikti, ko gero, nebeužtektų vieno duomenų lauko – veiksmažodžių darybos aprašuose šalia kategorinių plačiai operuojama grupinėmis darybos reikšmėmis. Skirtingų kalbos dalių žodžiai skiriasi darybos duomenų struktūra, pavyzdžiui, veiksmažodžiai turi nemažai priesagų variantų. Nemenkas iššūkis turėtų būti tam tikras nenuoseklus sinchroniškumo principo laikymasis aprašant būdvardžių darybą gramatikose (pvz., darybos galūnės su priebalsiniais formantais). Tačiau įvairių kalbos dalių darybos duomenys, išplėtojus ŽDV, būtų naudingi ne tik praktiniams visuomenėms po-
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reikiams, bet ir moksliniams tyrimams, nes juos vienoje vietoje sukaupus ir sustruktūrinus, būtų galima matyti bendresnį lietuvių kalbos žodžių darybos vaizdą, sisteminius darybos priemonių ryšius, galbūt prognozuoti darybos kaitos polinkius ir perspektyvas.
ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: sinchroninė žodžių daryba, naujadara, darybos priemonė, duomenų bazės struktūra, gramatika.
