TERMINOLOGIJA IR DABARTIS

Jonas KLIMAVIČIUS

FROM FOLK TERMINOLOGY TO SCIENTIFIC TERMINOLOGY

Scientific terminology and folk terminology are very different domains. This is determined by differences and contradictions between science, civilization in general, and ethnicity and folk life. Yet, terminologically, scientific terminology and folk terminology are inseparable. At least in Central and Eastern Europe. But their connection is not equal. It is a one-way process from folk terminology to scientific terminology. And this process is caused and determined not by the starting point—folk terminology—but by the need to name systems of scientific concepts, which are usually international and universal. It is not folk terminology that gives; rather, scientific terminology borrows as it selects. There are not two actors here—a lender and a borrower—but only a source and a gatherer, who, to slake the thirst of its system of scientific concepts for names, draws from this source with its buckets when it suits its purposes. Incidentally, these sources are not equally deep for all branches of scientific terminology; sometimes they do not exist at all.

In the Lithuanian linguistic tradition, folk terminology was first and foremost presented as the most important source and model for scientific terminology. In a review of J. Elisonas’s unfinished “Glossary of Zoological Systematics Terms,” surviving in manuscript, Kazimieras Būga wrote: “All branches of science must take their terms from spoken language. What is lacking in spoken language, the scholar must make from the existing linguistic material, following the examples of living speech and its rules”¹. It is simply impossible to imagine botany, zoology, anatomy, physical geography, geology, meteorology, agricultural science, or even technology not drawing on folk language. They drew from it abundantly, sometimes with great care and ingenuity. But here, too, unnecessary borrowings, calques, or neologisms sometimes overshadow native words and hinder everyday communication, for example:

¹ Būga K. Rinktiniai raštai. V., 1961. T. 3. P. 783.

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badger (we have our own opšrūs); wormwood, constantly pushed in place of our own mėtelė (: mesti, cf. prametal as “open, uncovered”: pramesti); tri-kažolė – chicory; diastema – pradanitė; colic – diegliai; furuncle – šunvotė (furunculus – furunkulas – šunvotė, whereas furunculosis is already only furunkuliozė – multiple furuncles MedŽ); caries – ėduonis; disease relapse – atkrytis; medicament – vaistas; colostrum – priešpienis; nostril (šnervė) – nosiaskylė (nosiaskylė).

In an article written around 1939, “Our Language and Terminology,” Juozas Balčikonis explicitly mentioned terms of living speech: “But we have far more terms from living speech itself, which has brought them to us from time immemorial. — More than that, the terms of living speech, emerging directly from the spirit of our own thought and not fabricated by imitating a foreign-language last, are more understandable and clearer to us”². In his 1946 appeal to intellectuals and scholars, “Let Us Collect Living Terminology,” J. Balčikonis wrote: “There are far more terms in folk language than many of us think—not only from everyday life, but also from the domain of science”³.

Living-language terms, classified into thematic groups, are sometimes called names, designations. There is also considerable variation here. In Antanas Salys’s 1937 article “Our Kinship Names,” although kinship relations predominate (GK 1937 1 14), although some have tried to call only “marital affinity – affinitas, Schwägerschaft, свойство” clanship, “but it does not catch on,” and therefore “much better suited here is affinity <…>“ (GK 1937 1 4); later affinal kinship and half-kinship is used (GK 1937 1 5 76), but kinship terms appears only at the beginning (GK 1937 1 4), while everywhere else the term is kinship names, “Verwandtschaftsnamen, названия родства.” For instead of the already established Lithuanian clan (clan 1. “in primitive society, a community linked by kinship, customs, economy, language, and territory”: Baltic tribes DŽ₃), A. Salys later used the term kiltis⁴ (kiltis, defined in DŽ₃ as historical “an association of tribes (usually related)”—a meaning long out of keeping with usage, found only in DŽ₁ and

² Balčikonis J. Rinktiniai raštai. V., 1978. T. 1. P. 164.

³ Ten pat. P. 194.

⁴ Salys A. Baltų kalbos, tautos bei kiltys. V., 1955.

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DŽ₂ legacy]. Today, genus names in Lithuania are increasingly and quite reasonably called “genus names” by analogy with ethnonyms, even: plant genus names and species names KK 1979 37 27. The term kinship is used by Algirdas Sabaliauskas (LKK VIII 12). He is also a researcher of Baltic-language animal husbandry terminology (LKK XII 7).

However, this folk terminology was understood and studied as a thematic group of vocabulary, rather than as a system of terms. Lithuanian linguistics paid little attention to well-known theoretical propositions: “The distinguishing feature of folk terminology is considered primarily to be the lesser strictness in the meanings and use of the units that comprise it”⁵. G. Klepikova argues that folk terminology can be studied in t w o w a y s: from within—within the framework of a dialect, as its system of terms; from without—as the whole body of terms in the language of the people, in which both polysemy and synonymy are manifested⁶. Viewed from within, folk and scientific terminology differ not in degree of strictness, but only in that “scientific terminology manifests a conscious and consistent pursuit of unambiguity and avoidance of synonymy.”

This is what distinguishes folk terminology from scientific terminology. The pioneers of our scientific terminology understood this very well. In 1906 Povilas Matulionis wrote: “ <…> living speech, and even more often written texts, frequently name 2–3 entirely different plants with a single word, and conversely, one plant has several names. In such cases I have selected only those names which are either more widely known, or genuinely express the plant’s qualities, or are of older origin, or are more strongly confirmed by the languages of our neighboring peoples: Latvian, Polish, and Russian”⁸. Scientific terminology draws on folk terminology much as the ordinary vocabulary of the standard language draws on dialects—not by adopting any one system, but by drawing from the whole collection. The a c c u r a c y required in naming scientific concepts calls for an existing word to be t e r m i n o l o g i z e d—its meaning expanded, narrowed, generalized, or otherwise m o d i f i e d, and distinguished from the meanings of other terms. In this respect, folk terminol-

⁵ К л е п и к о в а Г. П. Славянская пастушеская терминология. М., 1974. С. 30.

⁶ Ibid. P. 31.

⁷ Ibid. P. 33.

⁸ M a t u l i o n i s P. Žolynas. V., 1907. P. 3.

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its use—not pouring from one vessel into another, but a blood transfusion using the appropriate group; not moving from one place to another, but a transplant or graft. Furthermore, a system of scientific terms is created from the collection of folk terms and other material.

It is regrettable that this has not been given sufficient theoretical consideration; people often content themselves with observations that a term was picked up somewhere by someone, circulated, caught on, and became established, or did not. The problematic nature of the matter is well illustrated by J. Balčikonis’s article “Bee Terminology,” which caused a stir in 1960⁹. LKŽ VII appeared in 1966, showing that the nonstandard variant medonėšis is no fabrication (Pkr, Všn, Užv, Šauk, Jrb), while the standard medunešis (Jnš, Vdn; medunešys Ob) had already appeared in DŽ₁ in 1954. The designation is precise; similar terms are characteristic of folk terminology too, cf. even ¹ bitkopis 1. “the robbing (taking) of bees’ honey,” 2. “the time when bees are robbed” (bitkopis, bičkop(t)is) LKŽ I₂, haymaking, rye harvesting, flax pulling, flax breaking, potato digging. If folk terminology lacks a term but science needs one, the designation can readily be made more precise: for example, gysla gives rise to kraujagyslė (the folk term krãugyslė is also used; see LKŽ VI), even the name for an artery, gyvagyslė (see LKŽ III), and limfagyslė (sausgyslė is folk terminology; see LKŽ XII); from plėvė come pilvaplėvė and krūtinplėvė. And if there is a bee colony, with a queen, why should a literal translation be rejected? LKŽ XIV šeima 5. “bees from one hive, one tree-hollow.” In Mšk it is also marked nj., but: Tei ma iškada, ka šeimelę buvau padaręs, į ta motina žuvo Jrb. And šeimyna 6. Aps, Nmč, S. Dauk—it is no longer marked nj. It could be a hive of bees, if the bees are domestic. Ethnology also recognizes a colony of honeybees Zoopsich 138, and a colony of ground-nesting bees Zoopsich 137, as well as a wasp colony Zoopsich 137, an ant colony Zoopsich 140, and a termite colony Zoopsich 141. And it is not only among social insects—in the animal kingdom, there are many variants of families, from isolated monogamous ones to polygamous families Zoopsich 130. A maternal family, consisting of a female and her young, is more common among birds, whereas a paternal family is more common among fish and amphibians, <...> Zoopsich 130; thus there are also bird families Zoopsich 131 and wolf families Zoopsich 132. As early as 1972, DŽ₂ lists šeima 4. “bees from one hive, one tree-hollow.” Who could

⁹ Balčikonis J. Min. veik. P. 353 – 354.

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to dispute that, among the living terminology of dialects, honey-bearing and honey-bearer, the more precise and systematic term is honey-bearer? And the term bee colony, whether from living terminology or a calque, like queen (in living terminology bitinas, bitinėlis), most accurately describes the life of bees: bee colony is “a community consisting of worker bees, a queen bee, and drones” LTE II.

However, the difference between scientific terminology and folk terminology is much greater than that between folk terminology and scientific terminology. It is not limited to univocity or to the precision and systematicity with which scientific concepts are named. At least two further differences must be added: the scientific system is international and requires definitions.

In many fields of science, the international character of a system of concepts is also expressed in the formal international character of terminology and nomenclature. The terminology of botany, zoology, anatomy, and medicine is Latin, formed according to certain international codes and approved by international congresses of specialists. Lithuanian equivalents of these terms, among which, as noted at the outset, there are many words from living terminology, are merely a national variant—in science, if used, they are generally used alongside the Latin terms, while on their own they are more often found in school or popular literature.

The scientific character of conceptual content, expressed not only through logical definitions but also through very or reasonably precise measurements of objects or phenomena and their composition or structure, means that some words from the corresponding set of folk terms may be suitable for naming a simpler scientific concept, while others may remain solely folk terms or even, in the words of the poet Justinas Marcinkevičius, lie beneath the rotten threshold of one’s homeland; for a more complex, precisely defined concept, science uses international terms. The folk-language word dust is well suited to technology, mining, meteorology, even astronomy, and partly geology: ore dust, coal dust, mine dust, snow dust, ice dust, atmospheric, volcanic, cosmic, interstellar, radioactive dust, dust storm, dust protection, dust economy, dust rings, dust cleaning, vacuum cleaner, dust extractor, dust sower, dust collector, dust extractor, dust catcher, dust-measurer, dust channel, dust disease (pneumoconiosis), pulverized fuel,... However, dust is merely a certain kind of “particle”: dust is “the finest (<μm) particles of solid

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particles of materials dispersed in the air and other gases or deposited on surfaces” LTE III; dust particles – “the finest soil particles, with a diameter of 0.001 to 0.05 mm. Even finer particles (less than 0.001 mm in diameter)—silt—and coarser sand particles, from 0.05 to 3 mm in diameter, also occur” FGŽŽ. However, petrography, i.e. “the science that studies the mineralogical and chemical composition of rocks, and their geological characteristics (conditions of occurrence, distribution, origin, and changes in the Earth’s crust and on the Earth’s surface)” FGŽŽ, or more precisely lithology, a branch of petrography that studies sedimentary rocks (igneous and metamorphic rocks are studied by petrography), does not distinguish dust in its classification of clastic (detrital) rocks: “Textures of sedimentary clastic and argillaceous rocks, distinguished by grain size: psammitic texture (grains >1 mm in diameter), psammitic (1–0.1 mm; according to other classifications, 1–0.05 mm), aleuritic (0.1–0.01 mm; according to other classifications, 0.05–0.005 mm), pelitic (<0.01 mm)” LTE XI 555; psephites [Greek psēphos – pebble, gravel] – “clastic rocks formed from fragments >2 mm (according to other classifications, >1 mm) in diameter. These may be rounded boulders, gravel, pebbles, and crushed stone, or angular blocks and rubble” LTE IX; psammites [Greek psammitēs – sandy] – “sandy rocks containing >50% mineral and rock fragments 0.05–2 mm (according to other classifications, 0.05–1 mm) in size. Unconsolidated psammites are called sand, and cemented ones sandstone” LTE IX; pelites [Greek pēlos – clay], argillaceous rocks – “clastic rocks of various compositions, consisting mainly of particles <0.01 mm in diameter. Pelites include clay, silt, and argillite” LTE VIII. Between psammites (sand) and pelites (clay, silt, argillite) lies aleurite [Greek aleuron – flour] – an accumulation of loose mineral particles 0.01–0.1 mm in diameter (finer than sand and coarser than clay). Aleurites include dust, silt, loess, and loess-like rocks. Cemented aleurite is called aleurolite; with water it forms a mass called mudsl” LTE I.

The scientific distinction between dust and aleurite is now clear. However, we must digress, because this provides an excellent opportunity to show that scientific precision, too, can be lacking; more importantly, in striving for it, entirely undesirable and difficult contradictions between scientific and folk terminology arise, as well as

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uncertainties in scientific terms. In other words, striving for one kind of precision leads to another kind of imprecision. For instance, aleurite (singular!) lies between psammites (sand) and pelites (clay, silt, argillite), but aleurite means 1) dust, 2) silt, 3) loess; aleurite also means silt (which is also called mud sand). What a muddle of contradictions! Hence we must further clarify what clay and sand, clay and silt, silt and sapropel (“rotten silt”) are, and what loess is.

Clay is “a sedimentary rock composed of tiny particles, <...>. When such particles enter water, they become suspended matter, <...>. <...>. It readily absorbs water and becomes plastic; once it takes this form, it retains it even when dry. Deep underground, clay loses these properties—it turns into clay shale or another clayey rock” GŽ. “Clay shale does not disintegrate in water” FGŽŽ. Sand is “--- Sand is loose and porous (porosity 26–49%). --- Sand containing a large amount of aleurite is called aleuritic (dusty), that containing clay is called clayey, that containing gravel is called gravelly, and so on. According to the predominant particle size, sand is very fine, fine, medium, coarse, or very coarse (...)” LTE X. There are also mixtures of these—sandy loam and loam (each with its own definition). Thus, loose but non-free-flowing aleurite lies between plastic, water-softened clay that clumps into lumps, clay, and fragmental, loose, porous sand, which also occurs in an aleuritic variety. Aleurite is 1) dust, but by no means all kinds—there is also silt and sand dust, as well as dust that is not from sedimentary rocks and even dust that is not from any rocks at all. dust. Aleurite is 2) silt—“fine, soft deposits on the bottom of seas, lakes, rivers, and ponds. 30–50% of their particles are less than 0.01 mm in diameter. <...>” LTE III; “clayey particles deposited in lake, marsh, sea, or river water, often softened by water and containing organic matter. There are various types of silt: sandy, clayey, organic (see sapropel), and others” GŽ. “Under natural conditions, silt is fluid; when dried, it acquires the properties of a solid, <...>” FGŽŽ.

Thus it is becoming clear that dust is merely a certain particulate s t r u c t u r e, but not the c o m p o s i t i o n of a material (whether rock or otherwise), nor its s t r u c t u r e; whereas aleurite is a particular s t r u c t u r e of certain rocks—a loose but non-free-flowing accumulation of clastic rocks, which when wet is soft and fluid but not plastic, and when dry is fragile and flaky but not hard”; aleurite

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Its structure may consist not only of clastic rock (most commonly), but also simply of clayey rock – mud. However, mud may also be a non-rock constituent – sapropel [Gk. sapros – rotten + Gk. pélos – mud] – “mud of flower waters and marshes. It contains a great deal of organic matter. It forms mainly from the remains of planktonic and benthic organisms and sediments (sand, clay, lime). It contains up to 30% humus, <...>” LTE X¹⁰. One kind of mud has a pelitic texture, another an aleuritic one. The contradiction is not between concepts, but only between words: clay differs from sand, but there is clayey sand; mud is clayey as well as sandy; mud differs from dust, but there is also mud dust; there is also sand dust—there are more concepts and distinctions between them than words. Aleurite also includes 3) loess [Ger. Löss] – “a loose, porous, yellowish rock consisting of very fine particles of clay, sand, and limestone, as fine as dust” GŽ. “Dust-sized (0.01–0.05 mm in diameter) particles make up 30–55% of it, clay (<0.005 mm) 5–30%” LTE VII – in Lithuanian this might be dusty loam, rather than “fertile light loam” VLKŽ II.

The most difficult contradiction to resolve is: dribsėlis or dumslas? In the 1947 LKŽ II, dribsmėlis (neologism) – “?”: In dribsmėlis it often happens that after some time the drainage becomes blocked rš. The coinage caught on and was officially adopted in DŽ I (1954) – dribsmėlis – “shifting sand”. In 1956 another coinage appears: пыльный – думслас, о пыльнич песок – дрибсмелис GirFGTŽ. Thereafter both are used, but some distinguish them, others

¹⁰ Synonyms for sapropel were also used: гиттья – gitija, sapropel, mauras GirFGTŽ, sapropel, gitija, mauras GŽ. Gitija (Swed. gyttja – mud, muck) – “lacustrine deposits,” otherwise sapropel TŽ, TLE I is hardly likely to compete with sapropel (sapropel see gitija JKTŽ 286 is a step backwards). Still less can mauras compete – 1) “mud rich in organic remains, formed in marsh-forming lakeshores or in silting river backwaters,” 2) “local name for aquatic plants – algae” GŽ: although algae were designated by a neologism (the whole word family: green algae, yellow-green algae, blue-green algae, brown algae, red algae, golden algae, stoneworts, diatoms, mucilage algae, euglenoids, filamentous algae, algal fungi, algal beetles), rather than by the word maurai (there are only generic names for algae: maurenė, maurabragis, mauragimbė, maurakul­is, mauragryškėtė)—perhaps it was unsuitable for this (these are more like growths of pondweeds and duckweeds); the double meaning of the word maurai (mãuras) is very pronounced and, moreover, reversed: 1. bot. “aquatic plant, duckweed (Lemna),” 2. “mud, muck” (of any kind, not organic!) LKŽ VII.

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are treated as synonymous: dùmslas – “sand or other fine-grained sediment diluted with water. It silts up (fills) wells and boreholes. Sandy dumslas is also called dribsmėlis” GŽ; dùmslas, dribsmėlis – “water-saturated soil, usually sand, that can flow and creep” FGŽŽ (but sliuogas is different – “a mudflow, i.e. a thin layer of soil or ground (less than 1 m thick) saturated with meltwater, rainwater, or groundwater, moving down a slope” FGŽŽ; different again is šėlė [Arab. sajl – current] – “a powerful, short-lived flow of water, mud, debris, and boulders in mountain river channels” EGŽ). One dribsmėlis might have sufficed, although sometimes it is not sand. Two are enough, too, although in fact both dribsmėlis and dùmslas silt up in the same way. Indeed, dumslas is formed correctly and very aptly motivated: dumti 7.// “to carry sediment”: the Minija gnaws in one direction, and deposits in the other Krt. During floods, water scoured out a large hole Kal. The well is silted up; it needs to be cleaned Skr (LKŽ II₂). Therefore, dribsmėlis is quite needlessly being eliminated, dumslas pushed aside, and awkward constructions dealt with: dùmslas, otherwise shifting ground, while the three-term set shifting ground, unstable ground, dùmslas is also twofold: “water-saturated, loose ground which, when excavated below the groundwater table, liquefies, flows like a heavy, viscous liquid, and destroys excavations. True and false quicksand are distinguished. True quicksand is fine-grained, dusty, clayey, or muddy sand containing colloids. <…>. Therefore this ground s h i f t s when the hydrodynamic pressure is low. <…>. False quicksand s h i f t s when the hydrodynamic pressure of groundwater flow is high. <…>. It consists of sands and gravels of various grain sizes. <…>” LTE III. Thus, although dusty, clayey, muddy, yet sand; it shifts, rather than being carried or sliding, although false quicksand also consists of gravel. DŽ₃ is therefore right to follow tradition: dùmslas see dribsmėlis. The distinction between dribsmėlis and dum slo JKTŽ 273, when the Russian, German, and English equivalents coincide, does not seem necessary.

In science, ordinary clear, fair, cloudy, overcast weather, in which birds, insects, or kites and sprites fly, flutter, and dart about, clouds drift or hang, and cobwebs trail, is the complex, variously structured atmosphere, full of all sorts of phenomena [Gk. atmos – air + sphaira – sphere] – “the layer of air surrounding the globe,”

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“which rotates together with the Earth” GŽ. This is the Earth’s atmosphere. The measured atmospheric pressure is also called an atmosphere, now a non-SI unit of pressure; in fact, there are two atmospheres: one is the standard, or physical atmosphere (atm), equal to 760 mm of mercury, the other is the smaller technical atmosphere (at), equal to the pressure exerted uniformly by a kilogram-force (1 kgf, or kG) on a flat horizontal surface of 1 cm² – equivalent to 735.56 mm of mercury, or 0.968 atm. The Earth’s atmosphere is vertically divided into 5 layers, which differ in density and temperature: the troposphere (the densest, up to 8–17 km; above Lithuania, 9.8–11.2 km), stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere (above 800 km). There are also transitional layers where temperature changes little – the tropopause, stratopause, mesopause, thermopause. Horizontally, atmospheric circulation takes place in the troposphere; it depends on the uneven distribution of solar radiation. Temperature differences create pressure differences and the movement of air masses, as well as atmospheric turbulence – the swirling movement and mixing of air currents: dynamic turbulence – caused by winds – and thermal atmospheric turbulence, or convection, which also causes upward air currents, or thermals. The weather changes frequently here.

This, too, is a scientific term; the folk term is the same undifferentiated, polysemous weather. The plural “weather conditions” is also a novelty, and usage has not yet become settled: погода – orai (plural only) (meteor.) GirFGŽŽ (1956); orai – “the state of the lower atmospheric layer (temperature, pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, wind direction and strength, and other atmospheric indicators) at a particular time and place” GŽ (1972); orai, oras LTĖ VIII (1981); orai FGŽŽ (1987); orai, oras EGŽ (1994). Are there really many distinguishable kinds of weather at one place at one time? Mykolas Mikalajūnas’s 1975 MeteorŽ does not make such a strict claim, but merely distinguishes the weather at one place from its plural – oras and its plural orus: погода – oras, orai: fair / fair weather, windy weather, rainy weather, muggy [sultry] weather, unsettled weather, overcast weather, favorable weather, flying weather, …, but April weather, local weather, prevailing weather, or dry weather / drought conditions, damp weather / wet weather, clear weather / calm weather, world weather / global weather: морозная погода – 1. very cold, frosty weather, 2. (weather classifica-

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cijoje) cold weather. The same is true in CAvŽ: weather [weather conditions] – weather conditions – погодные условия: current weather, future weather. This is close to everyday speech, where *orai* ‘weather’ is used only in the plural: Several kinds of weather pass in a day Pv. He goes out in all kinds of weather—good and bad Trs (LKŽ VIII). The occasional plural form of a singular noun has arisen under the influence of other languages: schlechte Witterung – bad weather. or plural bad weathers K II 357, per ótrus atėjau – I came through wind and weather (NLKŽ VIII). K. Donelaitis’s line would also belong here: Then the weather, gently refreshing, caressed the fields. The weather bureau long ago became the weather service, weather science is simply meteorology, MeteorŽ; it could not be otherwise. Usually there is a weather service, but forecast terminology includes weather [weather] forecast, aviation weather forecast, route weather forecast, independent forecast of typical weather, and indicative weather forecast CAvŽ. DŽ₃, under the same meaning 4 of *oras* as DŽ₂—“the state of atmospheric conditions at a particular time”—gives the same singular and plural examples somewhat differently: weather 4. usually plural. In reality, the weather forecasts issued for Lithuania describe weather that is rarely the same in Vilnius and Palanga and always differs between day and night, morning and midday; yet in one place at one time there is only weather.

Let us return to air and atmosphere. There is atmospheric ozone, atmospheric pressure, atmospheric turbidity, pollution, radioactivity, atmospheric jet stream, atmospheric circulation, turbulence, atmospheric electricity, atmospheric optics, physics, acoustics, and chemistry; but there are air masses, aircraft, hot-air balloons, air bladders, air routes, air transport, air carriers, aerial combat, and airborne assault. There is even atmospheric air!

The troposphere is divided into the boundary layer (up to 1.5 km) and the free atmosphere. In the boundary layer, the properties of the air still depend on the features of Earth’s surface. Two further lower sublayers are distinguished within it: the surface layer—“from Earth’s surface to a height of 2 m (the layer with the greatest vertical gradients in air temperature, humidity, and wind speed)” LTE I—and the near-surface layer—“from 2 to 100 m (where the most vigorous mixing of air, or turbulence, takes place)” LTE I (1976). Elsewhere the terminology differs: surface air layer, surface layer—“<…>up to 30–50 m, and sometimes up to a height of 250 m. <…>. The lower part of the surface air layer, down to a height of 2–2.5 m (the ground-level layer). <…>” FGŽŽ (1987). *Dirva* also means 2. “soil” in DŽ₃, whereas *padirvys* means only “a place, a meadow alongside a field.”

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DŽ₃ supports the first variant, naturally distinguishing the ordinary and terminological meanings of the word *pažemys*: *pažemys* 1. “space close to the ground”: The swallows fly close to the ground. The little windows were near the ground [and *pažemė*, “*pažemys*”: It flies close to the ground; *pažemiai*, “*pažemys*.” Smoke rises from the low-lying places. The sun is already rolling along near the ground], 2. geogr. “atmospheric sublayer up to 2 m”: surface-level wind, fog, air, while *priežemis* geogr. means “atmospheric sublayer from 2 to 100 m.”

Dust and loess, the opposition between air and the atmosphere, demonstrate the relative separation of folk and scientific terminology. It is not uncommon for scientific terminology to predominate, because only science, although the phenomena existed, investigated, defined, and named them. In the Biržai and Pasvalys region, the ground had been collapsing since ancient times, houses and livestock would sink into the earth; geologists say they had long heard of sinkholes, hollows there, but only foreign geology explained the phenomenon and named it—karst, karst phenomena and karst topography, although an attempt is now being made to use the Lithuanian word as well: karst sinkhole, sinkhole FGŽŽ; When cavities form in gypsum layers, the ground collapses, creating sinkholes TLE II 226.

In Lithuania, breezes have blown and moraines, eskers, kames, drumlins, and varves have existed for ages; but only science identified and defined them as breeze, moraine, esker, kame, drumlin, varves. After a while, some Lithuanian equivalents emerge: *Ožas* (Swedish äs- ridge) means “a long (up to 30–40 km) and narrow (from a few metres, sometimes up to 2–3 km) ridge or embankment, up to several dozen metres high. It is usually formed from deposits laid down in valleys of meltwater flowing within a glacier. It consists of fluvioglacial gravel and sand, and may include accumulations of boulders.<...>” FGŽŽ offers the Lithuanian equivalent *ožnugaris* GŽ, LTE VIII, TLE III, EGŽ, although in everyday speech this is a very rare word with an entirely different meaning: “a bare place on a hill where little grass grows” Srd (LKŽ VIII); yet none of Lithuania’s eskers is called an *ožnugaris*. In standard language, too, the famous Vilnius Šeškinė esker is never called an *ožnugaris*; instead, there is Ozo Street. Therefore DŽ₃ lists that equivalent for *ozas* not as a geographical term: *ožnugaris* “esker.” Even greater efforts have been made to provide Swedish varves with not only an equivalent but also a substitute: ленточная глина – banded clay, varves GirFGŽŽ, varves, or banded clays GŽ, banded

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clays, varves LTE V and varves—“deposits of ice-dammed lakes in front of a glacier,” otherwise banded clays LTE XII, banded clay, varves TLE II, and varves, otherwise banded clay TLE IV; only banded clays FGŽŽ. But can we already rejoice? Has the Lithuanian substitute prevailed? Why does the number vary so much—banded clays, less often banded clay. What are those bands made of? It seems to me the term is inaccurate. Let us read carefully: banded clays are “deposits of proglacial lakes consisting of thin layers of clay and fine-grained sand—deposited glacial sediment. In spring and summer, as the glacier melted, sand was deposited; in autumn and winter, clay. Each pair of layers forms an annual band. The number of bands determines the time over which the entire thickness of banded clays formed; <-->” FGŽŽ. Swedish varv also means “a turn, a periodic return” GŽ, not some kind of “clay” or “bands.” This is better rendered as clay-sand bands.

International scientific concepts do not necessarily have to be named with international words or other loanwords. The stones (mineral) of Lithuania’s Skalių Hill are dolomite, while the metamorphic rock imported from Estonia, kukersite shale (Kukers is a village in Estonia), is called in Lithuanian *degusis skalūnas* ‘combustible shale’. Shale has been known since at least 1936 (LEnc IV 733).

Scientific terminology separates itself from folk terminology by eliminating the polysemy of folk terms—using international terms, as in dust – silt, air – atmosphere, and through its own means, as in *oras* ‘weather’ – *orai* ‘weathers’. In distinguishing concepts, science makes highly productive use of the possibilities offered by the stock of folk terminology. From the two meanings of the word *lijundra* in folk and ordinary standard language—1. “rain that freezes and forms a coating of ice”: Where will you go in such freezing rain?; 2. “a coating of ice formed when rain (or fog) freezes”: The ground is covered with a coating of ice. The road is slippery—*lijundra*, DŽ₃ (still not distinguished in GirFGTŽ: both гололёд – *lijundra*, and гололедица – *lijundra*)—meteorology has retained only the first meaning of *lijundra*, but has also introduced two terms: гололёд – *lijundra*, отложение гололёда – 1. *lijundra* (the process), 2. ice coating from *lijundra* [deposit], гололедица – ice-covered road, colloq. [i.e., colloquially] slippery road MeteorŽ. In standard language, *apšalas* is used both as a term and as an ordinary word: 1. “a layer of ice formed by freezing rain”: <-->, 2. “*lijundra*”: ice-

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coated with frost, 3. “ice frozen onto an object”: <...> DŽ₃. Known only locally plikledis 1. “glaze, frost”: Plikledis ant medžiais S. Dauk, 2. I, J “bare, snowless ice” LKŽ X (plikledis 2. has the synonym grynledis MŽ, Š, Sn, grynledys Bd, grynledai (Šauk – LKŽ III)) became a widely used term: plikledis—“ice formed on the ground and other surfaces after sleet, rain, freezing rain, or a thaw, and on roads also snow compacted and smoothed by vehicles” LTE IX. Thus the relationship between plikledžio and lijundra is only partial: plikledis can form from causes other than freezing rain. Road plikledis is now more usual even than the popular expression slidus kelias ‘slippery road’, since a road can be slippery not only when icy, but also when snow-covered (especially over ice) or wet. Yet every year, after the first plikledžio, some people still need reminding that if the road is slippery, that does not mean plikšala—then wheels rattle and clatter along dirt roads¹¹. It should probably be pointed out that a layer of ice on the ground and on various objects (wires, trees, branches, etc.), formed when raindrops or fog droplets freeze at air temperatures from 0 to -3°C, is not lijundra, as FGŽŽ claims, but apšalas—after all, the same source later has the term apšalo storis ‘thickness of frost’ (though there is another inaccuracy there: “Ice formed on the ground after a thaw is called plikledžiu”—plikledis is formed primarily by precipitation and only secondarily by a thaw). Who could believe that plikledis is “the condensation of moisture and its conversion into ice on the surfaces of cooled objects, forming a thin crust of ice,” JKTŽ 178.

Meteorology distinguishes regular (seasonal) floods from an unexpected rain-induced freshet (and it had no need at all for deluge).

Selecting synonyms from folk terminology for a system of scientific concepts is perhaps an even more difficult task. Among the synonyms for ‘mist’ (water vapour condensed in the air)—rūkas, ūkas, ūkana, rūkana (= rūkana), meteorology in SinŽ made the word rūkas the dominant term: “an accumulation of water-vapour condensation products (small water droplets or ice crystals) in the atmospheric layer close to the ground. <...>” FGŽŽ. Rūkana also has two meanings in meteorology, but the second derives from the first—1. “an accumulation of small water droplets or ice crystals in the air that reduces visibility in the atmosphere (but not to less than 1 km; denser—

¹¹ For a fuller discussion, see Klimavičius J. Plikšala // Mūsų kalba. 1987. Nr. 4. P. 43 – 47.

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rūkana, which reduces visibility to less than 1 km, is called rūku”; 2. “atmospheric haze caused by the scattered light of very fine water droplets and ice crystals in the air. <...>” LTE IX. DŽ likewise gives: rūkana, geography, 1. “very light fog in which visibility is reduced to 1–10 km,” 2. “haze caused by light scattered by fog droplets or ice particles” (DŽ₁ has no entry at all, while DŽ₂ leaves rūkana entirely undefined—“hazy air, ūkana, fog”). MeteorŽ avoids the ambiguity (which, incidentally, is characteristic of other languages too—Russian дымка, German Dunst, English haze), but perhaps not successfully: дымка—1. rūkana; not recommended: rūkelis, dūmelis (atmospheric visibility from 1 to 10 km), 2. ūkanotumas (a deterioration of atmospheric visibility to varying degrees). There is also ūkana—similar to rūkana?.. but different too: ū kana is “an optical phenomenon; on a hot, sunny summer day, when looking toward the horizon, one sees vapour rising from the heated ground, and the air seems to quiver, stream and shimmer. <...>” FGŽŽ; thus rūkana is atmospheric haze, whereas ū kana is atmospheric shimmer. In DŽ₃, ū kana is “a visible layer of warm, evaporating air or rising fog, rūkana”: ryto, rudens ūkana. In DŽ₁ and DŽ₂, ū kana is only “fog, mist.” MeteorŽ treats it merely as a colloquial word: марево—colloquial, 1. ū kana, 2. miražas. RLKŽ II марево—1. miražas, 2. ūkas, ū kana, blanda¹². For meteorologists, ūkas is merely colloquial: мгла—2. colloquial migla, ūkas in MeteorŽ, but in astronomy it is a term: ūkas, kosminis ūkas—“a concentration of interstellar gas and dust” AstrŽ (similarly LTE XI). Thus in the standard language ūkas has an ordinary and a specialized meaning: ¹ūkas 1. “ū kana”: <...>, 2. astr. <...>

¹² This now strays entirely off course—into the clouds: blanda “ū kana, overcast”: Saulė į blandą leidžiasi, gali būti lietaus DŽ₃; LKŽ II, blandus even has the meaning 2. “dark, overcast, indistinct”: Blandžios akys Kp. Pats blandumas—midnight, time for sleep Pl. Similarly, ū kana has come to mean “misty, overcast weather”—пасмурная погода, Nebelwetter, cloudiness, cloudy weather JKTŽ 158. But пасмурная погода means ‘overcast weather’ in MeteorŽ; and even MeteorŽ has strayed from the mark: пасмурно—overcast, ūkana-covered; пасмурность—only ūkanotumas; пасмурный—overcast (sky), gloomy (day, weather); even сумрачный is rendered as ūkanotas, gloomy, although сумрак means twilight. Rūškanas, rūškanotas mean only “overcast” (and, if very overcast, of course, “dark”), not “misty”; the noun rūškana, “overcast, gloomy weather,” is also already part of the standard language, DŽ₃.

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(DŽ₁, DŽ₂¹: ūkas 2. astr., see miglynas; AstrŽ does not mention miglynas at all).

In cosmic space, dust forms nebulae. What about in the air? Here the greatest terminological operation was carried out: migla—“air turbidity caused by solid impurities (dust, smoke, soot).” Dense migla, like rūkas, can greatly reduce visibility <...>. <...>“ LTE VII (FGŽŽ is similar). In everyday speech (dialects), rūkas 2. singular has a similar meaning, “dust”: Dear God, how it was—we lived in nothing but dust; there was so much of it! Slm. On a grey garment, that is neither fluff nor dust MI (LKŽ X). The motivation is very clear, incidentally—cf. 1. rūkti 3. “to rise as dust, to become dusty” (only meaning 6. “to give off vapour, to sweat”) LKŽ XI. Migla and rūkas are the two most widely used synonyms, but in meteorology rūkas has long been hovering and evaporating. MeteorŽ also has šlapias rūkas (мокрый туман, ‘wet fog’), but marks сухой туман as not recommended: sausasis rūkas; instead, (sausoj)i migla should be used: мгла—1. (sausoj)i migla (solid impurities in the air), and, of course, 2. colloquial migla, ūkas. Other specific terms are dulkių [dulkinė], ūminė migla in MeteorŽ; JKTŽ 153 also lists miglelė, referring to dunksą, “air turbidity—haze,” дымка, Dunst, haze, p. 149, which prompts some thoughts. Dūmka, as noted, is 1. rūkana, 2. ūkanotumas (нос дымиться—2. rūkuoti, migloti) in MeteorŽ. How could dunksa mean “turbidity, haze” if dunksoti means “to be indistinctly visible, to loom” DŽ₃? Terminologists could be asked to consider putting dūmaka to work: in Švnč, Vdš, Rš, Ml, “fog, mist, ūkana”: In autumn there is dūmaka Dglš. Such a dense dūmaka hung over everything that nothing could be seen two steps away Tvr. In the morning there was dūmaka—you could see neither sky nor earth Tvr (LKŽ II₂). For the semantics, compare dūmuoti 2. Vlkv, V. Piet. “to become overcast, mist over, grow dim,” apsidūmuoti Ggr, Vdk “to become veiled in mist, to grow overcast,” padūmuoti 2: The day is so misty, the sky veiled Ds. All the edges were veiled and darkened Alk; uždūmuoti 2. Grv, Trgn “to become veiled in mist”; dūmyti 4. refl. Bsg “to grow dim, to clear”; apsidūmėti “to become overcast, mist over”: It has clouded over; perhaps it will rain Šts; dūmėtas 2. Žeml, Srj “misty, indistinct”; dūmsa Brt “dim, misty weather”; dumcus 1. Brt “dark and misty” LKŽ II₂. Analysis of this micro-system can be concluded with the observation that folk terminology has great resources and much to offer, and that scientific terminology has been formed with considerable skill,

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carefully terminologized; some things remain problematic.

Science distinguished seas (theoretically, it named them lagoons—“an inlet of the sea separated from it by a spit” GŽ) from seas (classifying them as: marginal seas; enclosed seas, for example, the Baltic; intercontinental seas, for example, the Mediterranean, which, incidentally, contains several more seas: the Marmara, Aegean, Ionian, Adriatic, Tyrrhenian, and Ligurian), distinguished the sea from the lake (although politicians may think that the Caspian is a sea) and from the ocean, though not in every respect: there are only oceanography, oceanology, and now also ocean engineering JKTŽ 47; there is an ocean basin, but physical oceanography, marine geology, marine biology, sea charts / nautical charts, nautical mile, seashore, sea level, seawater, sea waves; usually ocean currents (ocean currents / sea currents GŽ, but already ocean currents colloq. sea currents FGŽŽ), sailor, seafaring, seaman.

Science distinguished: a human has a stomach, a bird a gizzard, while it had no use here at all for the diminutive pilvelis or vėdaras in SinŽ.

For agronomy, dirva means only 1. “ploughed, cultivated land, a field” DŽ₃, whereas “the surface layer of the earth suitable for plant growth” is dirvožemis DŽ₃; hence there are also meadow and forest soils. There is soil aeration, moisture, soil air and water, soil erosion, salinization, podzolization, wind erosion, soil liming, soil acidity and alkalinity, soil profile, horizon, soil structure, type; soil science is dirvotyra, its branch is dirvodara, and there is a soil scientist. Some people dislike the scientific term dirvožemis. But if there are black earth, white earth, red earth, yellow earth, brown earth, gray earth, fine earth, saline earth, salt earth, clay earth, sandy earth, then dirvožemis falls away like an overfull drop. Of course, although the term is frost on the soil surface, and the forecast says there will be frost on the ground surface, perhaps no one imagines that it means only in ploughed fields.

An example of using and not using the stock of folk terms might be not scientific terminology at all, but ordinary standard language, which adopted the loanword grybas, while rejecting its own dialect words kremblys and budė. Why? This is neither the only nor a rare case in which a widespread loanword has prevailed over a narrow dialect word or group of words: cockroach – kakšlė, prūsokas; crucian carp – krakė; negė – graužavirba; partridge – čerekslė; farm

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– duba, butà; hammer – plaktas, kūgis, pasėkelis, luokas; rolling pin – valkas, velenas; suit – eilutė, karta; metal – naugė.

It is difficult to convincingly claim that kremblys and budė ever arose as generic (common) names for “mushroom.” The variant ²budis sf. Sdk, Ds, LzP is merely “a mushroom of the Agaricaceae family” LKKŽ I₂, [lakštabudiniai (Agaricaceae) – “<...> The more common species are those of the genera pievagrybis (Agaricus), žvynabudė (Lepiota), stambiažvynė (Macrolepiota), smulkižvynė (Phaeolepiota), and šlakabudė (Cystoderma)” LTE VI]. The broader variant ²budė, būdė has many species-specific meanings – 1. Arm “inedible mushroom, poisonous mushroom”; All sorts of budės have started growing, and mushrooms too Mrc, 2. Rdm “paniabudė (Phallus impudicus), 4. Tvr, Lz, BB In 19, 29 “polypore, sponge”: Don’t you know that a budė grows on a tree? Ad; also ²budelė 1. Kžt, Trgn “brittlegill (Russula),” budelė MŽ “a kind of mushroom.” Only ²budė 3. Lkm, Ds, Rš means “mushroom”: Nemunė is a kind of budė Lkm [whereas nemunė is a honey fungus bot., “an edible brown mushroom growing in clusters, with a crooked, fibrous stem (Armillariella)” DŽ₃]. Budžių Bridge Lkm (LKKŽ I₂). A characteristic sentence is: The work is like a budė (unreliable) Ds. In fact, mushrooms are either firm or not firm. Budė, budis is the non-firm kind. Others even describe themselves as such: lepšė, težė / ¹težlis 1. “lepšė,” 2. “bolete” LKŽ XVI, glébė / glebe “bolete” LKŽ III, rud-mesė.

Kremblys only means 1. B, R, MŽ; Km, Vl “mushroom” (krembiai Vžns), 4. Al “false morel”; in its other meanings it clearly denotes something hard—not “soft, mushy, limp,” not “fleshy,” but “cartilaginous”: 5. Krok “twisted, knotted tree” (cf. ²kremlys Grv, Str, Švnč “stem, log”), 6. figurative Krok “stubborn person” LKŽ VI, cf. kremzlė—not only 1. “hard, firm connective tissue in the human or animal body” (and kremblė, kremslė, ¹kremslys; though also kramslė MŽ, W, kramslys 1. B, N, Tv) and 3. “tendon,” but also 2. derogatory “nose”: If you hit your kremzlė, you’ll even get teary! Skr, Vai, stop it, you’ll get your kremzlė all dirty! Dkš; 4. com. neut. Arm “a thin animal” (cf. also kremblys 2. figurative Vdžg “an old, weak person”—not “soft,” but “withered”)—this is not necessarily a figurative meaning; cf. kremzliai Ds “loose bits of straw left in the field; stubble, scattered remnants, loose straw,” even krem-slės J(BzF128) “a kind of mushroom,” and further kremzdėti, krémzda, -ėjo.

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VlkV, Alk “to crunch, to creak, to crunch, to crackle”: When you eat, the unripe potatoes or tubers crunch between your teeth J. The potatoes are hard—they crunch when eaten Vrb; krėmsyti see kramsėti 2: Your mushrooms are undercooked; they still crunch as if raw Srv. The potatoes crunch; they are still undercooked Srv; kramsėti2. Rm “to crackle, to crunch”: When the potato is undercooked, it crunches as you eat it J. And characteristically: Those mushrooms of mine crunch Ps. Especially: A Lepšė never can be crunched Žml (dubious explanations of meanings: kramsėti 1. Nm, Vaižg “to chew with a sound, to munch” and kramsčioti see kramčioti 1. “to nibble, to chew slowly,” pakramščoti “to chew a little,” since: He nibbled a little on some raw potatoes Lp – very similar to “to crackle, to crunch”).

Therefore DŽ₃ defines budis, -iės m. as “some kind of gilled mushroom,” and krembly s as “mushroom”: krembliai grow quickly.

In folk terminology, to quote Antanas Baranauskas’s “The Forest of Anykščiai,” mushrooms and toadstools are not distinguished by name. Alongside šungrybis (šunagrýbis, šūniagrýbis, šūngrybės) are the added forms žūniabudė Srj, šūniamenunė Grv, šūnbaravykis Krs, see šėtonbaravykis LKŽ XV, grybekėsis Rdm, gribšis Rdm (LKŽ III). The Slavic loanword grybas (the variant grybė has no established etymology; gryba is probably from Latvian grība) may have been needed to denote a related concept encompassing the virtuoso krembliai and soft budės, tikrinius [in Western Dzūkian tikrìnis means “boletus” LKŽ XVI], in standard language baravykas or tikrinis baravykas (Boletus edulis), since there is also the rudakepuris baravykas (Xerocomus badius), geltonasis baravykas (Suillus variegatus), šilbaravykis 1. “Gyroporus cyanescens”, 2. “brown boletus (Gyroporus castaneus)”, even the poisonous šėtonbaravykis (Tylopilus felleus) and šūninis 1. “false” LKŽ XV] kremblius, pumpo-taukšlius, -tauškius, -tekšlius (:¹pumpa 3. “<···> lump” LKŽ X), kukur-bezdalius (:kūkuràs “hump”) / (s)kūz-bezdalius.

In the 1970s, mycology separated fungi into a distinct kingdom of organisms, Mycetalia, intermediate between the kingdoms of plants and animals. Scientific terminology has no opposition between mushrooms and toadstools; there are no toadstools at all—fungi (Fungi) are either edible (in four categories, including species people generally do not eat, of little value but not poisonous, and thus supposedly edible) or poisonous fungi. Thus, the classification is not logical: not all

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non-poisonous fungi are edible, while less poisonous ones become edible if boiled and drained. This classification covers higher fungi, of which there are two classes: 1) Ascomycetes (Ascomycetes)—false morel, morel, Helvella, truffle, godūnas, as well as the so-called fungi—yeasts, parasitic powdery mildew, raupėgrybis, and the famous Penicillium; 2) Basidiomycetes, or more intelligibly club fungi (Basidiomycetes)—“nearly all edible mushrooms, toadstools, bracket fungi, puffballs, and stinkhorns (=paniabūdės DŽ₃) <...>; <...> rusts, smuts, trobāgrybiai” PDŽ II 35—they are divided into gilled fungi (underside of cap with gills), pored fungi (underside of cap porous), slime molds, etc., with many newly coined genus names: based on the living-language forms kiaūliabudė, kėlmabudė LKŽ VI—gaibudė, jaunābudė, kreivābudė, kūgiabudė, plaušābudė, skydābudė, šlakābudė, tauriābudė, žvynābudė. Lower fungi likewise comprise two classes: 1) primitive fungi (Archimycetes)—“the most primitive unicellular fungi, lacking mycelium” TLE I, “body—a bare lump of protoplasm or poorly developed mycelium (rhizomycelium)” TLE IX; 2) algal fungi (Phycomycetes)—fungi growing in mud, water, and on plants, “which do not produce complex fruiting bodies” PDŽ II 34—“mycelium usually non-septate, multinucleate” LTE III. The fifth class is intermediate: imperfect fungi (Fungi imperfecti, or Deuteromycetes)—“mycelium septate, but sexual reproduction has not been observed” LTE IV. This is how many neologisms scientific systematics (and the naming of all fungi without folk names, even those unknown to people) has yielded—whole series of them formed with the elements -grybis, -budė (even -grybšis: skylegrybšis see skylėgrybis LKŽ XII).

Here, a small part of the great journey from folk terminology to scientific terminology (with the compass points and signposts of science) has been surveyed and briefly considered. Looking at it from the opposite direction—not what folk terminology contributed, but what scientific terminology took up, what it did not, and what it already had of its own—a reasonable question arises: how successfully did it accomplish that task? If it did not take up everything it could have, there is hope that it may yet do so. The main question is whether it suppressed or stifled folk speech, whether it conflicts with it or intrudes drastically upon its centuries-old existence. That is a separate topic. A few small points may be mentioned here. The introduction of mass in place of weight collided inhumanely with living terminology—we all see every day how that mass is weighed on scales

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..., and this is the case in many languages; scientists themselves have already spoken about it. Every physicist would say that ice and snow do not dissolve but melt, producing not a solution but a meltwater; however, meteorology and geology use only dissolving, melting—it does not conflict with living terminology. Scientific and ordinary language should peacefully share domains of usage. Every pupil can feel like a scientist when, during a geography lesson, they learn that there are no mountains in Lithuania, only hills, but when racing down a little hill into the valley, that science is the last thing on their mind.

Abbreviations

AstrŽ – Astronomijos enciklopedinis žodynas / Sudarė A. Juška. V., 1984.

CavŽ – Dictionary of Civil Aviation Terms / Editors and compilers R. Eriksonienė, J. Klimavičius. V., 1996.

DŽ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: DŽ₁ – I leid., V., 1954. DŽ₂ – II leid., V., 1972. DŽ₃ – III leid., V., 1993.

EGŽ – Vaitekūnas S. Enciklopedinis geografijos žodynas. K., 1994.

FGŽŽ – Solovjovas V., Karpovas G. Fizinės geografijos žodynas-žinynas. K., 1987.

GirFGTŽ – Gudelis V. Geologijos ir fizinė geografijos terminų žodynas. V., 1956.

GK – “Gimtoji kalba” [Native Language].

GŽ – Agapovas S., Sokolovas S., Tichomirovas D. Geografijos žodynas. K., 1972.

JKTŽ – Gudelis V. Jūros krantotyros terminų žodynas. V., 1993.

KK – “Kalbos kultūra” [Language Culture].

LEnc – Lietuviškoji enciklopedija. K., 1936, T. 4.

LKK – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai. V., 1966, T. 8. 1970, T. 12.

LKŽ – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. V., 1968, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. 1947, Vol. 2, 1st ed. 1969, Vol. 2, 2nd ed. 1956, Vol. 3. 1962, Vol. 6. 1966, Vol. 7. 1970, Vol. 8. 1976, Vol. 10. 1978, Vol. 11. 1981, Vol. 12. 1986, Vol. 14. 1991, Vol. 15. 1995, Vol. 16. The article also uses abbreviations from this dictionary.

LTE – Lithuanian Soviet Encyclopedia. V., 1976, Vol. 1. 1977, Vol. 2. 1978, Vol. 3. 1978, Vol. 4. 1979, Vol. 5. 1980, Vol. 6. 1981, Vol. 7. 1981, Vol. 8. 1982, Vol. 9. 1983, Vol. 10. 1983, Vol. 11. 1984, Vol. 12.

MeteorŽ – Mikალjūnas M. Rusų-lietuvių kalbų meteorologijos terminų žodynas. V., 1975.

PDŽ II – Pažinimo džiaugsmas: Gyvoji gamta. V., 1990.

RLKŽ II – Rusų-lietuvių kalbų žodynas. V., 1983, T. 2 / Sudarė Ch. Lemchenas.

SinŽ – Lyberis A. Sinonimų žodynas. V., 1980.

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TLE – Encyclopedia of Soviet Lithuania. V., 1985, Vol. 1. 1986, Vol. 2. 1987, Vol. 3. 1988, Vol. 4.

TŽ – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. V., 1985.

VLKŽ II – Kr ž i n a u s k a s J., S m a g u r a u s k a s S. German-Lithuanian Dictionary. V., 1992, Vol. 2.

Zoopsich – B a g d o n a s A. Zoopsychology. V., 1983.

The numerals throughout indicate years, numbers (Roman numerals indicate volumes), and pages.

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