VILĮA SAKALAUSKIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

ORCID id: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0487-7710

RESEARCH AREAS: ethnolinguistics, lexicography, lexicology.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2024.97.06

THE DIALECT DICTIONARY AS A CULTURAL TEXT: THE LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL IMAGE OF WHEAT

KEYWORDS: wheat, linguistic worldview, ethnolinguistics, dialect dictionary, definition, phraseological unit, paroemia.

ABSTRACT

The abundance of dialect and folklore examples and meanings in dialect dictionaries encourages their use. For the same reasons, authentic texts are considered important in dialect dictionaries. The article analyzes the linguistic and cultural image of wheat, one of the four most important cereals used by Lithuanians, as revealed by data from dialect dictionaries, the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, and other Lithuanian lexicographic sources. The word kvietys is known and used in all Lithuanian dialects. The study focuses on the relationship between wheat and human existence and folk culture, the values it provides to people, and the evaluation of wheat in relation to other cereals. The quantity of lexicographic-source data on kvietį makes it possible to analyze the cultural image of this plant using the methodology developed by the Lublin school of ethnolinguistics. It is noted that dialect dictionaries provide much more limited material than folklore narratives. However, drawing on the latter, one can find sufficient ethnolinguistic information in dictionary material about the linguistic and cultural image of plants.

ABSTRACT

The abundance of examples and definitions from dialects and folklore in dialect dictionaries makes these dictionaries a source to rely upon. For the very same reason, dialect dictionaries carry the important meaning of authentic texts. This article scrutinises the linguistic and cultural image of wheat, one of the four grain staples in Lithuania, as highlighted by the data from the big Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language and other sources of Lithuanian lexicography. The word wheat is known and used across all dialects of the Lithuanian language. The study

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

115

focuses on the connection between wheat and the human existence and folk culture, the value that it provides to the human being, and the value wheat holds compared to other grains. The amount of data on wheat available in lexicographical sources makes it possible for the cultural image of this plant to be analysed using the methodology developed by the ethnolinguistic school of Lublin. Notably, dialect dictionaries offer material that is much more limited in scope compared to folklore narratives. However, if one were to rely on the latter, dictionary material can prove to be a sufficient source for ethnolinguistic information about the linguistic image of plants.

INTRODUCTION

Lithuanian lexicographic sources are very important for reconstructing the worldview¹, since most of them excellently reveal archaic Lithuanian culture, and their purpose is understood by their compilers first and foremost as documenting, preserving, and publicizing the essential manifestations of that culture. Alongside other Lithuanian-language dictionaries, dialect dictionaries have recently been published in large numbers; compiled on the basis of various sources of Lithuania’s indigenous culture, they may be considered cultural dictionaries, that is, dictionaries prepared on the basis of culture (Rutkovska 2021: 152).

No Lithuanian dialect dictionaries specifically designed to reflect the linguistic-cultural aspect of a dialect or subdialect have yet been compiled. However, they are an excellent source of data for investigating the linguistic² worldview. A major asset of dialect dictionaries is their illustrative sentences, recorded from living speech and folklore, which document people’s lives in a particular period: details of everyday life and celebrations, changes in moods and thoughts, and distinctive ways of seeing and evaluating the world.

Dialect dictionaries are useful for lexical-semantic research based on the methodology for revealing the linguistic worldview developed by the Lublin ethnolinguistic school. This article adopts the premise that a dialect dictionary is a text of a particular genre that reveals the cultural context in which a word functions.

In analyzing data from Lithuanian dialect dictionaries from an ethnolinguistic perspective, all the data in a dictionary entry are taken into account: definitions, collocations, quotations illustrating the context of the headword, synonyms, antonyms, derivatives, phraseological units, proverbial sayings, and so on. Thus, the linguistic worldview

¹ Lexicography plays an important role in studies of the linguistic worldview. Dictionaries perform a function that connects the lexical and semantic components of the linguistic worldview.

² Analysis of dialect lexicographic sources can reveal how many words in the linguistic worldview are associated with the concept being described (P a p a u r ė l y t ė - K l o v i e n ė 2007: 41).

116

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

For landscape studies, all dictionary microstructural data were used. It is especially important to emphasize that so-called textual data (phraseological units, paroemias, comparisons) are presented in Lithuanian lexicographic sources after illustrative sentences and are marked accordingly: phraseological units after the ♦ (diamond) sign, and paroemias and comparisons after the ∧ (caret) sign. Illustrative sentences for headwords drawn from folklore may belong to various genres: paroemias, riddles, comparisons, incantations, beliefs, songs, tales, and so on.

The article focuses on the relationship between human existence and culture³ through the concept of WHEAT⁴. The aim of the study is to reconstruct the linguistic-cultural image of wheat in the Lithuanian language, based on Lithuanian dialect lexicographic sources. The reconstruction employs a cognitive definition, whose principal aim, according to J. Bartmiński, is to show how members of linguistic and cultural communities perceive particular objects and phenomena in the world—that is, what knowledge about the world, its categorization, and evaluation is embedded in the language used by a particular community (Bartmiński 1988: 169; cited in Niebrzegowska–Bartmińska 2020: 48). To achieve this aim, the following tasks are set: 1) to review the names for wheat and its parts in Lithuanian lexicographic sources; 2) to discuss the values wheat provides for people (its uses in everyday life, agriculture, and folk medicine), and the evaluation of wheat in relation to other cereals (customs, rites, and beliefs associated with wheat); 3) to synthesize into a whole (semantic categories called facets) the fragments of the wheat concept that emerge in Lithuanian dialect lexicographic sources; 4) to formulate a cognitive definition of the wheat concept.

The empirical basis of the study consists of data from the manuscript of the Dictionary of the Zanavykai Dialect (ZanŽ), the Dictionary of the Kazlų Rūda Dialect (KzRŽ), the Dictionary of the Jurbarkas Dialect (JrbŽ), the Dictionary of the Dieveniškės Dialect (DvŽ), the Dictionary of Kupiškėnai (KpŽ), the Dictionary of the Vidiškės Dialect (VdŠŽ), the Dictionary of the Zietela Dialect (ZtŽ), the Dictionary of the Northeastern Dünininkai Dialects (DünŽ), the Dictionary of the Kretinga Dialect (KrtnŽ), the Dictionary of the Northwestern Samogitian Dialects (ŠVakŽŽ), the Dictionary of the Druskininkai Dialect (DrskŽ), the Dictionary of the Southern Southern Aukštaitian Dialects (PPAŽ), and the Dictionary of the Kaltanėnai Dialect (KltŽ). The key to the systematic study is the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽₑ), which brings the data together into a unified whole and fills the gaps in the dialect

In the last decade of the 20th century, the idea of studying language in its cultural context was particularly revived and has continued to grow (see Bartmiński 2020: 25 for a fuller discussion).³

The linguistic and cultural image (representation) of a fragment of reality, an object (or phenomenon), is called a concept. Its content comprises not only cognitive knowledge, but also knowledge of an emotional and pragmatic nature, acquired through individual and social experience (Bartmiński, Chlebda 2013: 71).⁴

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

117

a chain of dictionary data. In conducting the study, use was made of data from the Dictionary of Synonyms (SŽ_e), the Dictionary of Antonyms (AŽ_e) relating to the lexeme wheat. In addition, the material under investigation includes phraseology, paremias, derivatives, synonyms, and antonyms recorded in Lithuanian lexicographic sources. Accordingly, alongside those mentioned above, data from the Dictionary of Phraseology (FŽ_e) and the Dictionary of Lithuanian Comparisons (LKPŽ_e) are also used. To expand the empirical data, materials accumulated in the card files of the Supplements to the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽ_ePK) and the Dialects of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽ_eTK) are sometimes cited as well. The materials of some of the dialect dictionaries mentioned above were recorded as early as the late nineteenth century, others in the mid-twentieth century, and still others in the late twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first century.

Interpretive, descriptive, semantic-analysis, and cognitive-definition methods are used to analyze the dialect dictionary material. The latter reveals a general understanding of the world and seeks to emphasize all the positive properties of an object that are culturally relevant. These properties are identified through analysis of linguistic and textual data (paroemias, phraseological units, and the like), as well as extralinguistic data (descriptions of beliefs and customs).

1. WHEAT AS A HEADWORD IN LEXICOGRAPHIC ENTRIES

In most parts of the world, wheat is the most important bread grain. Historians indicate that wheat is among the oldest cultivated plants. Winter and spring soft wheat (Triticum aestivum) are grown in Lithuania; however, excavations of hillforts dating from the first to thirteenth centuries (Apuolė, Gabrieliškės, Veliuona) show that, besides soft wheat (also known as common wheat), emmer, compact-eared wheat, and spelt were widespread. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, wheat was sown mainly in manor fields. According to ethnologist Pranė Dundulienė, among cereal crops the most important were rye, followed by barley, buckwheat, and wheat (Dundulienė 1982: 163).

The word wheat / wheats, which is given a single meaning, ‘a type of cereal’, and a subsense, ‘the grain of this cereal’, in various dictionaries, has been used in Lithuanian since the sixteenth century and is recorded in the earliest written sources (Mikalojus Daukša’s Postil, Jonas Bretkūnas’s Bible, Samuel Boguslav Chylinski’s Bible, and Konstantinas Sirvydas’s dictionary). In many Lithuanian dialect dictionaries, this cereal is described as belonging to the grass family (DvŽ I 330) or the Poaceae family (VdŽ 337), and as a bread grain (LKŽ_e), a cereal crop whose stalk is straw, the ear-

118

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

— a compound spike; the fruits are yellowish or brownish grains from whose flour bread is baked (LKŽₑ, ZanŽ I 828, KzRŽ I 414, JrbŽ, KpŽ II 554, PPAŽ I 545, KltŽ 133, ŠVakŽŽ I 361).

In dialect dictionaries, a separate plural form kviečiai is sometimes given as a headword, meaning ‘a field of this cereal’: Radom mes šitą mažiukę kviečiuos (given in answer to the question of where children come from) (KzRŽ I 414); alternatively, a separate sense, ‘a field sown with this cereal,’ is listed under the singular kvietys: Labai daug žolės buvo, teip apaugę kviečiai buvo (VdšŽ 337). In the dictionary of the Zietela dialect, one of the most archaic southeastern Lithuanian dialects, Zietelos šnektos žodyne, the headwords given are kviečias, kviečis (ZtŽ 337).

In Žemaitian dialect dictionaries, only spring wheat is called kviečiai, whereas Žemaitians call winter wheat pūrai: Žieminiai kviečiai yra vardu pūrai (ŠVakŽŽ II 109); Pūrų duona – irstanti (LKŽₑ, Šts); Vasariniai kviečiai, o žieminiai pūrai buvo (LKŽₑ, Rnv); Pūrai y[ra] raudons tas grūds (ŠVakŽŽ II 109); Pūrai stambesni y[ra], kvietys y[ra] smulkesnis (ŠVakŽŽ II 109); A pūrai y[ra] rudenį sėjams (ŠVakŽŽ II 109); Visų pirma rugius, paskiau pūrus [kūlė] (ŠVakŽŽ II 109); Mes kažną metą sėjom pūrų (KrtnŽ 326). Varieties of pūrai include the plump white velvety pūras⁵ (Triticum turgidum album velutinum), the ubiquitous (growing everywhere, common) golden (gold-colored) puras (Triticum vulgare aureum), and the feathery pūras (Triticum pinnatum).

In some Žemaitian dialect dictionaries, kvietys (DūnŽ 503) and pūras (DūnŽ 525) are listed at the end of the dictionary, in the index. In differential dictionaries (DūnŽ is one such dictionary), the main principle for selecting words is usually comparison with their standard-language equivalents. Accordingly, rather than a definition, the notation kaip bk⁶ (‘as in the standard language’) is provided.

Both spring and winter varieties of wheat are cultivated. Dialect dictionary data show that winter wheat is superior to winter rye and spring wheat, and so in some localities more of it used to be sown: Žieminiu kviečiu daug sėdavom, daugiau neg rugių (LKŽₑ, Skp); Kai padera žieminiai kviečiai, tai nepalyginsi su vasariniais (LKŽₑ, An); Žieminiai kviečiai yra lapingesni už žieminius rugius (LKŽₑ, Krišč); Kviečiai būdavo tokie žieminiai geltonieji, ne baltieji, irgi minkštūs (soft), jagu tiktai vėjas, tai išbyra, iškulia juos (KpŽ II 554); Sėdavo kviečių žieminių ir vasarių (KpŽ II 554); Kviečiai žieminiai uždera ir grūdas didesnis kaip vasarinių (LKŽₑ, Ign).

⁵ Such a name may be associated with the fact that kvietys swells (becomes larger) as it germinates.

⁶ This means that the word has the same meaning as in the standard language.

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

119

Wheat comes in various varieties and is therefore evaluated according to certain characteristics and criteria, and named in various ways. For example, wheat with awned ears is called akuočiai: Akuočiai kviečiai auga ir prastesnėj žemėj (LKŽₑ, Šd). A particular variety of wheat with awnless ears is beakuočiai kviečiai (LKŽₑ, Kl); it is better and higher-yielding. In terms of height and grain size, there are baltieji kviečiai (Triticum aestivum): Baltieji kviečiai geresni: šiaudai aukštesni (JrbŽ), which grow tall and produce large, light-yellow or golden grains; kietieji kviečiai are shorter than baltieji kviečiai, and their grains are also smaller, but harder than those of baltieji kviečiai; the grain color is yellow or brown, and sometimes even reddish. By sowing time, vasaručiai kviečiai are distinguished (LKŽₑ, K): sown in spring, they yield a crop in the same year.

Dialect dictionary material shows that spring wheat, sown in spring, is also called kviečiukai, kvietukai, while the illustrative sentences indicate that these varieties yield poorly: Kviečiukų pasėjo – vien dirsės, susimaliau, tai galvą pradėjo skaudėt nuo tų dirsių (KpŽ II 551); Kvietukai į dešimt metų vieną metą dera (ZanŽ I 828); Kvietukai sykiu su miežiais prieš (ripen) (LKŽₑ, Gs).

Like rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat, wheat is classified as a cereal crop used for breadmaking; according to the definitions in Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries, it is a grass—in other words, a herbaceous plant with a non-woody stem.

2. PARTS OF WHEAT

The most important part of wheat is its ears, which indicate the yield of this cereal. The size of ears is measured in spans: Winter wheat has ears one span long (LKŽₑ, Kl); large and heavy ears bend under their weight: As I rode through the little field, I could not ride on; the ears of wheat broke and bent beneath the horse’s feet (LKŽₑ, Plv); The rye was green, and the wheat had put out ears (LKŽₑ, Vlž). The stage of ear development when the ears emerge from the nodes is described by the verbs plaukėti, plaukti: The rye is already covered with dew (flowering), while the wheat is only just heading (LKŽₑ, Sn); The wheat has only just begun to head (LKŽₑ, Pc); The wheat is already at the node; it will soon head (LKŽₑ, Ėr).

On the Feast of the Assumption, wheat ears are blessed along with herbs and other cereals, and are also used to make decorative harvest wreaths.

The wheat stalk (straw) was also important and served a purpose in Lithuanian domestic and farm life; most often it was used as coarse fodder and animal bedding. Dialect dictionaries record the following synonyms for stalk/straw: kvietienojas ‘stalk’; kviečiojys: We sowed little wheat here, it’s sandy soil—where would you get wheat straw to feed them

120

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

(DrskŽ 180); kvietienis ‘threshed wheat straw’: Take some wheat straw to bed the animals (LKŽₑ, Lš); Cows ate only barley straw, not wheat straw (DūnŽ 164); Wheat straw is like the poorest straw (LKŽₑ, Trak); White wheat is better: its straw is taller (JrbŽ); Perhaps the wheat straw got soaked (VdšŽ 337); Wheat straw is only for bedding: it is soft, and mice quickly shred it (KltŽ 133). Because wheat straw is soft, inferior, and brittle, it is unsuitable for roofing: Wheat straw is unsuitable for roofing; it is brittle, dries out, and crumbles (LKŽₑ, Klvr). Straw from triticale is harder than rye straw.

The cut wheat was tied into sheaves and bundles, which were then stood in stooks, shocks / stacks, or ricks: Spring wheat was stood in groups of twelve sheaves (LKŽₑ PK, Prk); A mandelys is a stack of wheat and rye, while a rikė is one of barley and oats (LKŽₑ, Všt); A rikė is for wheat and rye, while a kupeta is for hay (LKŽₑ, Vl).

Wheat straw is now used not only for fodder and animal bedding, but also in the manufacture of paper, cardboard, and baskets. Folk artists use wheat straw as a craft material to make sodai (traditional hanging ornaments) and weave hats. For weaving, wheat straw is first cut while not quite ripe; only the upper part of the straw is used.

The roots of wheat, like those of other cereals, have no value and are not assessed in any way, so dictionaries contain no information about them.

3. THE EVALUATION OF WHEAT

Of all cereal crops, wheat has long been the most widespread and valuable. It is the gold of Lithuania’s soil. In Lithuanian folk culture, wheat is a symbol of wealth, prosperity, and a happy life. A good life and a good social standing are described by the phrase flowering wheat: Your wheat is flowering (FŽₑ). Compared with rye, wheat is a symbol of celebration, happiness, and abundance.

The quality and quantity of wheat—its abundance, density, and lushness—are assessed through comparisons like a bog, like a forest ‘very dense’, like masonry ‘lush’, like a wall: Wheat as dense as a bog—a mosquito couldn’t get its beak in (LKPŽₑ); The wheat waved across the whole field like a forest (LKŽₑ); Wheat like masonry (ZanŽ II 221); This year the wheat is like masonry (FŽₑ); Ah, grandfather’s wheat stood in the fields like masonry (LKPŽₑ); Wheat like a wall (FŽₑ); The wheat bends under its own weight (LKŽₑ, Krsn).

Wheat has a strong smell: See how the wheat smells—you can hardly breathe (KpŽ II 554). Other objects are compared to the appearance of wheat: As beautiful as ripe wheat (LKŽₑ, Vrb).

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Termin s žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas:

kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

121

Wheat forms sets with other cereal crops. In illustrative dictionary sentences, wheat is often mentioned together with rye, barley, and oats, and sometimes with flax, peas, and so on: Our dad used to sow all sorts of things, rye, wheat, barley, and flax too (ZanŽ I 828); They bind the rye, wheat, oats, and barley, while the peas are rolled into little heaps (KpŽ II 554); We have a little cow, a little wheat, rye, and that’s how we get by (ZtŽ 337).

Furthermore, the high regard for wheat is also evident in Lithuanian calendar and agrarian customs. Sheaves of wheat, rye, barley, and oats were placed in the four corners of the house at Christmas Eve so that the next year’s harvest would be abundant and fruitful. In Christmas greetings, wheat appears alongside other cereal crops, vegetables, and plants: carolers wish the hosts a good harvest of wheat, rye, oats, millet, cabbage, and peas.

Inferior wheat is named by means of derivatives: kvietaičiai, kvietynai ‘poor-quality wheat’: Those kvietynai have dried up; there isn’t even half a grain (LKŽₑ, Trgn); We didn’t all sow it properly, without zuparas (superphosphate), so the kvietaičiai, pūraičiai grew poorly (LKŽₑ, Šts).

The adjective shows qualitative and evaluative meaning wheat: But I like wheat bread better (KzRŽ I 414); Wheat flour is good; I bake cakes, buns, and pancakes well (KltŽ 133); Now wheat groats are already poor (JrbŽ).

Among the examples in Lithuanian lexicographic sources, we also find fairy-tale examples. The fairy-tale material shows the high value people placed on wheat and what an extraordinary, magical thing a wheat grain was: You will find a silver ring and a grain of wheat in the intestines (DvŽ I 330); You will put that grain of wheat wherever you find a nice little thing (a place) (DvŽ I 330). It was believed that a grain of wheat could bring a prosperous life, because something extraordinary and magical would come from the grain.

A cyclical conception of time was characteristic of farming culture⁷, reflecting the foundations of the way of life. The time for cutting wheat—kvieč(ia)pjūtė, kviečiapjūtis, kvietpjūtė—was also very important in a farmer’s life: This year the wheat harvest is rainy (LKŽₑ, Ig); If the weather is fine, the wheat harvest will begin then (ZanŽ I 828); The winter wheat must be cut before St. Lawrence’s Day (KpŽ II 554).

Wheat is contrasted with weeds (wild oats, darnel, corn cockle, thistles, sometimes with chamomile, cornflowers) and parasitic fungi—bunt

⁷ Lithuanian calendar customs reveal both relics of the archaic lunar calendar and elements of agrarian magic from the seasonal work cycles that took shape later. This is perhaps the most important part of ethnocultural knowledge, reflecting the foundations of the way of life and influencing the spiritual phenomena of national culture (Klimka 2015: 31).

122

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

smut, wheat-smut fungi growing in wheat ears: The wheat ears are blackened by the abundance of smut (LKŽₑ, Jz); The wheat is full of smut; the bread will be poor this year (LKŽₑ, Skr); When the wheat was badly affected by smut, the bread was black too (LKŽₑ, Sdk); In years when there is a lot of smut, the wheat is no longer suitable for seed (LKŽₑ, Mrj); Cockle appears even in clean wheat (JrbŽ); Good wheat, only there is too much cockle (LKŽₑ, Dkš); And she told them about the darnel that had appeared among the wheat (LKŽₑ, Jabl); I will not marry you, dear lad, because your wheat is smutty (LKŽₑ, Smn).

Good, black, fertilized, rich, loamy soil is needed for sowing and growing wheat. The illustrative sentences in the dictionaries also show this soil requirement: Clay is wheat soil (LKŽₑ, Dkš); Soil near the clay is suitable for wheat (LKŽₑ, JT); Wheat does not grow on a hill (PPAŽ I 545); This is thoroughly wheat-growing soil, the best soil (LKŽₑ, Brž); Wheat soil, where wheat thrives (LKŽₑPK, Mrj); Wheat grows on black soil (LKŽₑ, Dkš); There thrive (in rich soil) barley, wheat, and other plants (LKŽₑ, Jabl); Even spring wheat needs good soil (LKŽₑ, Srj); Spring wheat grows better in our soil (KpŽ II 554); There were three fields: one was fallow, the other—wheat, rye, clover—the third field (KpŽ II 554). In addition, wheat needs moisture, so wet soil is also suitable for it: Sow rye when the soil has dried out, sow wheat when it is sticky (LKŽₑ, Gs). Wheat also grows in poorer soil: In sandy soil wheat ripens sooner too (LKŽₑ, Up); Bearded wheat grows even in poorer soil (LKŽₑ, Šd). The grains of wheat grown in soil with a gravelly subsoil fall out of the ears: It sheds a lot on gravelly ground, whether rye or wheat grown in such soil (KpŽ IV 965). Soil favored by wheat and suitable for it is called wheat ground: If it is wheat ground, you will not have any bread! (LKŽₑ, Užp).

Farmers’ respect for bread grains is revealed by plowing the soil or fallow a second time for winter crops, and by fertilizing it: We plow the soil again for rye and wheat (KpŽ II 554); Nothing is sown [in the fallow]; it lies fallow through the summer, and is only prepared for winter rye or wheat (KpŽ II 554); Where they sowed barley and wheat, they also spread manure (PPAŽ I 545).

A plentiful, good wheat harvest is compared to the sands of the sea: And such was the abundance of wheat that it equaled the sand of the sea, and the measure could not contain it (an immeasurable quantity) (LKŽₑ, Baran).

Wheat was regarded as a valuable grain: The profit is like that from wheat (good) (LKŽₑ, Gs); He charges as much as for wheat (a great deal) (FŽₑ, Šll); You charged as much as for wheat (LKŽₑ, Skr); wheat was a measure for comparing prices: For a kilo (kilogram) of fish, they used to buy a pood (a weight measure of 16.3 kg) of wheat flour (DrskŽ 181).

The appearance of wheat is associated with the color yellow, or gold: I have rye, I have barley, and golden wheat (LKŽₑ, Jd).

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

123

4. WHEAT IN DOMESTIC LIFE AND FARMING

As already mentioned, wheat shoots, grains, flour, and straw served purposes in domestic life and farming; they were used not only for food and animal feed, but also for weaving various objects, making garden ornaments, and so on.

The main tools for harvesting and processing wheat were the sickle, small scythe ‘a one-handed scythe for cutting rye or wheat’, threshing flail, threshing floor, hand mill: If the wheat was good, it had to be cut with sickles (KpŽ III 234); They used to thresh the spring crops with rollers, using a horse, but rye and wheat all had to be threshed by hand with flails (KpŽ II 554); So you grind some wheat in a hand mill and sift it through a fine sieve (KpŽ I 675); They used to thresh wheat and rye with these flails (KpŽ III 815).

4.1. Food, dishes, beverages

Wheat grains are called the gold of Lithuania’s soil. Wheat was revered as a bread grain, used not so much in everyday meals as for preparing festive and ritual foods (for Easter and Christmas Eve). Lithuanian lexicographic sources also discuss foods and drinks made from wheat. Flatbreads, fritters, pancakes, and ring-shaped cakes were baked from wheat flour; the Samogitians called them plóniais, plunčiais, plinčiais (KrtnŽ 307). In the writings of Simonas Daukantas, one finds ploniai, kepiai: Motriškosios kviečių plonius ant anglimis kepė ir iškepusios par ugnį mėčiojo vyriškiems valgyti (LKŽₑ, Dauk); Vaišindami davė užsikąsti kepių ar plonių, kvietinių ar pūrinių, kakalyje ar ant anglimis keptų (LKŽₑ, Dauk). Aukštaitian paliepsniai were eaten for breakfast with sour milk or sauce: Da iš pyrago tešlos paliepsniai (KpŽ III 40); Duonos tešlos blynus, keptus prieš liepsną, vadina paliepsniais (KpŽ III 40); Kepame blynus anta lakšto, kvietinius tai daugiausia (DrskŽ 181). Alongside barley flour or potatoes, wheat flour was used to make various fritters and ring-shaped cakes: Pas mus visokius raguolius kepa: ir bulbinius, ir miežinius, ir kvietinius (LKŽₑ, Žmt).

Pies were baked from finely milled wheat flour; they were also called kvietainiais, meaning ‘wheat bread’ and ‘small loaf, bun’: Dėkui svočiutei už pyragėlį, už r incką (nuo Reino) vynelį, už kvietainėlį (LKŽₑ, Plv); Ten (krepšyje) buvo įdėtas pyrago kvietainis (LKŽₑ, Bsg); Kvietiniai miltai gerai, kepu pyragus, bandeles i blynâm gerai (KltŽ 133).

Pies were baked only for holidays and to welcome guests: Retai pyragus kepdavom, tik Velykom, Kalėdom tik (KltŽ 215); Velykom kvietinį pyragą kepam

124

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

(DvŽ I 330); An Velykų kepa kvietienį (ZtŽ 337); Kvietienius suvalciavoja (grind by rolling) [the flour], well, that is only for pies (KpŽ II 554); They baked homemade wheat pies (PPAŽ II 225). A ring-shaped cake, called šakočiu by the people of Užnemunė, was characteristic of their festive table. It was a hollow-centered baked good made from wheat flour, eggs, and sugar, baked in front of an open fire: Labai skanų raguolį iškepė, burnoj tirpsta (ZanŽ II 515). Wheat flour was also used to improve everyday bread: Rugienių [miltų] nebebuvo, tai kvietieniais atminkiau duoną (KpŽ II 554). Rugienė [duona], o kad kviečių turi gerų, tai da paplaki šity kvietienių milty, tai toj kitoniška duona (KpŽ II 554); buns called pakyšuoliai were baked, most often with a bacon filling, from pie or wheat-bread dough, and dipped in lard: Pakišuolį kepdavom, ale maltų kvietienių miltų, tik mielių reikia (KpŽ II 554). Compared with other products, pies made from wheat flour were the most highly valued: Man nereikia tavo pupinių raguolėlių, pakaks mano tėvelio kvietinių pyragėlių (d.) (LKŽₑ, Slk).

In the first half of the 20th century, kvietinių juodmilčių (or razavinių, ‘coarsely ground’ flour) was used to bake ragaišis, ‘bread made from coarse wheat or barley flour’: Koks grūdas, toks ragaišis (PPr 264, Km); Tamsus ragaišis – kūlėtų kviečių (LKŽₑ, Dkš); Prastas pyragas iš juodmilčių (LKŽₑ, Alk); kvietinė, kvietienė, ‘wheat-baked ragaišis’: Atanėšė ligoniui kvietinės (LKŽₑ, Ut); Turim šviežių kviečių, reiks kept kvietienes (LKŽₑ, Tj); Kvietienę neraugina, tik anksčiau užmaišo (LKŽₑ, Tj); kvietinėlis, ‘small wheat pie’; kvietinė duona: Pūrų (winter wheat) duona irstanti (LKŽₑ, Šts); a pie or bread that had turned out badly or was poorly baked was called kepaišiu: Kepaišis prastas, prastai sumaltūs (poorly ground) kviečiai (KpŽ II 554); Tokį kepaišį iškepė, o sako, ka pyragus kepiau (KrtnŽ 155).

Wheat grains were and still are used to make kvietinės kruopos: Jau ma[n] kvietinė kruopa tai jau prasta (JrbŽ); Čielus gi kviečius verda, kas labai mėgsta, kviečius saldu (saldžiu) vandeniu apsipila, kaip skanu, kaip kruopos (LKŽₑPK, Imb). Other dishes were also prepared (kissel, pancakes, porridge, dumplings (klečiūkai), and soups): Kvietinę košę verdam, ruginę košę verdam (KzRŽ I 414); Kvietinis kisielius panašus į avižinį (ZanŽ I 828); Kvietiniai miltai gerai, kepu pyragus, bandeles į blyn am gerai (KltŽ 133); Kviečių luobus vadina šelenom, aba pas mus sako klynės (ZanŽ I 722); Prašom, prašom ant miežių syvo, ant kviečių pyrago (KpŽ II 554); Sudaigina kviečius, sudžiovina ir valgo [per Kūčias] (KpŽ II 554); Zacirkai va arba blyn am tai irgi maldavo kviečius (KpŽ II 554); Pusryčiui blynai grikiniai, žirnienai, kvietieniai (KpŽ II 554); Košės i(š)siverdi kvietinės razavos (coarsely ground), piene išverdi (VdšŽ 337); Ant šv. Jacko valgyk naujų kviečių klecką (LKŽₑ, VP 8). Porridge,

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas:

kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

125

made half-and-half from wheat (or rye) flour, potatoes, and milk, was called pusmarškone (ŠVakŽŽ II 114) or marškone: Išvirė pusryčiui pusmarškonės košės į pasitaisiau (KrtnŽ 328). In the past, wheat flour was a luxury for preparing everyday meals, as the dictionary data also show: Šeimynai tai jau nelabai duodavo jau tę kvietienių nei blynų, nei niekur nieko, žirnių būdavo (KpŽ II 554); Dzacirka po karam būdavo rugienė, juoda, kas tau duos kvietinę (VdšŽ 337). The household was served wheat soup, kvietienė, or the considerably poorer-quality zacirka: Jągų kvietienės pavalgai, tai šipšt šipšt, tai slidi, rokuoja, šleikštu, praščiau (KpŽ IV 917); Blynam, zacirkai maldavom žirnių su kviečiais (LKŽₑ, Kvr); Zacirkai arba blyn am tai irgi maldavom kviečius (KpŽ IV 917). Such soup was poor and tasteless, but a large quantity was cooked so that the household could be fed.

Another wheat dish made by the Zanavykai was kukulái čiai (kleckiūkai), dumplings made from wheat flour and eaten as a milk soup or a soup seasoned with bacon fat (Marcinkevičienė 2015: 138). Wheat grains had to be pounded thoroughly in a mortar so that the husks would come off: Kviečiai reikia krušti, tai gerai subvirs ir bus minkšti (LKŽₑ, Žl).

Wheat was also used to make homemade spirits and beer: Samagoną darydavo iš rugių, kviečių, tiktai mažujų, be akuotų, senybiniai (KpŽ II 554); Pirmam kupke žalias vynas, kitam kupke saldus medus, trečiam kupke kvietinis alus (ZtŽ 337); Kvietinės [degtinės] bonką išrovė (got) (DrskŽ 181); Kvietinę arielką daro (KltŽ 133); Atnešiau, pastačiau kvietienės ant stalo, tai jam akys ant kaktos iššoko (LKŽₑPK, Grnk).

Wheat was also used to dye Easter eggs: Avižom ir kviečių želmenim dažydavo kiaušinius žalsvai (LKŽₑPK, Dgč).

4.2. Fodder

Wheat is used not only as human food, but also as fodder for livestock and poultry. This is also borne out by Lithuanian lexicographic sources: They used to feed pigs with wheat flour, and then they would have plenty of bacon (KpŽ II 554); I bought wheat bran for the pig (LKŽₑ, Plk); They wouldn’t lay, wouldn’t lay; I started feeding them wheat and they began laying eggs (LKŽₑPK, Sur). The cut wheat field was also used for fodder—a wheat stubble field: In autumn he grazes the sheep on the wheat stubble (DvŽ II 330); You can graze them on the wheat stubble, I saw such lovely grass has already grown (LKŽₑ, Paj).

Boiled wheat was used as bait to attract fish: They catch roach with boiled wheat (LKŽₑPK, Krč).

126

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

4.3. Folk medicine

The common wheat, paprastasis kvietys, which has medicinal properties, has long been used in folk medicine, for example, to treat digestive disorders: When the stomach was bad, you see, in those days they used to boil wheat (LKŽₑPK, Mžš). Folk medicine made use not only of wheat grains, but also of bran, flour, and especially sprouts. These were used for growths and to restore the body. It has now been established that the plant removes cholesterol from the body, and therefore helps people with atherosclerosis and in treating obesity. Wheat can be used in cases of vitamin deficiency and iron deficiency, since it is rich in vitamins and iron. Common wheat helps create a barrier against viruses and bacteria and strengthens the body.

Boiled wheat grains were used in compresses and poultices because they reduce pain: Wheat is medicine: boil it, crush it, put it on a little kerchief, a linen one, and place it on the legs (LKŽₑPK, Sur). Today, wheat grains are also used to prepare medicinal products. Oil can be pressed from them (it is rich in vitamin E); the grains can be fermented and distilled (producing a liquid used to treat the skin), or used to make decoctions. Wheat flour is used to make cosmetic products, while wheat bran is used for therapeutic skin baths.

4.4. Predictions, magic, superstitions, beliefs

Following the advice of their elders, farmers chose the right time to sow wheat according to signs in nature. The best time for sowing wheat is when marsh marigolds are in bloom and the first dewdrops form on nettle leaves. Peasants would not sow grain if a south wind was blowing. They waited for north winds, which were believed to protect the crops from worms. Wheat was therefore sown during the waning moon so that worms would not attack it.

Farmers tried to sow wheat in the evening or on a dark night, without sun or moon, so that the wheat would not be kūlēti: When sowing wheat, one must make sure there is no moon—it will be kūlēti (LKŽₑ, Pnd); Sow wheat when there is no moon, or the wheat will be kūlēti (KpŽ II 554).

Sparrows like wheat grains, so people took care to prevent them from getting either the sown or ripening grain: Sparrows like to eat soft wheat (LKŽₑ, Grž). Therefore, the first strip (the first furrow) of wheat had to be sown so that the grain would fly toward the house. This meant that, while sowing, one would not attract sparrows from the house; alternatively, the first three handfuls of wheat had to be thrown toward the north so that sparrows would not eat the wheat ripening in the field. In addition, with a wheat grain clenched between his teeth

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas:

kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

127

… [father], until it starts to get dark, and one must not ask for anything; then the sparrows do not eat [wheat] (KpŽ II 554); If you want the sparrows not to attack the wheat you have sown, eat some bacon and rub your hands with it (LTR, Kp); When going to sow wheat, one should make sure that the sparrows have something to eat (LTR, Grk).

The future wheat harvest was foretold from pine inflorescences: If the female pine flowers (the male inflorescence of pine) are heavy, it will be a year rich in wheat (LKŽₑ, Trgn). If oak leaves fall quickly, wheat will yield well. Hoping for white cakes – When cutting wheat, one must not wait until it turns brown; then the cakes will be whiter (Aruodai.lt). It was believed that winter wheat had to be cut before Saint Lawrence’s Day (August 10) without fail: Winter wheat must definitely be cut before Lawrence’s Day (KpŽ III 230).

Agricultural divination practices were very varied. A widely known custom was to pull hay from beneath the tablecloth on Christmas Eve, while eating or after the meal. The head of the household would search beneath the hay for cereal grains, and whatever kind he found, he would sow more of, hoping for a good harvest.

Many Christmas Eve divination practices were associated with the foods eaten on that evening. For example, people would take a spoonful of wheat or a handful of nuts, peas, or beans and determine whether the number was even (the dead, and also future marriages) or odd (the living). To protect against evil, not only rowan branches but also sheaves of wheat were hung in the corners of houses.

Wheat was also mentioned in incantations against illness. The practice was as follows: the point of a sickle was moved around the painful spot while saying: “I cut barley, I cut wheat, I cut the spring crops, and I will cut you too, illness!” (Vaitkevičienė 2008: 346).

4.5. Customs and Rituals

The ancient rites marking the beginning and end of sowing had one main purpose: to ensure the coming harvest through magic, divination, prayers, and offerings, and to protect it from all kinds of misfortune.

Lithuanians had a custom of visiting their crops and performing rites in the fields. In the late nineteenth century, a sower from the Panevėžys area, after finishing sowing wheat, rode around the wheat field several times on a stick, astride and wearing his clothes inside out, so that rain or hail would not flatten the crop (Dundulienė 2020: 153).

Another custom involved young people dancing in circles around the feast table, singing about wheat plants and other cereals. Sometimes they would command the crops to blossom well. If rye or wheat

128

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

When they were ripe and could shed their grain, the women would begin cutting early in the morning, while the dew was still on the grass, and finish at sunset or even later (for more, see Dundulienė 2020: 193). The custom is reflected in the idiom the wheat isn’t falling ‘there is no need to hurry’: The rye isn’t falling, the wheat isn’t falling (FŽₑ). For the harvest-ending rites, women made small flatbreads from wheat flour, and the men tossed them through the fire until they hardened and baked.

Another ancient rural custom associated with cereal crops was to fumigate livestock being driven out to pasture with herbs believed to have apotropaic⁸ power, rye flour, wheat, and other things, since it was believed that their smoke would protect against all kinds of misfortune (Dundulienė 2020: 140).

5. DERIVATIVES, COMPOUNDS, COLLOCATIONS, IDIOMS, PROVERBS

The group of wheat derivatives is neither large nor varied. The richest derivational chains consist of diminutives of the basic words; names for tasks, people who perform tasks related to wheat, periods devoted to wheat-related work, and plants that grow in and parasitize wheat. Wheat diminutives—kvieteliai, kviečeliai, kvietukai, kvietužėliai—are most often used in songs: Nelapoja kvieteliai (LKŽₑ, JV 640); Težyd rugeliai, težyd kviečeliai (LKŽₑ, RD 80); Nedygo rugeliai, nedygo mieželiai – išdygo kvietužėliai (LKŽₑ, BsO 245).

Important derivatives in the semantic field of wheat are kvietiena, kvietynas ‘a field where wheat has been harvested’. Flax was laid out, clover sown, and livestock and domestic birds grazed in harvested wheat fields: Klosim linus ant kvietienos (LKŽₑ, Ds); Kitą metą kvietienoj bus geri dobilai (LKŽₑ, Mrj); Rudenin in kvietienos avis gano (DvŽ I 330); Kitą metą kvietienoj bus geri dobilai (LKŽₑ, Mrj); Nugink vištas į kvietieną, lai lasio[ją] grūdus (KrtnŽ 202). An idiomatic expression associated with kvietiena conveys a negative view of an unmarried man: Eik kvietienos grėbti – merga sako senvaikiui (LKŽₑ, J). Another derivative associated with a wheat field is pakvietė, pakvietys ‘a place beside a wheat field’: Pakviečiais pakviečiais ir išeisi į kelią (DūnŽ 235).

The wheat harvest, kviečiapjūtė, usually began after the rye harvest, around the Feast of the Assumption. The weather varied, with both clear and rainy days: Šiemet lietinga kviečiapjūtė (LKŽₑ, Ig).

⁸ Objects or ritual actions believed to possess magical powers to protect livestock or people from evil, misfortune, and illness.

VILija SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

129

Certain types of wheat are named with compounds. The principal wheat derivatives recorded in dialect dictionaries reflect the crop’s importance in everyday life and how it was valued: kvietrugiai ‘wheat mixed with rye’: Kvietrugių sėja, kad duona būtų baltesnė (DūnŽ 164); Pavasarį pasėjau kvietrugius, tai žinai, nekoki užaugo (ZanŽ I 828). Other wheat derivatives recorded in Lithuanian lexicographic sources include kvietgrūdžiai ‘wheat grains’, kvietmilčiai ‘wheat flour’, kvietdirsiai ‘very poor, smutty wheat’, and kviečiažolė ‘a grass-family plant, barnyard millet (Panicum crus galli)’.

The word kvietys forms part of other names. Admiring fertile plants unknown to their grandparents, peasants called maize Turkish, tūkai / Turkish wheat (LKŽᴱ PK, I). A particular species of leafy moss, common haircap moss, is called hare’s wheat.

Idiomatic connections reflect various stereotypical traits associated with wheat and are most clearly visible in a defined microcontext. The finest wheat product, cake, is called the flower of wheat: Dėkui svotuliam ažu pyragėlių, ažu kviečio žiedu (d.) (KltŽ 426).

A negative judgment of a way of life (untidiness) is expressed indirectly through an analogy with the possibility of sowing wheat, in reference to a dirty nape: You could sow wheat on the back of your neck (FŽᴱ, Grš); wheat is growing in his ears (of an untidy person) (ZanŽ I 828).

It is commonly stated that “a simile is a stylistic device for juxtaposing or comparing one thing or phenomenon with another in order to emphasize, distinguish, highlight, or specify some feature or characteristic” (LKPŽᴱ, preface). Similes containing the word kvietys or its derivatives are not numerous, but they too provide information about the characteristics of wheat or its products that Lithuanians notice. For example, a lazy person is compared to wheat dough: Onos motina ugi kvietinė tešla: sėdi ir žiūri (FŽᴱ, Skr). An awkward, lazy person is vividly compared to a sack of wheat bran: Minkštas kaip kvietinių klynų (sėlenų) maišas (ZanŽ I 828). Wheat was regarded as a valuable cereal: Nulupai kaip už kviečius (LKŽᴱ, Skr); Pelnas kap už kviečius (LKŽᴱ, Gs); a measure for comparing prices: Už kilį (a kilogram) žuvies, būlo (it used to be), pūdą⁹ miltų kvietinių nusperki (DrskŽ 181).

Of unfulfilled promises or an unpaid debt, people say to repay with wheat after death, meaning that the debt will never be recovered: Jis atsilygys posmert (after death) kviečiais (ZanŽ I 828).

⁹ A unit of weight: 16.3 kg.

130

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

Proverbs and sayings close to phraseology, as standardized expressions, reveal the farmer’s view of the world, wisdom about life, and practical advice. Wheat, and the cakes and wheat loaves baked from its flour, are symbols of a good, prosperous life, while bread is a symbol of everyday life; in proverbs they are used antonymically: Don’t worry about cakes; worry that there is bread (KltŽ 215); Seeking a wheat loaf, you will lose even poor bread (PPr 185, Sv); Wish for a wheat loaf, but look after the bread (PPr 222, Km); Sow goosefoot, and you won’t reap wheat (LKŽₑ, Vdk). The proverbs emphasize that the staple food is not cake made from wheat flour, but bread baked from rye flour, without which a person cannot imagine life: A wheat loaf grows tiresome, but bread never does (PPr 227, Trg); Even cake grows tiresome if eaten every day (LKŽₑ, Sld); they also mock and speak ironically: They gave him a wheat loaf and stuffed his pockets (PPr 324, Pš).

6. SEMANTIC CATEGORIES, COGNITIVE DEFINITION

Data from Lithuanian lexicographic sources are grouped according to the list of distinctive features proposed by the Lublin ethnolinguistic school, that is, according to the essential parameters of wheat, known as facets.

[ESSENTIAL CATEGORY] – cereal, member of the grass family, grain crop, winter wheat, spring wheat, bread grain, fodder crop, cultivated plant;

[NAMES, DERIVATIVES] – pūrai, kviečias, kviečis, kviečiukas, kvietukas, awned, awnless;

[HYPERNYMS] – cereal, plant, grain, winter crop, spring crop;

[HYPONYMS] – spring wheats, white wheats, common wheats, soft wheats, hard wheats, dense-spiked wheats, two-grained wheats, winter wheats;

[PROPERTIES] – leafy, dense, lush;

[APPEARANCE] – yellow, green, golden, feathery;

[PARTS] – flower, ear, stem (straw), roots.

[STATES, ACTIONS] – grows, turns green, turns yellow, heads;

[THINGS] – bran, chaff, cake, wheat loaf, groats;

[AMOUNT, QUANTITY] – like a forest, like a stone wall, like a marsh, like a wall;

[OBJECT OF ACTIONS] – blessed in church during the Feast of the Assumption; sheaves placed in the four corners of the house on Christmas Eve; appears with other grains in Christmas greetings; laid with hay beneath the tablecloth on Christmas Eve;

[TIME] – heading, ear formation, wheat harvest;

[LOCALIZATION] – wheat stubble, stubble field, threshing floor; pakvietė, pakvietys;

[SOIL] – sandy, on a hill, black, clayey, rich, wet;

[OPPOSITIONS] – with weeds (diršemės, kūlės, thistles, lamb’s quarters); with other cereals (rye, buckwheat), with legumes (peas); with pests; with sparrows;

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

131

[COLLECTIONS] – with cereals (rye, barley, oats), with legumes (peas, vetches), with other plants (flax, clover);

[WORK, ACTIVITIES] – tying into sheaves, threshing, cleaning, winnowing, milling;

[TOOLS] – sickle, flail, threshing machine, millstones;

[FOOD, FODDER, REMEDY, BENEFIT] – cake, ragaišis bread, bread, various porridges, beer, homemade vodka; fodder (straw, chaff, grain, flour); medicine for the sick;

[DIVINATION, SPELLS, SUPERSTITIONS, BELIEFS] – grain, straw;

[CUSTOMS, RITUALS] – sheaves (together with sheaves of other cereals) placed in the four corners of the house at Kūčios, so that the following year’s harvest would be abundant and fruitful;

[EQUIVALENCE] – with rye;

[SYMBOL] – of feasts, wealth, abundance, and a good life.

Analysis of the systematic data in lexicographic sources (especially dialect dictionaries) highlights that wheat is a cereal, a bread grain, a winter and spring crop whose grain and flour are used for food and fodder; a symbol of feasts, wealth, abundance, and a good life; wheat grows on higher-lying sandy but well-fertilized soil; it is revered as a bread grain, used not only in everyday meals and to prepare ritual foods, but also as a remedy for various illnesses; and it is an important element of beliefs, rituals, and so on.

In Lithuanian folk culture, according to ethnologists, rye was the most highly valued of the cereal crops, followed by barley, buckwheat, and wheat (Dundulienė 1982: 163–164). Analysis of lexicographic data reveals that the content of the cognitive definition¹⁰ consists of wheat’s properties as reflected in language and the linguistic material that substantiates them.

SUMMARY

In summary, the data from Lithuanian dialectal lexicographic sources suggest that dialect dictionaries construct the following picture of the concept kvietys: for the Lithuanian peasant, farmer, and member of a rural community, wheat is not only a source of food or the basis of biological existence, but also a significant part of the worldview reflected in language (dictionary definitions, phraseology, proverbs, and sayings, folk songs—

¹⁰ To reconstruct the worldview encoded in language and its core (values), cognitive definition is chosen as a means of making the research results explicit; it is understood as a narrative about the world (Niebrzegowska-Bartmińska 2020: 52). The aim of cognitive definition is to describe how people who speak a particular language perceive a given subject, that is, to grasp the socially established knowledge about the world that can be accessed through language and its use, as well as the categorization of phenomena, their characteristics, and values (Rutkovska, Smetona, Smetonienė 2017: 34; Bartmiński 1988: 169–170).

132

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

songs, folktales) interpretation, a symbol of celebrations, a reflection of respect for traditions, and a measure of value. In Lithuanian folk tradition, kvietys is a symbol of wealth, a good life, and celebrations. As a bread grain, wheat was used not only in everyday and festive food and in preparing ritual dishes, but also as a means in incantations and in treating various illnesses.

Analysis of data from Lithuanian dialect dictionaries and the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language established that the lexeme kvietys and its derivatives occur in various parts of lexicographic entries: 1) as the headword of a lexicographic entry; 2) in definitions and illustrative sentences; 3) in illustrations in entries for other words (e.g., grain, seed, cake); 4) in terminological compounds (e.g., common wheat); 5) in proverbs and sayings; 6) in phraseological expressions.

The lexicographic definition of wheat highlights the following categorical features: a plant; a food and fodder crop; a cereal; a spring or winter grain; the grain of that crop; a symbol of celebrations and wealth.

ABBREVIATIONS

Alk – Alksnėnai, Vilkaviškis District.

An – Anykščiai

Baran – Antanas Baranauskas (1835–1902), his writings.

Brž – Biržai

Bsg – Baisógala, Radviliškis municipal territory.

BsO – Ožkabalĭų dainos. Surinko d–ras J. Basanavičius. Du tomai, 1902.

Dauk – Simonas Daukantas (1793–1902), his writings.

Dgč – Degučiai, Zarasai District.

Dkš – Daukšiai, Marijampolė municipal territory.

Ds – Dūsetos, Zarasai District.

Ėr – Ėriškiai, Panevėžys district.

Grk – Girkalnis, Raseiniai district.

Grnk – Grinkiškis, Radviliškis district.

Grš – Grįškabūdis, Šakiai district.

Grž – Grūžiai, Pasvalys district.

Gs – Geistarai, Vilkaviškis district.

I – Laurynas Ivinskis (1810–1881), his writings.

Ig – Igliáuka, Marijámpolė municipal territory.

Ign – Ignalinà

Imb – Imbradas, Zarasai district.

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

133

J – Litovskij slovarj A. Juškevičia s tolkovanijem slov na ruskom i poljskom jazykach, I (letters A–D) – 1897, II (E–J) – 1904, III (up to the word kukštuotis) – 1922, St. Petersburg.

Jabl – Jonas Jablonskis (1870–1930), his writings.

JD – Lietùviškos dájnos užrašýtos par Antáną Juškevičę, I–III, Kazan, 1880–1882.

JT – Kazimieras Šaulys, Juodžiūnų tarmė. Copy of the manuscript, donated by the Adelaide Pensioners’ Club in 1988.

JV – Lietuviškos svotbinės dainos, užrašytos par Antaną Juškevičę ir išspausdintos par Joną Juškevičę, Petropylė: Imperial Academy of Sciences Press, 1883.

Jz – Jieznas, Prienai District.

K – Deutsch-litauisches Wörterbuch von Friedrich Kurschat, Halle, I – 1870, II – 1874.

Kl – Kuliai, Plungė District.

Km – Kamajai, Rokiškis District.

Klvr – Kalvarija, Marijampolė County.

Kp – Kupiškis.

Krč – Krinčinas, Pasvalys District.

Krišč – Jonas Kriščiūnas (1888–1973), Lithuanian agronomist and beekeeper, born in Stebuliškės, Marijampolė County.

Krsn – Krosna, Lazdijai District.

Kvr – Kavarskas, Anykščiai District.

Lš – Liškiava, Varėna District.

Mrj – Marijampolė

Mžš – Miežiškiai, Panevėžys district

Pa_c – Paistrys, Panevėžys district

Pc – Pociūnėliai, Radviliškis district

Plk – Plokščiai, Šakiai district

Plv – Pilviškiai, Vilkaviškis district

Pnd – Pandėlys, Rokiškis district

Prk – Priekulė, Klaipėda district

Pš – Pušalotas, Pasvalys district

RD – Liudas Rėza’s Songs. 3rd edition of the first Lithuanian songbook. Prepared for publication by M. Biržiška, Parts I and II, Kaunas, 1935, 1937.

Rnv – Renavas, Mažeikiai district

Sdk – Sudeikiai, Utena district

Skp – Skapiškis, Kupiškis district

Skr – Skirsnemunė, Jurbarkas district

Sld – Saldutiškis, Utena district

134

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

Slk – Salakas, Zarasai district

Smn – Simnas, Alytus district

Sn – Sejny

Srj – Seirijai, Lazdijai district

Sur – Surdegis, Anykščiai district

Sv – Svėdasai, Anykščiai district

Šd – Šeduva, Radviliškis district

Šil – Šilalė

Šts – Šatės, Skuodas district

Švd – Švedriškė, Ignalina district

Tj – Taujėnai, Ukmergė district

Trak – Trakai

Trg – Tauragė

Trgn – Tauragnai, Utena district

Up – Upyna, Šilalė district

Ut – Utena

Užp – Užpaliai, Utena district.

Vdk – Vidūklė, Raseiniai district.

Vl – Veliuonà, Jùrbarkas district.

Vlž – Velžys, Panevėžys district.

VP – Motiejus Valančius, Patarles žemajcziu. Tilžėje, 1867.

Vrb – Virbālis, Vilkaviškis district.

Všt – Vištytis, Vilkaviškis district.

Žl – Žélva, Ukmergė district.

Žmt – Žemaitkiemis, Ukmergė district.

ŠALTINIAI

Aruodai.lt – Lietuvių pasakojamosios tautosakos katalogas. Prieiga internete: http://www.aruodai.lt/pasakos/repertuaras/paieska.php.

AŽ – Erm anytė Irena, Antonimų žodynas, 2003 (elektroninis variantas), Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/antonimu-zodynas/.

DrskŽ – Naktinienė Gertrūda, Paulauskienė Aldona, Vitkauskas Vytautas, Druskininkų tarmės žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1988.

DūnŽ – Vitkauskas Vytautas, Šiaurės rytų dunininkų šnektų žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976.

DvŽ – Dieveniškių šnektos žodynas 1–2, moksl. red. D. Mikulėnienė, A. Vidugiris, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005–2010.

FŽₑ – Frazeologijos žodynas, sud. I. Erm anytė, O. Kažukauskaitė, G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, Z. Šimėnaitė, A. Vilutytė, vyr. red. J. Paulauskas, Vilnius:

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

135

Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2001. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/frazeologijos-žodynas/.

JrbŽ – Jurbarko šnektos žodynas: rankraštis, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

KltŽ – Vilutytė Angelė, Kaltanėnų šnektos žodynas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008.

KpŽ – Vosylvytė Klementina, Kupiškėnų žodynas 1–4, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2007, 2010, 2012, 2013.

KrtnŽ – Aleksandravičius Juozas, Kretingos tarmės žodynas, sud. D. Mikulėnienė, D. Vaišnienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2011.

KzRŽ – Pupkis Aldonas, Kazlų Rūdos šnektos žodynas 1–2, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008–2009.

LKPŽₑ – Vosylvytė Klementina, Lietuvių kalbos palyginimų žodynas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2014, elektroninis variantas, 2015. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/palyginimu-zodynas.

LKŽₑ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20 (1941–2002), red. kolegija G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, e. variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008 (atnaujinta versija, 2018). Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas.

LKŽₑPK – Lietuvių kalbos žodyno Papildymų kartoteka. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lkz-papildymu-kartoteka.

LKŽₑTK – Lietuvių kalbos žodyno Tarmių kartoteka. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lkz-tarmiu-kartoteka.

LTR – Lietuvių tautosakos rankraštynas, saugomas Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institute, Vilniuje.

PPAŽ – Leskauskaitė Asta, Ragaišienė Vilija, Pietinių pietų aukštaičių šnektų žodynas 1–2, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2016–2019.

PPr – Grigas Kazys, Jonynas Ambraziejus, Patarlės ir priežodžiai, Vilnius, 1958.

SŽₑ – Lyberis Antanas, Sinonimų žodynas 2002 (elektroninis variantas), 2-asis patais. leid., Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/sinonimu-zodynas/.

ŠVakŽŽ – Vanagienė Birutė, Šiaurės vakarų žemaičių žodynas: Ylakių, Len kimų, Mosedžio, Skuodo, Šačių apylinkių šnektos 1–2, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2014–2015.

VdšŽ – Markevičienė Žaneta, Markevičius Aurimas, Vidiškių šnektos žodynas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2014.

ZanŽ – Zanavykų šnektos žodynas 1–3, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, t. 1, 2003, vyr. red. Aldonas Pupkis; t. 2–3, 2004–2006, vyr. red. Vilija Sakalauskienė.

ZtŽ – Vidugiris Aloyzas, Zietelos šnektos žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 1998.

136

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

LITERATŪRA

Bartmiński Jerzy 1988: Definicija kognitywna jak narzędzie opisu konotacji. – Konotacja, Lublin, 169–183.

Bartmiński Jerzy 2020: Kultūrinė lingvistika: teorinės prielaidos ir metodai. DARBO definicijos Slavų ir jų kaimynų aksiologiniame leksikone (LA-SiS) pavyzdys. – Vertybės lietuvių ir lenkų pasaulėvaizdyje 1. Teorinės prielaidos ir interpretacijos, Vilnius, Liublinas: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 24–45.

Bartmiński Jerzy, Chlebda Wojciech 2013: Problem konceptu bazowego i jego profilowania – na przykładzie stereotypu EUROPY. – Etno-lingwistyka 25, 69–95.

Dundulienė Pranė 1982: Lietuvių etnografija, Vilnius: Mokslas.

Dundulienė Pranė 2020: Lietuvių kalendoriniai ir agrariniai papročiai, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras.

Klimka Libertas 2015: Zanavykų tradicijos ir papročiai. – Esam zanavykai, sud. A. Papievienė, Vilnius: UAB Meno žvaigždė, 31–48.

Marcinkevičienė Nijolė 2015: Zanavykų tradicinė mityba. – Esam zanavykai, sud. A. Papievienė, Vilnius: UAB Meno žvaigždė, 135–160.

Niebrzegowska-Bartmińska Stanisława 2020: Definiowanie i profilowanie pojęć w (etno)lingwistyce, Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej.

Papaurelytė-Klovienė Silvija 2007: Lingvistinės kultūrologijos bruožai, Šiauliai: VŠĮ Šiaulių universiteto leidykla.

Rutkovska Kristina 2021: Leksikografiniai šaltiniai lietuvių kalbos pasaulėvaizdžio tyrimuose. – Vertybės lietuvių ir lenkų kalbų pasaulėvaizdyje, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 181–200.

Rutkovska Kristina, Smetona Marius, Smetonienė Irena 2017: Vertybės lietuvio pasaulėvaizdyje, Vilnius: Akademinė leidyba.

Sabaliauskas Algirdas 1990: Lietuvių kalbos leksika, Vilnius: Mokslas.

Vaitkevičienė Daiva 2008: Lietuvių užkalbėjimai. Gydymo formulės, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas.

Gauta 2024-09-10

Priimta 2024-10-14

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas 137

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ

DIALECT DICTIONARY AS A CULTURAL TEXT: THE LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL IMAGE OF WHEAT

Summary

Dialect dictionaries have been getting more attention from ethnolinguists lately, with the significance of dialects of dialect dictionaries as cultural texts increasingly emphasised, as their producers realise that the main purpose of a dictionary is to document, preserve, and publicise the fundamental manifestations of culture. A large part of a dictionary’s value consists of illustrative sentences recorded from the living language and capturing the people’s life during a particular period: details of everyday life and holidays, the shift in moods and ideas, the unique view and assessment of the world. Illustrative sentences for headwords come in a number of various genres, such as phraseological units, rhetorical proverbs, riddles, songs, fairy tales, charms, beliefs, and so on.

The article emphasises that a dialectal word is a text that falls into a particular genre and reveals the cultural context in which a word functions. The main focal point is the relationship between human existence and culture through the concept of WHEAT. Ethnolinguistic analysis of the data of Lithuanian dialect dictionaries considers all of the data available in the entry for a word, such as collocations, citations that illustrate the setting of the headword, synonyms, antonyms, derivatives, phraseological units, rhetorical proverbs, and so on.

In the culture of the Lithuanian nation, wheat is seen as a symbol of holidays and wealth. In folklore, wheat often goes hand in hand with other grains, such as rye, barley, and oats. People have been using wheat for food and medicine since ancient times. Owing to its medicinal properties, wheat held a place among folk remedies. Wheat is celebrated as a cereal and was part of the daily diet and ceremonial meals, just as it had its use as a remedy for various ailments. Folk medicine had application both for the grains of wheat and for its bran and flour as well. Wheat was also prominently featured in various beliefs.

The lexicographic definition of wheat highlights the following attributes of category: it is an edible plant, a member of the poaceae family that grows in summer or winter, a symbol of holidays and wealth.

KEYWORDS: WHEAT, linguistic worldview, ethnolinguistics, dialectal dictionary, definition, phraseological unit, paremia.

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

138

BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97

VILija SAKALAUSKIENĖ

TARMINIS ŽODYNAS KAIP KULTŪROS TEKSTAS: KALBINIS IR KULTŪRINIS KVIEČIO PAVEIKSLAS

S a n t r a u k a

Pastaruoju metu daugiau etnolingvistų dėmesio sulaukia tarminiai žodynai, vis labiau pabrėžiama tarminių žodynų kaip kultūros tekstų reikšmė, nes jų rengėjai suvokia svarbiausią žodynų paskirtį dokumentuoti, saugoti ir viešinti esmines kultūros apraiškas. Didelė žodynų vertybė – iliustraciniai sakiniai, užrašyti iš gyvosios kalbos, fiksuojantys tam tikro laikotarpio žmonių gyvenimą: kasdienės buities ir švenčių detales, nuotaikų ir minčių kaitą, savitą pasaulio matymą ir vertinimą. Iliustraciniai antraštinio žodžio sakiniai yra įvairių žanrų: tai frazeologizmai, paremijos, mįslės, dainos, pasakos, užkalbėjimai, tikėjimai ir pan.

Straipsnyje pabrėžiama, kad tarminis žodynas yra tam tikro žanro tekstas, atskleidžiantis kultūrinį žodžio funkcionavimo kontekstą. Dėmesys kreipiamas į žmogaus būties bei kultūros ryšį per KVIEČIO konceptą. Analizuojant lietuvių tarminių žodynų duomenis etnolingvistiniu aspektu, atsižvelgiama į visus žodžio straipsnyje esančius duomenis: kolokacijas, citatas, iliustruojančias antraštinio žodžio aplinką, sinonimus, antonimus, darinius, frazeologizmus, paremijas ir kt.

Lietuvių tautos kultūroje kvietys pagal vertinimą yra švenčių, turtingumo simbolis. Tautosakoje kvietys dažnai minimas su kitais javais: rugiais, miežiais ir avižomis. Jau senovėje žmonės kviečius vartojo maistui ir vaistams. Gydomosiomis savybėmis pasižymintys kviečiai naudoti liaudies medicinoje. Kvietys gerbiamas kaip duoninis javas, naudotas ne tik kasdienėje mityboje ir apeiginiams valgiams ruošti, bet ir kaip priemonė įvairioms ligoms gydyti. Liaudies medicinoje buvo pritaikyti ne tik kviečių grūdai, bet ir sėlenos, miltai. Kvietys svarbus ir tikėjimuose.

Leksikografinė kviečio definicija išryškina šiuos kategorinius bruožus: augalas, maistinis, varpinis, vasarinis ar žieminis, švenčių, turtingumo simbolis.

ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: kvietys, kalbinis pasaulio vaizdas, etnolingvistika, tarminis žodynas, definicija, frazeologizmas, paremija.

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

VILIJA SAKALAUSKIENĖ. Tarminis žodynas kaip kultūros tekstas: kalbinis ir kultūrinis kviečio paveikslas

139