ŽODŽIŲ FORMOS IR JŲ VARTOSENA LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

K. ULVYDAS

STUDIES OF THE ADVERB IN LITHUANIAN

1. Simple adverbs of the plural instrumental with -ais

§ 1. The instrumental case in Baltic and Slavic languages is distinguished by an exceptional abundance of adverbial meanings. This facilitates the adverbialization of this case. An abundance of adverbial meanings is particularly characteristic of the instrumental case in Lithuanian. Circumstantial meanings are expressed mainly by the instrumental of nouns. Instrumental adverbs are so numerous and so frequently used in Lithuanian that the ending of the instrumental of nouns (especially the plural) could often be regarded here as an adverb-forming suffix, at least in cases where the corresponding noun is no longer used alongside the instrumental adverb.

Interestingly, in Lithuanian the plural instrumental is in no way inferior to the singular instrumental in its abundance of adverbial meanings and its tendency toward adverbialization. There are more adverbs with a fossilized plural instrumental ending than those with a fossilized singular instrumental ending. It is therefore possible to speak of the fossilized plural instrumental ending as having moved closer to an adverb-forming suffix.

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of instrumental adverbs in Lithuanian: some derive directly from instrumental forms as a result of adverbialization, while others are formed with the instrumental ending functioning as a suffix, on the model of existing adverbs. It is impossible to draw a strict boundary between the two kinds. The suffixal formation of instrumental adverbs can be discussed only provisionally, that is, without forgetting that a large proportion of them are nothing other than adverbialized instrumental forms of nouns or other nominal words. The analysis of the formation of instrumental adverbs is difficult, or even impossible, to separate from the analysis of their structure.

§ 2. The distribution of instrumental adverbs by stem is proportional to the distribution of nominal words by stem: the more common the nominal words of a given stem, the more adverbs there are with that stem.

In the formation and structure of adverbs with a fossilized plural instrumental ending, the following stems are the most productive and most frequent: a, ia, o and io. Among these, the o stem is notable for its particularly high derivational productivity and frequency of use, yielding whole series of simple, prefixed, and compound-stem adverbs. Of all the other stems, only the ę stem stands out for somewhat greater productivity and prevalence. Finally, the i, u and iu stems play only a very minor role in the formation and structure of adverbs with a fossilized plural instrumental ending. The consonant stem is almost unrepresented; the plural instrumental ending of nouns with this stem has itself already merged with the ending of nouns with the i stem.

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§ 3. Here it is useful to make a few remarks on the derivational and structural classification of instrumental adverbs.

As may already have become clear from the introductory remarks, when examining the function and structure of instrumental adverbs, it is useful first to divide them into two large groups. The first group consists of adverbs associated with the singular instrumental form, and the second of adverbs associated with the plural instrumental form. Thus, on the basis of their outward form, singular and plural instrumental adverbs emerge. However, as is clear, the grammatical category of number is entirely alien to the adverb; it plays absolutely no role here in terms of meaning.

Each of the groups mentioned here should then be subdivided according to the stems of the nouns with which the adverbs themselves are associated. That is, one can speak of a, ia, o, io-stem and other-stem noun singular instrumental adverbs, as well as plural instrumental adverbs of nouns with the same stems. Since instrumental adverbs are associated with simple, prefixed, and compound nouns alike, within each stem one must again distinguish groups of simple, prefixed, and compound singular and plural instrumental adverbs.

The stem-based classification of instrumental adverbs is dictated by the material under analysis. Such a classification is determined precisely by the close derivational and structural relationship between instrumental adverbs and nouns, especially substantives. In general, all adverbs associated with nominal cases are most readily classified derivationally and structurally according to the markers characteristic of the parts of speech from which they have developed or on the model of which they have been formed.

It should also be added that an instrumental case form with a preposition can form adverbs associated with prepositional constructions. The principal element of such adverbs (a fossilized instrumental case form) may itself be simple, prefixed, or compound.

To give the reader at least an approximate picture of the derivation and structure of adverbs associated with plural instrumental forms, below is a derivational and structural description of one group of plural instrumental adverbs, accompanied by the essential illustrations drawn both from various written sources and from dialects. This group includes simple plural instrumental adverbs associated with simple (unprefixed) a-stem nouns. These are simple plural instrumental adverbs in -ais.

As with many other forms, intermediate cases—transitional forms that must be distinguished from true instrumental adverbs—also occur alongside plural instrumental adverbs.

A study of simple plural instrumental adverbs in -ais has shown that alongside them there are peripheral phenomena—peripheral words whose external form coincides with those adverbs, but which cannot be associated, or can be associated only with great caution, with instrumental forms. The ending -ais of such peripheral words often has nothing, or very little, to do with the instrumental ending. In such cases, -ais is usually nothing other than a particle or a combination of particles, occurring especially in invariable words.

The description does not omit either the transitional forms mentioned here or the peripheral words, since alongside them the true adverbs of the group under discussion stand out more clearly.

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§ 4. In examining the use of adverbs formed from the plural instrumental of simple (unprefixed) a-stem nouns, we must first note that, alongside completely fossilized forms, the language has a vast number of plural instrumental forms used with manner, place, time, and other circumstantial meanings, and related in various ways to adverbs.

§ 5. Some of these forms have retained a clear object meaning, and are linked to adverbs only by the shared nature of their circumstantial function. These forms show no signs of semantic isolation and are easily distinguished from adverbs. They are clearly understood as instrumental forms of nouns expressing manner (gab alais, kekulais, lapais, lašais, pipirais, pluoštais, pūdais, skatikais, skreitais, šmotais, vilkais, želmenais), place (keliukais, pėdais, purvynais), time (metais, anais metais, tais pačiais metais), purpose (savo reikalais), and other meanings.

The sugar is chopped into pieces (rš.). He ran about with chunks of meat. ŽemR₂ II 174. My sorrow grew leaf by leaf, branched out branch by branch. JablLP 86. Sweat dripped from him in drops. JablLP 86. They sowed it with pepper, it sprouted in small coins, blossomed into brides, and grew old into maidens (buckwheat). JablLP 86. His hair falls in tufts. ŽemR₂ II 464. They carried it by the pūdas. ŽemR₂ II 253. He brought it home in handfuls and stuffed the bag to use as a pillow. ŽemR₂ II 115. He flings the ugly clods of earth. Don. He howled like a wolf. TŽ V 143. From them the chaff spills all around in sprouts (Baran) JablLP 88.

We drove them along the little roads… they would not let them go off to the side anywhere. ŽemR₂ II 236. He began to chase on foot. TŽ V 127. Wading through mud up to his knees alongside the cart, out of impatience he keeps lashing the tired mares. ŽemR₂ II 297. (Cf. also the instrumental šonais, which retains its object meaning and governs the genitive in a construction meaning ‘on both sides’: abiem šonais Lkm, Rgv.)

They agreed to hire the girls by the year. ŽemR₂ II 166. If he had treated me more humanely, I would have worked there by the year, too. JablLP 82. (Cf. expressions such as anais metais ‘in those years’, kitais metais ‘in other years’, tais pačiais metais ‘in those same years’, taikos metais ‘in the years of peace’, tarybinės santvarkos metais ‘during the years of the Soviet system’, where agreeing and non-agreeing modifiers further strengthen the nominal meaning of the instrumental metais.)

He went to Kaunas on his own business. JablLP 84. (But cf. My landlady… has gone to town on business. ŽemR₂ II 167, where one can already sense a slight weakening of the object meaning in the instrumental reikalais, used without a modifier.)

§ 6. The object meaning of the plural instrumental of other nouns, although retained, has already become somewhat faded. It is therefore not always easy to distinguish such forms from adverbs, since, owing to the linguistic context and the lexical meaning of the head words, they have often reached an almost intermediate stage between nominal instrumentals and adverbs. Such transitional a-stem forms are also used with meanings of manner (būriukais, čiūgais dialectal, cf. Polish cug, German Zug, kelmais, perkūnais, pulkais, tunt ais), place (kra štais, r ūožais, r ūožtais, šmotais dialectal, cf. Polish szmat ‘piece’), time (rytais, vakarais), and other circumstantial meanings.

The winds burn as if scorching; it rains in little showers!.. ŽemR₂ I 281. It’s dreadful how many soldiers—the fields are black with them; they just keep marching in a steady stream. Ktk. The sheep cross the fields in a steady stream. Kkl. He cursed them with thunderbolts and tree stumps. ŽemR₂ II 260. Not one by one—we fell in battalions. SNėrP II 276. (Cf. tuntais ‘in great numbers’ SD 66).

It rained in strips. The forest is bordered in strips. TŽ V 128. It rains in bands. Ldvn, Kp. The valerian grew yellow in strips; strips of wheat the color of murky water lay on the ground, while the marsh vegetation climbed the heights in reddish and violet patches. CvR VII 105.

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In spells… it rains. JabLLP 80. It thawed in patches (thawed). Krtn. Not a seed returned in patches. ŽemR₂ I 399.

He gets up early in the morning and goes to bed at once in the evenings. JabLLP 81. In the mornings fog lingered for a long time over the fields. CvR VIII 164. In the evenings the villagers would see Jurgis Stadalnykas walking along the field ridges. CvR I 151. In the evenings, because of that, it is cheerful and pleasant at home… ŽemR₂ II 373.

Cf. here also the instrumental forms of numerals pirmais, antrais, šimtais, vienais and the like in sentences: Count by ones and twos! (rš.); They died by the hundreds, by the thousands (TŽ V 107); Drunk, he goes (there) by fives and sixes, but with a hangover not even by ones (JabLLP 78).

§ 7. Still other plural instrumental forms of nouns acquire in context such an generalized and abstracted predicative or manner (šmorais, šmuorais), place (šonais, tarpais), or time (šorais, šuorais, tarpais, tropais sl.; cf. Polish trafem ‘by chance, unexpectedly’, German sich treffen ‘to happen’) circumstantial meaning that it is quite easy to discern their semantic isolation from the nominal category. Such instrumental forms are as though they have crossed the intermediate stage between nouns and adverbs and have come so close to adverbs that they can scarcely be distinguished from them.

A dyed garment is worth nothing to anyone: the sun scorched it—and it came away in patches. Ktk. It rains in spells. Ldvn. Snow comes in spells, and then it is gone again. Ds. It doesn’t rain continuously—it comes in spells, rains, and stops. Pg.

Walk sideways (alongside, next to). PnmR. It rained for two days at intervals. Slm. It thunders and rains intermittently. Lp. Amid all this, knives, crowded around the table, lie idle, and forks are mixed in from time to time. ŽemR₂ III 216. The ploughlands are gray, the rye waves, the summer crops and clover are green, and here and there green meadows, carved up by streams and furrows. ŽemR₂ II 469. Vegetables were sown here and there—beets, carrots, beans… ŽemR₂ I 251.

At times she laughs, at times she cries. Kp. Now it has rained in spells. Lp. And here, too, it rains at intervals. Rd, VIkv. From time to time people visit even in the colony (the outlying homestead), but they no longer do so in the street (in the village). Vj.

§ 8. In this way we arrive at the adverbs formed from the plural instrumental of simple (unprefixed) a-stem nominal forms, which, in turn, are not uniform in their derivational character and tendencies or in their degree of lexicalization. However, to discuss and explain all this, even briefly, we must first become acquainted with the concrete material itself, both in spoken and written language—that is, with the adverbs themselves, their principal meanings and, insofar as it helps us understand their formation and structure, their use in sentences (though not yet their use by genre or style). To this end, at least some of the examples gathered from various sources are presented here.

áiktais—‘to no purpose, in vain’: Bitys jo áiktais išėjo. J (LKŽ I 37).

áitais ‘to no purpose, in vain’: Áitais ėjo, áitais ir išėjo. Lnkv; Dirbau, dirbau, ir tas darbas áitais nuėjo. Rm; Áitais eina, išėjo. Kp.

almais 1. ‘in a stream’: O, kad eina vanduo — almais, rumulais. Trk; 2. ‘headlong, in a crowd’: Almaïs puola vaikai praustis prieš pusryčius. J.

ankštainais ‘(very) early’: Geras buvo vaikis, ryto metą ankštainais pašokęs liuoba nubėgs prie arklių į lauką, pakylęs, suvežis. Šv.

ankštáinintais ‘(very) early’: Tėvukas ankštáinintais liuoba atsikels dar neprašvitus, pats pirmasis. Šv.

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ankstėinais “(very) early”: Why did you get up so early now (got up) ankstėinais.

Pgr; I got up ankstėinais; the sun would not rise for a long while yet. Kv; The next morning, having jumped up ankstėinais, Gumbas went straight to Jurgis, the teacher of Keselienė's children. _ŽemR₂ II 15.

ankstėlniais “(very) early”: I got up ankstėlniais, well before dawn. Vdk.

ankstėrnais “(very) early” Vvr: We got up ankstėrnais this morning. Grg.

ankstienais “(very) early” Šv: The family came back from work ankstienais today. J.

ārtimais “near, nearby, at a short distance,” artymais “same”: Is there a blacksmith nearby here whom we could ask? Rm. We parked the carts nearby (at the market…). Gs:

aukštynāikais “face upward, on one's back”: To lie aukštynāikais. Užv.

aukštynais “face upward, on one's back”: He was lying aukštynais. BsV 273.

baudais “for nothing, with mere intentions or promises” Šts, Krš, Užv: He kept promising to come, but apparently it will all come to nothing. Akm; You have been putting it off for three weeks already, but I think it will all come to nothing for you too. Lž.

čėsais (čėsais) dialectal “sometimes,” compare Polish czasem “same”: Sometimes he is well, sometimes ill. Gs; Sometimes cheerful, sometimes downcast. Gs¹.

dāiktais “in places” Gs, Ldvn, Šd, RŽ 70 (daiktais): It is already dry in places. Skr; The pie crust is already moldy in places; pour water over it. Skr; Thistles grow in some places, but not in others. Vlkv; It rains in some places, while the ground is quite dry in others. Knv; There is good soil in some places around here too. Knv; The river is dried up in places. K.

darmais dialectal “for nothing, for free,” compare Polish darmo “same”: No one will work there for nothing. Pc.

davadais dialectal “by asking,” compare Polish dowód “proof”: My brother-in-law comes to us davadais, that is, to ask for directions. J.

dērmais (compare darmais), dialectal “for nothing, for free” Krtv: They used to distribute [clothes] for free. Ktv.

dykais “for nothing, for free”: You won't get it for free. Gs.

dōlais dialectal “to no avail” Ldvn, Krsn, compare Polish iść w dół “to deteriorate, decline”: A little hay has gone to waste! Rdm.

dūrmais “right behind, following close on someone’s heels, close behind”: They followed us dūrmais. Pn.

dvynais “in pairs, two at a time (of twins)”: A good ewe bears twins. Kp.

džiugais “in crowds”: People go džiugais. Mžš.

gratomais “side by side”: To stand side by side. LKŽ III 522.

gratumais “side by side”: The two of us stood side by side. LKŽ III 522.

grečiumais “side by side” J II 469.

greitais “in haste”: Work done in haste is worth the devil. Ad.

gretais “side by side”: Entering the parlor in black, side by side. TP 1881 38.

gretimais (gretymais) “side by side”: Petras stood beside him. Št; He stands side by side. Jn; They were sitting side by side in the room. Gs.

gretōmais “side by side”: Two little barrels are set side by side. Pln; Young spruces stand side by side, their branches laden with red clusters of cones. _ŽemR₂ I 188.

¹ In other cases, the same form turns into a modal word: Could you perhaps have a little ruble? Gs., Might you perhaps have oats to sell? Pn., Could you perhaps lend me some money? Ldvn. Further, cf. modal words with the same roots and meanings, čėsmais, čėsumais: Could it be that you took my knife? Pn. Could it be that you happened to see any horses? Ėr.

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gretùmais “next to”: They lived next to each other. Šts; Their houses stand next to each other, i.e. side by side J; The beds were side by side. Kal.

gretuomais “next to”: That neighbor lives next door. Grg.

grìžalais “while returning, on the way back”: I drove back. Als.

grìžulais “while returning, on the way back”: Returning, I drove back. Š.

juokais 1. “jokingly, not seriously (manner, with additional purpose and cause meanings)”: Are you doing that here as a joke, or for real? Lp. The man goes to the tears, while she does it jokingly. Šts; I only said that as a joke. Sv; The girls tease Domas jokingly. ŽemR₂ III 144; Most likely he said it jokingly, in a good mood. CvR VIII 119². 2. “easily, without any effort”: Life passed easily. Prn; Winter passed easily, without any frost. Šts. 3. “from laughter (cause meaning)”: To faint from laughing. Jabl; Everyone was overcome with laughter. Lp; I would have fallen over laughing. Šts; He falls down laughing as he watches. Vb; To die laughing. Jabl; No one will stop laughing at such a tale, whoever reads it. Šts; To be beside oneself with laughter. Ss; His eyes sparkle, his lips cannot stop smiling, he cannot stand still or sit still. ŽemR₂ III 139; You could die laughing. B; Everyone burst out laughing. Jabl; To burst into laughter. Jabl; We burst out laughing. Šts; The children, listening to that tale, were beside themselves with laughter. Jabl.

kàislais “to no avail, in vain”: The sheep went to no avail. Als; The son went off in vain. Slnt; The children started going downhill, i.e. getting worse. J; His daughters went downhill. Tl; The geese came to no good. Ms; The work came to nothing. Trk.

kàistais “at intervals, from time to time, not continuously”: From time to time, the children who are studying help with the work. Bržr.

kàrtais “sometimes, once in a while” SD 34, R, K, RŽ 70, Kp, Ps, Krtn; Sometimes enemies hide so cleverly that you cannot find them even if you search everywhere. Don. Sometimes even wolves know how to seem affectionate. JablLP 81. Sometimes the clatter of hooves fell silent; sometimes it sounded louder in reply. CvR VIII 164. Sometimes even a hawk cuckoos like a cuckoo. VienP 149. It rumbles and booms sometimes in the distance. TilvBV 37³.

kebezdais “with one’s head where the other’s feet are (lying down)”: The two of them are lying head to toe. Snt.

kepersais “hobbling, limping”: The hobbled horse limped along. J.

keperzais “at a gallop”: The horse is running at a gallop. J.

kevaldais (keveldais) “head over heels”: He tumbled head over heels. Vkš.

klupstinais “stumbling, tottering”: The pastor’s housekeeper ran by again, stumbling (rš.).

kryžmais “crosswise, in a crossed manner”: She folded her arms crosswise. Gs. Hurrying, she came upon sheaves laid crosswise, and in their shade found a jug standing there. BaltRn 18.

lýgmais “equally, evenly”: My homeland is almost on a par with his homeland. J. They are now on equal terms: neither does anything to the other. Šts. The two of us are now even (while playing cards). Slnt.

² Cf. not (no longer) jokingly “not joking, seriously, for real”: Then he was no longer knocking on the door as a joke. ŽemR₂ III 73; The innkeeper had already grabbed the German in earnest. CvR V 66; Then Kanopa believed that she really was sending him home. Gud-GuzKIT₁ II 21 Čereška was seriously frightened: what if the engineer himself wanted to come in and check? BaltrPS 158.

³ Further, cf. the same form, which has developed into a modal word: Perhaps you are from Telšiai? Als; Vaitóška looked suspiciously at the storekeeper, wondering whether perhaps he too had decided to make fun of him. BaltrPS 162.

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mainaĩs “in exchange, by bartering” Kp, Vlkv, Rm, Vad, Jnšk: He got that horse in exchange. Sv. I’ll trade horses in exchange. Kal. Let’s go in exchange. Gs.

mostais “for nothing”: He went away promising things but failing to keep his word (he promised and did not follow through). Slm.

niẽkais (niekais Ldyn) “to no avail, in vain, uselessly”: They waste their time. DLKŽ 500. Sown at the right time, everything harvested at the right time; not a single grain went to waste anywhere. ŽemR₂ IV 215. Money thrown away for nothing (rš).

nuõstais “for nothing”: He went for nothing, and came back for nothing. LKŽ VIII 957.

õpstrigais “in leaps, bounding”: There’s no need to get hooked on her; she jumps right into your eyes in leaps. Gs.

pálparybais (párbar ybais Slnt, pãuparybais cf., pauparýgais Ds) “to no avail, in vain, uselessly (usually used with forms of the verb ‘to go’)”: To go about uselessly (to do nothing, to idle). Grg, Pln, Sd; His parents send him their last money, while he just goes about idling. Slnt.

piẽstais “on its hind legs” Slč: His horse … rears up on its hind legs. ŽemR₂ III 136.

pilnais “with a full cartload”: And how is it going, riding with a full load? Alk.

plėšais “with all one’s might, striving, exerting oneself”: When I was young, I threw myself into the work with all my might. Trg.

pliupsais “all together, in a crowd”: We all spilled out through the door together. Trg.

põstais dialectal “to no avail, in vain, uselessly,” cf. Polish pusty “empty”: It was all for nothing. Ms.

priẽšais 1. “before one’s eyes, ahead (locative meaning)” DLKŽ 623, Rž, Lsl 177: Ahead, as if enormous walls, clouds loomed up. ŽemR₂ III 6; A huge, steaming chasm gaped ahead. Gud-GuzKIT 688; He and Būblas stopped facing one another. SimonP 1324; 2. “contrarily, in opposition (manner meaning)” Did I ever say anything contrary to you? CvR IV 298; 3. “ahead (temporal meaning)”: All the work still lies ahead. DLKŽ 623; The time ahead is overcast. JanR 124⁵.

puostais (pūstais Skd) Šl “to no avail, in vain, uselessly,” cf. Polish pusty “empty”: The geese went off for nothing. Kri.

rētumais “rarely, occasionally”: I drink, but only occasionally. Šts.

rōbrais “crawling, on all fours”: It’s so dark—he’ll get home only by crawling. Všk.

rōžais dialectal “sometimes,” cf. Polish raz “once, time”: Sometimes it’s better, sometimes I can scarcely breathe. Sv.

rumulais “in a gush, in a stream”: Oh, how the water flows—in jets, in streams. Ttk.

saváimais “by itself”: It began to heal by itself and recovered. Jabl; He learned by himself. Jabl; The abscess disappeared by itself. Jabl.

sėdimais (in the speech of old people) “side by side”: They live side by side. Slm.

skubōtais “in haste, hurrying”: I ran and ran in haste, and so I wore my legs out. Lš.

skundais “little, scantily”: This year we have but little fodder. Ll. Now we have meat in plenty: we slaughtered a pig. Ll.

striokais (strokāis) dialectal “in a hurry, hurriedly; through haste, hastily,” cf. Polish strach “fear”: He does everything in a rush. Gs; He forgot to take off his clothes in his haste. TŽ V 122.

štumulais (stumulais Sr) “in crowds, in a whole group, in heaps; headlong” Sr.

sūkais “away, to the devil”: Go to the devil K I 608, 502, II 103, 151.

šalìmais Šd, Rd, Sb (šalìmais RŽ), šalýmais (šalým ais Slm, šalýmais Vb) “beside, next to”: She lay down beside him. Krkn; We live next to him. Mšk; Vincas

⁴ Cf. the southern dialectal form prýšais: I look—and ahead a hare comes bounding along. Lkv.

⁵ Cf. priešais as a preposition, used with the accusative and, in the southern dialect, with the genitive.

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was sitting on a high bench, while we walked alongside and sang the whole way. BaltRn 38; At night the little sofa was moved away from the wall, and the brothers lay down on it side by side. Gud-GuzKLIT 170⁶. Those two houses stand next to each other, i.e. alongside. J. II 468⁷.

š nairais “sideways, askance”: To look š nairais. Bru.

šūk ais “in leaps; in shouts”: The horses run šūk ais. Šts; The horse goes šūkais. Plt; The snake jumps šūkais. Šts.

tyliukais “very quietly, ever so quietly”: I slipped quietly into the street (rš.).

tolimais “far away, at a distance”: The two of them sit far apart. Bsg⁸.

ubagais Sv, Ldv (ubagais TŽ V 141) sl. “to the winds, as victims, as beggars”; cf. Polish ubogi “poor, beggar”: He drank and drank, and ended up a beggar. Gs; Sragys will drive them into beggary. ŽemR₂II 50; They barely went for a walk as beggars. ŽemR₂ II 179; And you go on your way as a beggar. ŽemR₂ I 285; Būblas’s wife came with the child, begging. SimonP 177.

ulduru, uldurais “in whirlpools, eddies”: The water roars loudly, flowing in whirlpools and eddies. Škn.

ūmais “quickly, hurriedly, suddenly”: He wished that they would hurry home. ValR 194; A gust of wind suddenly came up (Žem).

ūpais DLKŽ 890 (ūpais Gs) “sometimes, at intervals, occasionally”: It hurts sometimes, sometimes it doesn’t. Pc; It rained intermittently for three days: it passes and then starts again. Tr; It snows intermittently: it stops and then starts again. Er; Sometimes he travels well (where the road is better), but mostly they go on foot. Pg; Sometimes the wind blows. Pg.

ūpkais “angrily, in a feverish state”: I said: Marė is good, so is this one and that one, and Utena too—yet they’re all furious: “You filthy slut, you hide…” Mrk.

upstais “with all one’s might”: The child will rush to the nanny with all its might. J.

ūrmais Gs (urmais Sr) sl. “as a whole crowd, headlong, quickly,” cf. Polish hurmem “in a large crowd, together,” Belarusian гурmam “ditto.”

ūrmu ūrmais (cf. ūrmais) “as a whole crowd; headlong, quickly”: We did it ūrmu ūrmais, all rushing together, i.e. all at once, as one group. J.

urm ul ais “in a torrent, in a stream, roaring, quickly”: Oh, how the water goes urm ul ais (when it flows strongly and then plunges suddenly). Trk.

ūr stais “in whirlwinds”: Don’t talk to him: whatever you say will go ūr stais. Km.

ū rtais sl. “in heaps, in chunks, very forcefully, rapidly; headlong,” cf. Polish hurtem “in large quantities, in a heap, together,” Belarusian гурmam “ditto,” Russian гуртом “ditto.” When the wind came up, the hay just kept tumbling out of the wagon in heaps. Užp.; The work is going on rapidly. Sv; They rushed out of the hut in a clump. Ds.

valmais (valmais) Up “in balls; in strings, in groups”: When I blew, the flame came out only in balls. Skr.

vargais “with difficulty, barely”: She’ll marry off her daughter without a dowry… What is there to say about a dowry when they themselves are just getting by with difficulty. MarcinkKP 59.

vargais negalais “with difficulty, barely; somehow”: In summer he barely escaped from the scouts. VienP 387; We somehow managed to reach an agreement. Lk.

zovadais (zovadais Ds, zóvedais regional) borrowed “at a gallop,” cf. Polish w zawody “racing,” zawodem “ditto,” w zawód “ditto”: We set off at a gallop. ŽemR₂

⁶ Further compare the prepositional use of šalimais: They live next to one another. Gs; Šeškis next to me. Lnkv.

⁷Compare also the preposition šalimais (with the genitive case) Lkv.

⁸Compare the prepositional use of tolimais: They are far from one another. Bsg.

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III 291; Barefoot Jonelis, having dashed off at a gallop, came running back with a rag—the back of a shirt.

ŽemR₂ III 271.

žadais “for nothing, with nothing but promises and intentions” JabIL 92, Lž, Slnt, Kp, Vgr, Krš, Pp, Užv, Ll, Trk: He kept promising and promising—it all came to nothing. Gs; And so everything came to nothing. Vkš; I kept intending to work, but it all came to nothing. Tv.; They talked and promised—and so it all came to nothing. Grž.

žarais 1. “scattered, dispersed, each going their own way” Krž, Up: They’re scattered—what’s there to look for? Kv; When they set them upon them, they all scattered and ran off. Šd; The cows go about scattered. Krkl; People set off down the hill in all directions. Ll; 2. “in separate groups, in bands, in flocks” MŽ 394: Hunt in groups, search for the herd. Jn; Soldiers go in groups across the ploughed fields. Up. 3. “sometimes, occasionally” Svn.

§ 9. The common features of all the adverbs presented here are as follows: they are related to a-stem nominal forms; their fossilized ending -ais or, in rarer cases, an ending still in the process of fossilizing may in certain instances be regarded as a derivational suffix; syntactically, they are characterized by an adverbial or, less frequently, predicative meaning and function. In other respects, by analogy and in their relation to other parts of speech, as well as in their degree of adverbialization, the adverbs in this group are highly diverse.

§ 10. In this fairly large and derivationally cohesive group of adverbs, it is first of all quite easy to distinguish two groups by origin: one (by far the larger) consists of Lithuanian words whose roots are embedded in the old Lithuanian lexicon, while the other comprises borrowings from Slavic languages.

A characteristic feature of a significantly large portion of the Lithuanian adverbs of the type under discussion is their nominal origin in the ų-stem—that is, their closest relation is to nouns. Some of these adverbs still vividly illustrate the very process of adverbialization. They show us precisely how the plural instrumental of a noun, when regularly used adverbially or predicatively, acquires a distinct, independent, abstract and generalized meaning; in this way it becomes semantically isolated and lexicalized, and passes into the class of adverbs, even though alongside such a lexicalized, adverbialized case form, all the other cases of the base word continue to be used nominally in the language with greater or lesser frequency (including the instrumental case, but with a meaning different from that of the adverb). The clearest examples of such adverbs are: áiktais, áitais, baudais, dáiktais, juokais, kartais, mainais, niekais, pieštais, pliupsais, priešais, rumulais, uldurais, ūpais (ūpais), urmulais, valmais, žadais, žarais and others. These are all adverbs alongside which the nominal use of their base words (i.e. the words from which the adverbs derive) is quite possible, more or less often, although, of course, with a more concrete meaning than that of the adverbs; cf.: áitas, “a restless, unruly, wayward person” Kp, Ps, Brž, dáiktas, juòkas, kartàas, mainas (mainai), niẽkas “a worthless, poor thing, person, animal; an unimportant matter; a trifle,” piėštas “a wooden mortar, pestle” Ds, priẽšas, rùmulas “a whirlpool, current,” uldùras “ditto,” ūpas 1. “frenzy, rage,” Kv, 2. “mood” Vad, urùmulas “a whirlpool, current,” vàlmas “a whirlpool, ball” LŠ, žãdas (žadaĩ) “a promise” Grž, Trk žãras “a group” Up.

Thus we see that these adverbs are still very closely connected with nouns. In general, it should be said that most simple (non-prefixed) adverbs formed from the plural instrumental of a-stem nominal forms could essentially be considered nominal in origin, even in cases where no corresponding nouns are found alongside them and where they are more readily connected with verb stems or with ideophones-

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than with nouns. Their relation to nouns is most clearly shown by the plural instrumental ending -ais, which in such cases should already be regarded as a suffix. In such adverbs, the nominal character is still very pronounced. At least formally, they have not yet entirely severed their ties with nouns. It is therefore no coincidence that even in the great “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” one can observe this feature: forms of the plural (and also singular) instrumental that have otherwise become adverbs, whose base words’ other cases are not even attested in the language, are sometimes treated as nouns, and the nominative singular of their base word is reconstructed.

We still observe such a close connection with nouns in the following adverbs: almai (:almėti, al ma, -ėjo), džiaugais⁹, grįžulais, grįžulais (cf. grįžalas, grįžulas “a crooked person”), kāislais (cf.? kāislauti, -auja, -avo “to want” BŽ 138), kāistais, kebezdais (cf. kē-bezdas “a worthless person or animal, a wreck, a ruin” Ds), kepersais (: kepersuoti, -uoja, -avo “to run in short, hopping steps, to hop, to run awkwardly”; cf. also the interjections kepērs, kepersō), keperzais (:keperzuoti, -uoja, -avo) 1. “to run with little hops” Kv; 2. to walk with a limp” Ms; cf. also kepērza “a small, clumsy person, a ‘clay Matthew’” Sv, Rdm), kevaldais, keveldais (cf. keveldra “a collapsed, wholly clumsy person” Erž, kevelšis “someone who is clumsy, awkward” J, klupstinais (cf. Klūpstas “knees” Mrc, klūpštis “the same” Sl, Al, Šl, Lš, Žln, Nč, Srj, Dg, klupstōm “on one’s knees” Rod, Plk, Dgš), lýgmais, lýgumais (:lýgumas “level place, plain” Ds, Rš), nuostais, plėšais (: plėšytis, -osi, -esi “to strive very hard, to force one’s way”), rētumais (:retumas), rōbrais (here the second r has probably arisen from l through assimilation; cf.: roblōm “crawling, on all fours” Všk, Lnkv, roblōti, -ōja, -ōjo “to crawl”), skundais (: skūndas, skųsti, skūndžia¹⁰, skūndė), stūmulais (stumulais) cf. stūmulas “1. ball; 2. group, heap; 3. whirlwind,” stūmuras “large lump”; štāmaras “the same”), sūikais, sūkais (cf. šūku “in leaps”), tyliukais (cf. pa-tyliukais), ūpais (ūpais), ūpkais, upstais, etc.

Although some of the adverbs just listed can be readily connected with the corresponding verbs, this circumstance in no way diminishes their closest relation (at least formally) primarily to nouns.

§ 11. This peculiar “nominal character” of the adverbs under discussion can be felt not only when observing the fossilized instrumentals of former nouns or analogical derivatives formed on their model, but also clear adjectival plural instrumental forms, e.g.: aukštynāikais (: aukštynāikas, -a), dykais (: dýkas, -à), gretais (:grėtas, -à), grėtimais (: grėtimas, -à), gretymais (: gretymas, -a), kryžmais (: kryžmas, -à), pilnais (: pilnas, -à), savāimais (: savāimas, -a), skubōtais (: skubōtas, -a), šalimais (: šalimas, -à), šalýmais (: šalymas, -a), šn a irais (: šnāiras, -à), tolimais (: tōlimas, -à). Alongside such adjectival plural instrumental adverbs, as the examples show, the corresponding adjectives are still used even in present-day language. Finally, this peculiar “nominal character” can be sensed in those adverbs which, from the point of view of word formation, could be related not only to an adjective but sometimes also to plural instrumental forms of nouns, e.g.: ārtimais (:ārtimas, -à and noun ārtimas, -o), artymais (: ārtymas, -à and noun ārtymas, -o), dvynais (: dvynas, -à and noun dvynas, -o “twin”).

Examples of adjectival adverbs of this type are sometimes also formed from participial adverbs, e.g., sėdimais (: sėdimas, -à).

⁹ This adverb could also be a reshaped form of the Slavic and Germanic loanword čiūgais.

¹⁰ Cf. the Samogitian present indicative 3rd person singular skund(a).

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§12. Many adverbs in the plural instrumental of simple a-stem nominal forms are formed in highly individual ways and have various suffixes, some of which are absent, or occur only very rarely, in the formation of nominal forms in contemporary Lithuanian. Consequently, such individual words are the most difficult to associate specifically with inflecting parts of speech. The following may be mentioned: ankštinais, ankštainimais, ankštėnais, ankštėliais, ankštėnais, ankštienais, aukštynais, dūrnais, gratomais, gratumais, grečtumais, gretomais, gretumais, gretuomais. Hypothetically, some of these adverbs could be related to adjectives that are not currently used in the language, but are potentially possible: *ankstainas, *ankstainintas…, *dūrmas (: dur-ti), *grატomas, *gretomas, *gretuomas… Of course, such a connection would be quite artificial and highly speculative. Adverbs of this type could be not only directly fossilized plural instrumentals of adjectives, but also individually formed analogical words, whose final -ais could still be regarded as a suffix, at least by comparison, for example, with the suffix -ai of adjectival adverbs.

Incidentally, in the adverbs just mentioned, one can scarcely sense any traces of the meaning of the plural instrumental. In this respect, on the one hand, they are the most adverbial of words, entirely detached from the nominal system; on the other hand, they are closest to those peripheral words which, although they have -ais, are not—or are only very tenuously—related to plural instrumental forms.

§ 13. Among such genuinely peripheral words, mentioned alongside adverbs related to simple a-stem plural instrumental forms chiefly because of their -ais, the following may be cited: ándais “the other time,” čianájonais (čianais, čionais, čiontais) “here,” dabārais “now,” kadais “sometime,” labais “very,” laūkanai “outward,” namōnais “home,” niekadais “never,” nórmais nenórmais “willingly or unwillingly,” nuolatais “continually,” tenais “there,” visadais “always,” and so on.

I had agreed to him the other time. Gs. We talk here among ourselves. Jnšk. There used to be a cemetery here. JnšM. Nothing grows here. Ds. Now it is already possible to mow hay. Šlu(LKŽ, II 200). A very big horse, even above the clouds. Tvr. Go outside; do not smoke indoors. Šts. They led him home. Jrk 90. We can never leave the house. Kal. Meanwhile, the curator was continuously sending telegrams (rš.) Take me there. Lnkv. These were always together. BP I 414.

The ending -ais in the adverbs cited and illustrated above, at least in cases where it is unstressed or bears the circumflex accent (-aĩs), could sometimes be explained as having been modeled on adverbs related to plural instrumental forms of simple a-stem nominals. Thus, for example, one could explain the adverb nórmais nenórmais (cf.: nóromis nenóromis, nórom nenórom, nórom-ais nenórom-ais, nórmais nenórmais), where -ais was probably added to the plural instrumental ending of an o-stem, by analogy with other adverbs in -ais formed from plural instrumental forms. But whether such analogy affected the formation of the final -ais in the other adverbs listed here is simply impossible to say, especially since those adverbs often occur with variant endings (-aĩs and áis); cf.: čianais and čianájs, tenais and tenájs, where -ájs, because of its accent, cannot be associated with the plural instrumental ending.

§ 14. Lithuanian also has other peripheral words ending in -ais—not adverbs, but particles, e.g.: aurēnais “there, look,” aurēntais “the same,” auriais “the same,” aurionais “the same,” dēltais “therefore,” kōnais “what,” nōrintais “although” [in compound adverbs kadà (kaip, kamè, kiek, kuomèt, kur) nōrintais and in pronouns kàs

2. 520

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(each, which) with nórintais, with rásėtais “perhaps,” with rásintais “the same,” with rasitais “the same”; modal words, e.g.: with mátomais “apparently,” with mùšėtais “probably,” with mùšintais “the same,” with mùšitais “the same,” with žinomais “of course”; highly vivid compound onomatopoeic forms, whose meanings sometimes merge entirely with those of adverbs, e.g.: džangu džangais “clang clang,” džiñgu džiñgais (džiñgu džiñgais) “chink chink,” grabu grabais “scrape and rummage,” klėdaru klėdarais “clatter clatter,” klėru klėrais “the same,” klyru klėrais “the same,” kuldu kuldais (used to describe the action of kuldavimo, i.e. walking quickly or slowly) ¹¹.

There, aurėnais, lies under the bench. Sr(LKŽ₁ I 499). He lies aurėntais. Krž(LKŽ₁ I 499). They are not good dėltaiš. Er(LKŽ₁ II 397). I will neither go nor kǒnais. Šd. You’ll regret spiaudais, and someday nórintais. Lkv. Sleep wherever you like, and that’s enough. Grg. Rásintais, Mother will go to the market too. Slnt. They drove them off rasitais [the goslings]. Pvn. The night is long, the road turned out bad, and the little man, mátomais, is poor… Lkž. Will you come back tomorrow mùšintais? Y1. Mùšitais was bad, so he no longer wants to go. Plt. Žinomais, take it, as long as they give it for love (just so they give it). Skd. Those carts with such bells, jangling džangu džangais like ploughs, drive them along. LMD (Sln) (LKŽ₁ II 1009). They come flying džiñgu džiñgais. Krš. He’s driving džiñgu džiñgais. Žg. That one got up, opened the door grabu grabais. Sln. The carts clatter along klėdaru klėdarais at a trot. Škn. Klėru klėrais, klėdaru klėdarais, the carts spin [old, worn-out, rickety carts]. Škn. The carts go klyru klėrais. Šts. A beggar, having received all sorts of good things, went off kuldu kuldais on his way (folklore). Krp.

It is scarcely possible to connect peripheral words of the type illustrated here with the instrumental plural forms of a-stem nominal words. In some cases, the ending -ais in these words could be explained as a combination of ai and s, where -ai could be linked to the particle ai or to the adverbial suffix -ai, while -s could be regarded as an element of another particle. In other cases (for instance, in onomatopoeic forms such as džiñgu džiñgais, džiñgu, džiñgais, klėru klėrais, and so on), -ais could very tentatively also be regarded as the result of analogy with adverbs formed from the instrumental plural of a-stem nominal words, especially since alongside onomatopoeic forms of the type mentioned here there are compound adverbs of exactly the same form.

A similar explanation could also apply to the postposition linkais (i.e. link-ai-s or link-ais). Go toward Trakai, linkais. Jabl.

§ 15. As has already been said, this section of the article has examined only the formation and structure of some simple adverbs in the instrumental plural of the a-stem, and presented the most essential points concerning their meaning and use. The author hopes to examine the more extensive body of material collected in a special study devoted to the formation of instrumental plural adverbs and to adverbs corresponding to instrumental plural forms.

Even the analysis of the formation and structure of this small group of instrumental plural adverbs clearly shows how varied their relationships are with other parts of speech and what an important place they occupy within the category of the adverb in Lithuanian itself.

¹¹ That compound onomatopoeic forms of this type can merge completely with adverbs is shown by these examples: krivu krivais “very crookedly,” lyku lakais “very intensely, very quickly,” vicu vācais “in winding curves, in zigzags, crookedly,” vytu vātai “in an inextricable, tangled, intricate way.”

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2. Adverbs with -(i)uoju, -(i)ąja

§ 1. Derivatives with -(i)uoju, e.g. bloguoju “with ill will, angrily” (:blõgas), doróju, “with goodwill, amicably” (:dõras), geruoju “pleasantly, without hostility” (:gė̃ras), gražiõju “pleasantly, without ill will” (:gražùs), greitõju “quickly” (:greĩtas), negėróju “badly; not out of goodwill” (:negė̃ras), piktóju “angrily, with ill will” (:piktas). The most common of these is geróju, followed by gražiõju, piktúoju. A few other, rarer adverbs belong to this group, e.g. aštrióju, “angrily, in discord” (:aštras), grėčiúoju “alongside” (:grețùs), nesavúoju “1. in a bad mood; 2. greatly, extraordinarily; 3. against one’s will” (: nesãvas).

In these adverbs, -(i)uoju is the masculine singular instrumental ending of pronominal adjectives, functioning as a suffix. Adverbs motivated by a-stem adjectives have -uoju, while those motivated by u-stem adjectives have úoju. The adverb nesavúoju has a pronominal root. This is an unproductive adverb type.

In dialects, not only the final -u, but also -ju may have been lost from these adverbs, e.g.: geriój, gražiój, gražū¹². But older forms with -(i)uojuo, e.g.: piktúojuo. also occur.

Alongside an adverb of the type discussed here, the corresponding base word (a masculine adjective) may be used with the same meaning in its adverbialized singular instrumental form, alone or with the preposition su, e.g.: (su) gerù, (su) piktù. Such facts can only strengthen the case for the still-not-fully-extinguished case meaning of adverbs with -(i)uoju.

The adjectives underlying the formation of these adverbs directly or metaphorically denote internal qualities, e.g.: blõgas, dõras, gė̃ras, gražùs, piktas, and only a very few adjectives of other meanings: greĩtas, grețùs. Accordingly, most of the adverbs themselves denote internal qualities (aštrióju, blogúoju, doróju, geróju, gražiõju). Only a few have spatial or temporal meanings (grėčiúoju, greitóju).

In a sentence, the adverbs discussed here usually attach to verbs and function as qualitative adverbials of manner.

He lives aštrióju with all the neighbors. LKŽ I 277. In vain his sister tried to persuade him both amicably and angrily. LzPR VII 227. You won’t get anywhere with him dorúoju—you’ll have to fight. Šl. If they can’t reach agreement dorúoju, they’ll have to talk piktúoju. LKŽ II 416. Just try living amicably with neighbors like these—can you? SimonP 38. The island’s inhabitants welcomed Columbus and his men amicably… BilR 63. Good thing it ended amicably. CvR VIII 29. Let’s settle it amicably (let’s live together in harmony). Ssk. Everywhere they got by without fighting, amicably. CvR VIII 91. Don’t shout, just speak amicably. Klt. Nesavúoju (against his will) he goes. Dglš. The old woman scolds angrily and, weeping, begs amicably. ŽemR II 125. Since you live piktuoju too—be quiet. Lp. The devil brought a ring to the wedding feast and, piktúoju, tells Elenytė to go dancing with him. Lnkv. Seeing that Jonas would not get rid of him by piktúoju, he began speaking amicably (written source).

Cf. dialect examples:

She began asking nicely. TŽ V 106. I always speak to them harshly. Pl. Ask nicely and you’ll get it. Grž.

¹²The dialect forms gražiój, gražū, with a hard ž, may have arisen under the influence of geróju (with a hard r).

2 *

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Compare also examples in which expressions with (with) good, (with) harsh are used with adverbs ending in -(i)uoju, reinforcing the case meaning of those adverbs:

The witch began to plead nicely (nicely), asking them not to beat her. LKŽ III 242. Her parents urge her with kindness and harshness. LKŽ III 242.

Adverbs ending in -(i)uoju may function as qualitative manner adjuncts even when the predicate of the sentence is unexpressed or incomplete—that is, when the verb with which the adverb should be associated can only be more or less inferred from the context.

Surely there’s some way to reason with him—teach him, advise him, tell him what he is and what she is… VienP 245. A cow is not a person; you have to handle her gently, kindly… BaltPV I 140. Why are you always speaking to me so harshly (addressing me)? Bien. Do as you please, sir. If we can settle this amicably, we’ll repay the debt without the child; if not, take an animal from us—my heart is in it too. CvR VIII 152. [Žlibis] Of course, it’s better to do it kindly; if we do it harshly, there’ll be hell to pay. ŽemR₂ I 496.

In some cases, the manner meaning of adverbs ending in -(i)uoju has become bleached: these adverbs express not only a manner adjunct but also perform part of the predicate’s function. Thus, syntactically, they are of a transitional kind. In such cases, forms of the verb būti meaning “live, get along, coexist” are readily understood alongside the adverb ending in -(i)uoju.

We’ve been getting along well with him again for a long time (we no longer quarrel; we get along). Akm. Of course, while things were peaceful, the daughter-in-law kept quiet, even with her teeth clenched, and she said nothing about the cat either. SimonP 33. When they were getting along again, the mother would take the child’s hand, raise it, and threaten the father on the little one’s behalf. CvR VIII 32. The old Pikčiurnas would scatter, scatter, as they used to, and then get along again. SimonP 29. Since yesterday, things have been bad between him and me. Akm. Things have gone badly here (perhaps some misfortune has happened)—it’s the second or third day, and Father still hasn’t come back. Srv.

That adverbs ending in -(i)uoju can perform at least part of the predicate’s function is apparent from the examples below, where those adverbs are closely connected with the verbs expressing the predicate būti, išeiti.

It turns out he doesn’t want to get along with the master. ŽemR₂ II 214. Let’s live in peace. ŽemR I 237. He asks for things that would not turn out well for them. LKŽ III 242. My one remaining joy is that you should live in harmony throughout your life, as you do this evening. BaltPV I 336. How long can a husband and wife live at odds? Krš. We two are (the two of us) at odds. Krtn. I’m at odds with that one. Klk.

Other meanings, such as time or condition, may accompany or overshadow the usual manner meaning of adverbs ending in -(i)uoju. In such cases, it is difficult or even impossible to say which meaning predominates, and the adverbs function as ambiguous adjuncts.

When things are peaceful, all is well and no one knows; when things are bad, everything goes wrong. ŽemR₂ I 138. [Stankienė] She feared that if her husband angered her father and they quarreled, things would turn bad and he would no longer be able to transport the bees, because all the hives would disappear at once. ŽemR₂ I 249.

The adverb grečiuoju attested in dictionaries can, of course, function in a sentence only as a locative adjunct.

The adverb greituoju. clearly functions as a temporal adjunct, while of course not losing the manner meaning most characteristic of adverbs of the type under discussion.

The witch quickly dressed her elder daughter and handed her (handed her) over to the king, but he did not accept her. BsP II 226. Just a quick breakfast, then off at a run on the journey. VaižgV 46. That was done quickly, hastily. LKŽ III 562. I ate lunch quickly. LKŽ III 562.

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The adverbs in this small group are not entirely devoid even of causal meaning and the function of a causal adjunct.

Only here he is jumping around like that in a bad temper. BsMt II 58.

§ 2. Adverbs in -(i)ája, too, have come somewhat closer to derived adverbs. These adverbs are so few that in the literary language they do not even form a particularly distinct group. Here are examples: greitája “hurriedly” (:greitas, -à), karštája “hotly, hurriedly” (:kárštas, -à), negražíaja “in an ugly manner” (:negražùs, -ì), savája “in turn” (:sávas, -à), nesavája “not in one’s own voice, loudly (usually with verbs rėkti, šaukti ‘to yell, to shout’, and the like)”; 2. “at an inopportune time” (: nesávas, -à), umája “suddenly, without waiting” (:ùmas, -à).

The -(i)ája in these adverbs is nothing other than the ending of the feminine singular instrumental of pronominal adjectives, approaching a suffix; adverbs motivated by adjectives with a stem ending in a consonant have -ája, while those based on adjectives with a stem ending in a vowel have -íaja. The adverb nesavája has a pronominal root, although the adverb itself has acquired a qualitative meaning. This is a wholly unproductive adverb type. Alongside some adverbs of this type, adverbs with the same stem in -(i)úoju are more often used with the same or a different meaning; cf.: greitája — greitúoju, negražíaja — negražúoju, nesavája — nesavúoju. Of the pairs formed in this way, the first members are incomparably more popular in the literary language.

These adverbs most often express manner and function as manner adjuncts in a sentence.

But can you hear? They are fighting over there in an ugly manner (rš.). — “Uncle told me to do that job,” the boy insists in his own way. BsP II 287. That is why Nina is shouting in a strange voice. BilR 222. The lion, unable to contain his indignation,… forced the secretary and the bailiff (the fox) in his claws to roar and gnash their teeth in a strange voice. Jabl. Why are you rushing so hotly? Trgn.

One or another of the adverbs discussed here can also function as a different kind of adjunct, for example, a time adjunct (with a nuance of manner).

I hurried over to them, but (=but) they had already left. Trgn. [The tailor] climbed up the spruce in a hurry. Bsp II 322. You can’t do it in a hurry. Ds (Būg). When he heard that I had come, he quickly climbed down. Lkm.

3. Adverbs originating from finite and non-finite verb forms

§ 1. Finite verb forms, with only a few exceptions, are not at all inclined to become adverbs in Lithuanian, because on their own they cannot be used in a sentence as adverbials, a function that largely determines the adverbialization of individual words. Only some non-finite verb forms sometimes show somewhat clearer tendencies toward adverbialization.

§ 2. Of all non-finite verb forms, the half-participle comes somewhat closer to adverbs in meaning and usage, and may have formed the basis of a certain (admittedly very small) group of adverbs. Here are several adverbs derived from individual half-participles: soon ‘soon, shortly, right away’, without delay ‘quickly, shortly, right away’, without wasting time ‘likewise’, soon ‘likewise’, in an instant ‘immediately, very quickly’, at a glance ‘likewise’, while looking ‘likewise’ (cf. below

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bevéizdint, bevéizint), urgently (“necessarily, very much”). Their emergence was mainly determined by their circumstantial function and their meaning of the time or manner of an action. In terms of frequency of use, soon afterward. stands out especially among them.

The ship was due to appear before long. BalčAŽ, 43. Soon the first detachments of the padisah’s soldiers appeared near Thilisi, and the following day the padisah himself arrived. Vien UT 16. Mykolas set out on his journey immediately. VienP 298. It is necessary to act immediately and undertake the necessary reforms. Myk-PutS I 87. The aptly woven-in folk song soon elicited uncontrollable laughter. Gud-GuzB I 156. At noon, the thirsty cows eagerly rush to the trough in the yard and lick it clean in no time (rš.). While watching, I looked around. Gs (Cf.: Before you know it, your whole forehead is covered in sweat. ŽemR₂ II 28). The horses urgently need rain. Kps. The messengers will have to be sent out without delay. LKŽ III 41.

Cf. also such converbs, which have come very close to adverbs: pristojus “constantly, without a break,” užeinant “at intervals, not too much,” and the like.

It’s good to feed the horses, but when I have to keep feeding them, I have no time. Prk. The machine can only cut when it comes on intermittently. Gs.

As the examples show, only participles with more general, abstract circumstantial meanings (most often temporal) have become adverbs to a greater extent, especially those with the affixes without, un-. Other participles of similar structure, although they function as temporal modifiers, cannot become fully adverbial because of the narrowness and specificity of their meaning, cf. while hearing ‘at the time when something is heard’.

It’s dreadful that one’s hair stands on end while hearing it. DonR 86.

Alongside the participial adverbs discussed here with without, un-, there can sometimes be homonyms—genuine participles, cf.: looking without seeing, before long.

Her eyes are fixed, looking without seeing. Val (LKŽ I 51). Before long, your people will surely have increased by several little bastards. SimonPA 107.

The word soon still retains a fairly strong converbial meaning and, with the pronoun nothing, is also governed by the genitive in this case.

Soon after, the aforementioned cardinal was heard to have died (=mentioned) (brš.).

Some converbs, together with other words (more often adverbs and particles), form certain combinations that are only barely fossilized or have become fully fossilized and adverbialized, e.g.: almost instantly “immediately, very quickly”, without delay for long “quickly, soon, right away”, before long “same”, as (if) in a flash “immediately, very quickly”, properly “well, appropriately”, just as properly “same”, more than necessary “a lot, abundantly”, as much as needed “sufficiently”, where (not) needed “where (it is) (not) necessary”, before long “quickly, soon, right away”, in no time “immediately, very quickly”, whether one wants to or not “in any case; necessarily”, as time goes on “in the long run”.

I’ll be back in a flash. Jnš. The dog disappeared in the blink of an eye. Pš. The day is so hot that now, if a little breeze were to blow, the hay would dry in no time. KrėvRg 102. In no time, all the young people streamed out of the cottages and, bounding and shouting from afar, hurried after Mykoliukas. Before long, there—those little dogs, arru-arru-arru, at the German lad. Before long, those shouts drew nearer each time. LKŽ kart. s. v. trukti. In fact, few people make proper use of contemporary science. Jabl. Bishop Jonas governed the priests and the entire diocese as properly as could be. Val. There were more than enough stones here (rš.). Whether he wanted to or not, he went up that hill. BM 83 (LKŽ VIII 861). Whether one wants to or not, one must go to the manor. BM 26 (LKŽ VIII 861).

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Cf. the compound adverb neilg(a)trūkus (< neilgaĩ trūkus):

Before long, they asked him to come [to the wedding]. Bien. One soon came riding along, a soldier armed with a rifle. Bs.

The following combinations should also be included among those listed here: kur nórint “anywhere,” kaip nórint “however,” kuomet nórint “whenever,” where the element nórint is a particle derived from a half-participle, or at least a half-participle that has come very close to becoming a particle (cf. the particle nórs, which in turn may have developed from the present active participle nóris), while the main elements are the adverbs kur, kaip, kuomet.

Yesterday evening she rushed off to bed alone, while that sleepyhead, having lain down wherever, became worm-eaten. ŽemR₂ I 74. – “Be quiet, be quiet, we’ll manage somehow,” the mother reassured them. ŽemR₂ III 123. Oh, he’ll get it from me sometime. ŽemR₂ I 332.

A participle used in a non-adverbial function may occasionally turn into a conjunction when its lexical meaning fades completely, e.g. nelyginant, nórint (cf. also the conjunction nórs < nóris).

The fish whizzed past my ears as if birds were flying through the air (rš.). If it were up to me, nothing would remain; then only he would learn more. ŽemR₂ I 20.

Cf. prepositions derived directly from half-participles or still in the process of becoming prepositions: išskiriant (with the accusative), išskyrus (with the accusative), nepaisant (with the genitive), neskaitant (with the genitive), nežiūrint (with the genitive).

Despite the fact that the drizzle had stopped, the sun appeared from behind the clouds again (rš.). Finally, the dialect particle bū sint “they say, supposedly” is also of half-participial origin.

Ana asked, they say, that someone drive to the market and bring back what was needed. J(LKŽ I 1209).

§ 3. Both in literary language and in dialects, most adverbs are formed from participles with the suffix -(i)ai, e.g.: hesitantly, having embraced, properly “appropriately,” deservedly, artificially¹³. But this is a question of derivation of adverbs by suffixation, which is not discussed in this section.

In Samogitian dialects, some participial adverbs occur that are formed with the suffixes -ie¹⁴, -io(je), the first of which coincides with the ending of the old, now adverbialized non-postpositional inessive, and the second with the ending of the present-day postpositional inessive, e.g.: dūlkantie “when there is a lot of dust, when the road is dusty,” lyñantie “when it rains, while raining,” pašăliesie “when it is frosty”; lyñančioj “when it rains, while raining.”

One can say that no other types of participial adverbs occur, although individual participle forms (on their own or together with other words) can quite often be used in sentences in an adverbial function; cf.:

He tells it so clearly, relaxed. Krt. Maybe, before you know it (soon) he’ll be back from that Radviliškis. Rd.

Cf. also such particles-conjunctions derived from nominative plural forms of masculine active participles (the old nominative singular forms of neuter participles) as esą, bū sia, which are often classified as adverbs in linguistic literature, but in fact differ from adverbs both in meaning and in syntactic function.

Finally, mention should also be made here of dialectal (Samogitian) reflexive half-participles, which have no inflectional properties, are usually used adverbially, and have thereby come close to adverbs, e.g.: duodamós, džiaugdamós, juokdamós,

¹³ Plačiau žr. „Lietuvių kalbos gramatika“, t. II, Vilnius, 1971, §§ 755–762.

¹⁴ See K. Ulvydas, On the adverbialization of the singular locative, “Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai”, vol. IX, Vilnius, 1967, p. 18.

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shaking, rustling, tearing, gathering, being thrust. Such half-participles also occur in literary works by representatives of the Samogitian dialects.

They go everywhere giving (giving themselves). Krš. The children ran off to church rejoicing. ŽemR I 19. He came back laughing all over. Krš. The pigs root up weeds while shaking them. Šts. You will raise your tail, tearing away like that. Krš. He skips, skips, skips — the young master heads into the barn, rustling. Šts. They go about the world gathering. Krš.

This use of half-participles of this type is very frequent and intensive in the dialects. These half-participles are kept from adverbialization by the very strong meaning of a secondary action or state, as well as by the fact that alongside such reflexive half-participles, a harmonious system of inflected non-reflexive half-participles is still retained in the corresponding dialects, e.g.: walking, walking (feminine), walking (plural), walking (feminine plural).

§ 4. Of the other non-finite verb forms, an occasional case of an adverbialized infinitive is found, e.g.: incomparably ‘significantly, much’, to perish or not ‘at all costs, come what may’, cf. also to perish or not ‘the same’.

But he looks like no little sparrow, but a lame bird chirping in the master’s garden, only incomparably bigger. CvMS 34. Seeing the child’s diligence, Juras wanted at all costs to make him, if not an engineer, then at least an educated man. CvŽM 135. And we have a task to complete, come what may!.. Gud-GuzB I 326.

§ 5. Adverbs derived from finite verb forms are even rarer than those derived from non-finite forms. Finite verb forms can generally be said to function adverbially only when, together with other words or particles, they form certain adverbialized, partly adverbialized, or merely becoming-adverbial phrases. Compare, for example, the adverb before-you-know-it ‘in the blink of an eye’ and the adverbialized and partly adverbialized phrases as you see ‘the same’, wherever it lands ‘where it hits, whether it hits or not; by groping, superficially’, as well as partly adverbialized phrases or phrases used adverbially, such as as it should ‘properly, suitably’, as it stands ‘as it should’, at daybreak ‘at dawn, early in the morning’, more than is needed ‘very much, more than necessary’, in their second components.

There are many people in the group; that rye harvest will be over in the blink of an eye. Skr. He too will show up, as you see. ŽemR₂ I 235. “It’s snowing! It’s snowing!” we both shouted, Stepukas and I, hitting each other with our fists wherever they landed. BaltPV I 115. Turning the little book over, she began reading an article here and there at random. ŽemR₂ I 306. There is more land than needed. Ad. I have strength (= force, vigor) more than I need—I can do hard work. Lk. And the devotees, stunned… rejoice that they have escaped the Antichrist’s furnace, though they were ready to die as they should. Vencl Rn 177. My sister is already quite a grown girl. Iš. And he too jumped up and went out to the livestock at daybreak. ŽemR₂ I 136.

Phrases into which particles have been inserted do not differ at all in meaning or in their relation to the adverb from the phrases presented above, e.g., more than is ever needed ‘very much, more than necessary’.

There is more firewood than is ever needed. Ėr.

The adverbial meaning ‘at all costs, whatever happens, in any case; with the greatest difficulty’ is also conveyed by such fixed and semi-fixed phrases made up of finite verb forms: whether it breaks or tears, whether it breaks or gives way, whether it breaks or gives way, whether it tears or gives way, whether it tears or gives way, whether it roars or gives way, whether it roared or broke, whether it roared or broke, whether it breaks or tears, whether it breaks or tears, whether it roared or tore, whether it roared or tore, whether it will break or tear, whether it breaks or tears, whether it will break or tear, whether it breaks or tears.

Cf. dialectal it will break or tear.

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It seemed that he was determined, come hell or high water, to carry out every order (trš.). It has to be done, come what may. Jnš. If Būsė wants something, she has to get it, come hell or high water. SimonP 25. Come what may, drive there, and that’s that. Sln (LKŽ VII 718). We’ll leave here, come what may (Ik.). Come hell or high water (under no circumstances) will I tell. ValP 6. One way or another, next time you go on all fours and do it. Btg. That’s a worker for you—he got it done, come what may. Rod. It has to be done, come what may (rš.). Come what may, he’s always fine. Ds. Don’t work come what may (i.e., haphazardly, superficially, carelessly). Blnk. It has to be done, come what may. Lp. I’ll buy it, come what may. Kps. We decided to summon him back and publish a newspaper, come what may (rš.). That goal must be achieved, come what may. LKŽ s.v. trūkti, various examples.

Cf. dialect: I have to do it, come what may! Dkš.

Cf. modal words or modal particles derived from inflected verb forms: būdau (<būdavo), būdavos (<būdavosi), būsis ‘as if, so to speak, they say’, gal, galėt ‘perhaps’, gal būt, girdi, rasit ‘perhaps, maybe’ (the verb rasti, indicative mood, future tense, 1st person plural, 2nd person), rastum (rastum̃) ‘perhaps, maybe, probably; most likely’, rodos, tur būt, the particles/conjunctions taryt, tarytum, tarši, tartum, the conjunction dėstis (dial. dąstis), ‘depending on, according to’ (the verb dėtis, indicative mood, present tense, 3rd person, athematic form).

Būdau, there used to be better years. LKŽ₁ I 1118. Būdavos, we used to play cards a lot. LKŽ₁ I 1119. She came (arrived), būsis, we need her here. J (LKŽ I₂ 1209). Only now did Elena understand more clearly why her brother had so wanted the two of them to meet and, perhaps, become friends. VenclGD₁ 73. They, they say, are carrying not a bride, no—only a white goose in a golden carriage. SNėr (LKŽ III 332). There are some who perhaps know [about olden times]. Užv. Rāstum (perhaps) you’re already getting ready for spring? Rāstum (probably) you got tired, child, while wading through the snowdrifts? Sld. He staggers rastum (as if, as though) drunk. Svn. Rastum̃ (probably) you were at the market yesterday too? Švnč. What is this here, it seems, this bundle; but by the time I got home, they say, it had weighed down my shoulders. Plt (LKŽ III 332). He will probably come. DLKŽ 879. When I speak, it is as if my veins hurt. Vrn. Her eyes were so deep, as if half-closed. SimonOBT 151–152. Everyone fell silent, as if caught by unsolvable riddles. VenclGD 473. Do they pay well for pigs (for the pigs)? – It depends on what sort of pigs. Jb (LKŽ II 293).

Dialectal compound adverbs amat (< or matai) ‘immediately, in no time’, kabėrgi (< like bėregi) ‘right away, very quickly’, and kabežiūrai (< like bežiūrai) ‘the same’ most likely originated from second-person forms of verbs.

If he doesn’t understand something, then kabėrgi it’s done. Pns. Wait, I’m telling you, the men will be back kabežiūrai, and we’ll all go eat. Pns.

§ 6. Verbal adverbs or verbal components of adverbialized phrases may become truncated, undergo deformation, or acquire certain ending formatives as well as other non-etymological elements, e.g., bemat ‘in no time’, bematõs ‘same’, kabemāt ‘same’, kąbemāt ‘same’, kaip bemāt ‘same’, kaip māt ‘same’, kaip reik ‘as it is needed’, kur kliūt ‘wherever it happened to land, everywhere’, kur nekliūt ‘same’.

It is understandable that verbal adverbs of this type, or verbal components of adverbialized phrases, may derive both from inflected and from non-finite verb forms. For example, bemāt can be derived from bematai and from bemātant. The same should be said of kabemāt, kąbemāt (cf.: kaip bematai, kaip bemātai, kaip bemātant, ką bematai, ką bemātai, ką bemātant). Bematõs has -õs, most likely the same ending as in the adverbs nuolat-õs, visad-õs,

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forms like *niekad-os*, etc.; in compounds *kur kliūt*, *kur nekliūt*, the second elements may have originated from the third person of the subjunctive.

I’ll skin you in no time. LKŽ I 606. It’ll start raining in no time. Grž. I’ll be back in no time. Pns. Wait, I’ll be there in no time. Km. And Vytautas came flying in no time, too. Sdk. Father left, but promised he’d come back in no time. Jnš. Wherever you look—trouble everywhere. VšR. I walk wherever I please. LKŽ VI 135.

It should be noted that both adverbs derived from truncated verb forms and truncated verbal elements in adverbialized compounds are very rare.

§ 7. It is essential to distinguish from adverbs truncated or deformed verbal modal words, modal particles, or particles-conjunctions that have otherwise acquired non-etymological final elements, as well as their variants, e.g.: *būsià* “as if, supposedly, you see”; *būsiam* “ditto”; *kažì* “who knows, it is unknown, hardly”; *kažin* “ditto,” *kažina* “ditto,” *kažinc* “ditto,” *kažinec* “ditto,” *kažino* “ditto,” *kažna* “ditto,” *kažnai* “ditto,” *kažnė* “ditto,” *kažnec*, *kažno* “ditto,” *kažnoc* “ditto,” *kuzhne* “ditto”; *mar̃dos* (*márdos*) “it seems to me”; *ràšek* “perhaps, maybe,” *ràšet(ais)* “ditto,” *ràšik* “ditto,” *ràšint(ais)* “ditto,” *ràšit(ai)* “ditto,” *ràšitais* “ditto”

The particles *būsià*, *būsiam* most likely derive from the future active participle *būsią* as a result of phonetic change or even deformation.

The variants of the particle *kažin* are especially altered phonetically and deformed; their etymological basis is the phrase *kas žino* (“who knows”). It is interesting that among the variants of this verbal particle—which have so little semantic connection with adverbs—we also find *kažnai*, which has acquired the phonetic form of an adverb. The *-ai* in this variant is most likely a non-etymological element, arising accidentally or by analogy with adverbs in the suffix *-ai*.

Note. The verbal element of the phrase *kas žino*, which has modal meaning, may be shortened to a single *ž* after *kas* in a compound pronoun or adverb, cf.: *kažkas*, *kažkaip*.

The particles *ràšek*, *ràšet*—*-ek*, *-ėt* are most likely explained solely by deformation, whereas the ending *-k* in the particle *ràšik* is a non-etymological addition, as are *-ais*, *-ai* in the particles *ràšintais*, *ràšitai*, *ràšitais* (cf. the most common adverbial suffix *-(i)ai* and the plural instrumental ending *-(i)ais* of some inflected words, which turns into an adverbial suffix).

A certain priest will move here from over there, perhaps. Go borrow a bowl, perhaps, and meanwhile you’ll see the matchmakers. J(LKŽ I₂ 1209). Vdk (LKŽ I₂ 1209).

I wonder if you’ll find it? Jrb(LKŽ V 462). I wonder who blocked off that road? Als(LKŽ V 463). I wonder when we’ll meet. LKŽ V 464. Something or other appeared to him. Nmn (LKŽ V 464). When he brought the butter, it was something-or-other. Some such person brought liquor. I wonder, will it rain tomorrow? Perhaps the (crops) are better? I wonder who could have done that? I wonder when that will happen? I wonder, will it rain today? I wonder where you’ve been wandering? Something makes me feel afraid, uneasy. Arm(LKŽ V 464). Plt. Klt. Dbk(LKŽ V 465). Švn (LKŽ V 465). Pns. Klt. Krok. Brž(LKŽ VI 1022).

It seems to me he went home. Plv.

Perhaps he’ll come, too. Krtn. Perhaps this child of ours will come to his senses, too. Kl. Perhaps I’ll meet someone who will buy it. Perhaps you don’t like that porridge? Perhaps it hasn’t been lost yet. Perhaps that’s how it will be. A Lithuanian will perhaps figure it out, but not always. Perhaps you’ll drink some milk? Perhaps he’ll come, too; he promised. Rt. Grd. Slnt. Krtn. Jn. Pj. Kv.

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The following words of Slavic origin, verbal in nature or in certain cases indirectly related to verbs, must also be distinguished from adverbs: the modal words bevėly ‘better, rather’ and vėlyk ‘same meaning’, and their variants bevėly ‘same meaning’, vė́lent ‘same meaning’, vály ‘same meaning’, vėl’ ‘same meaning’, velė ‘same meaning’, vėlei ‘same meaning’, vė́leik ‘same meaning’, vė́leit ‘same meaning’, vė́lek ‘same meaning’, vėlek ‘same meaning’, vėl’gu ‘same meaning’, vel’gu ‘same meaning’, vė́ly ‘same meaning’, vė́ly ‘same meaning’, veli ‘same meaning’, vėli ‘same meaning’, vėliau ‘same meaning’, vėliau ‘same meaning’, vėliaut ‘same meaning’, vėlyj ‘same meaning’, vėlyk ‘same meaning’, vėlik ‘same meaning’, vėlikos ‘same meaning’, vėlink ‘same meaning’, vėlint ‘same meaning’, vėliot ‘same meaning’, vėlyt ‘same meaning’, vėliuk ‘same meaning’; the particle maž ‘perhaps’ and its variants mažak, mažalai, mažām, mažì, mažĩn, mažolai, mažù, mažūk, mažūm; and the modal word musėt ‘probably’ and its variants musė, musėt, musėt, musėk, musėtai, musėtais, mūsi, musik, musinkėt, mūsintais, mūsit, mūsitais, mūst, mūstais, mūsti.

The ultimate source of all these words is undoubtedly Belarusian or Polish; cf. Belarusian and Russian dialectal вале́й ‘better, rather’, Belarusian dialectal валі́й ‘same meaning’, ве́ле́й ‘same meaning’, вале́й ‘same meaning’, Russian dialectal боле́й ‘same meaning’, Polish wolej ‘same meaning’, Belarusian веліць ‘to want, desire’, Russian dialectal волить ‘same meaning’, Polish woleć ‘to want more’; Polish może ‘perhaps’, Belarusian можа ‘same meaning’, Russian может ‘same meaning’; Polish musi ‘probably’, Belarusian мусіць ‘same meaning’.

The variants of the words mentioned here should generally be regarded as products of Lithuanian itself.

It is interesting that among the variants of musėt we find the most usual and popular adverbial suffix -ai (musėtai), as well as the ending -ais of the instrumental plural of a-stem nouns (mūsėtais), which takes over the functions of a suffix. It has been added here solely by analogy with adverbs originating from the instrumental plural, perhaps in order to emphasize or intensify the word’s meaning, or simply for reasons of speech rhythm. The final sounds or entire syllables in the variants of musėt and of the other words discussed here likewise have no etymological significance in those variants and probably arose either by analogy, because the speaker wished to emphasize the word’s meaning, or simply for reasons of speech rhythm.

Let’s go swimming, bevėly. Jrb. I’d rather be at home than get married and become a daughter-in-law. JV 867. I’ll go on foot, vė́lent. SmIn. You’d better go and bring some firewood. Vdš. Better by the grey little stone than by your father (song). Dl. My God, velel I were dead (dead). Pls. Better without a head than without honor. Šmn(LTR). Don’t go; vė́leik wait. Blb. I’d vė́leit rather die than live such a life. Nč. Velek would have been killed. Jnšk. Why are you running around? You’d better lie down. Ėr. Better hang yourself than marry a widower! Sdb. Better without a head than without authority. Gs. Better to roll stones up a hill than leave the girl one has loved. Sl. Better to part with a wise man than to find something with a fool. Erž. Vėli, I’d rather have dug deep holes on the hill than spoken lovingly with the young man (song). Kp. You stay at home later, and I’ll go. Žsl. You’d later have hanged yourself, young man, rather than lured me, a girl, to you. Ppr. Vėliaut, better an old man than a little drunkard. Rod. Vėlyj, wind a couple of threads onto the bobbin. Alv. Better one sparrow in the hand than … on the roof. Better a hundred relatives than a hundred rubles. Gs. Vėlink, more rather than less. Plv. Vėliot, I’d rather go reap rye than walk around the orchard. Mrk. Why all this mūstis? Better scratch one another’s eyes out in a friendly way. Ds. Vėliuk, you go with my father. BsMt II 70.

I’ll go and have a look; maybe I’ll see. Klvr (LTR). Maybe it will rain today, too. Žž(LKŽ VII 960–961). You look, maybe you’ll find something there yet. Azr (LKŽ VII 976). Maybe you have something to eat? Vlkv (LKŽ VII 976).

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You know, probably, what kinds of [tales]. Krn. Probably, he’ll come. J(LKŽ VIII 437). He, mūsetais, came. J(LKŽ VIII 437). Mū-sint, my head spun. Kal (LKŽ VIII 439). Mū-sintais, you’ll come back tomorrow. YI(LKŽ VIII 439). Mūsit, you went mad. SInt(LKŽ VIII 440). Mū-syt, he went swimming. Lp (LKŽ VIII 40). Mūsitais, it was bad that he no longer wants to go. Plt(LKŽ VII 440). Here’s Knabikaitė, mūsti, she’s sleeping. Vkš(LKŽ VIII 443). Today, mūstais, he won’t come back. Als(LKŽ VIII 442). Mūst, you could help me a little. Šv(LKŽ VIII 442).

That the words bevėlyk, vėlyk and their variants in certain dialects may, in terms of origin and formation, be associated not only with the corresponding Slavic particles mentioned above, but also with inflected forms of the verb vėlyti ‘to want, desire; to allow; to advise, wish well’, borrowed from Slavic, and its prefixed derivatives, is shown by the sentences given below.

You’d rather have never been born than have drowned Kasiulė! JD₁ 844. I’d rather dig little hills than take and abandon someone I love. Tt(LTSR). I’d rather lie underground, even longer, than have you, young man, before my eyes. JD₁ 614. I’d rather dig a high hill than abandon the one I love most. KlvD 59. You’d rather, mother dear, have thrown me into the sea. LB 50.

The inflected forms of prefixed derivatives of the loanword vėlyti found in dialects (e.g., atvėlyti ‘to allow’, bevėlyti ‘to want more’, išsivėlyti ‘to obtain permission for oneself’, įvėlyti ‘to persuade’, pavėlyti ‘to allow’, privėlyti ‘to allow; advise, betroth’, užvėlyti ‘to allow’) may also have facilitated the formation and spread of the variants of the words bevėlyk and vėlyk.

Gauta 1973. VI.1.

К. УЛЬВИДАС

FROM STUDIES OF THE CATEGORY OF ADVERBS IN LITHUANIAN

Summary

I. Simple adverbs in -ais, corresponding to the instrumental plural

The instrumental case in Baltic and Slavic languages is distinguished by a richly developed system of adverbial meanings, which facilitates the adverbialization of this case. The diversity of adverbial meanings is particularly characteristic of the instrumental case in Lithuanian. It is therefore no coincidence that Lithuanian abounds in adverbs corresponding to the instrumental case, whose endings could in certain cases be regarded as derivational suffixes. The suffixal formation of these adverbs can be discussed only conditionally, since many of them are nothing other than adverbialized forms of the instrumental singular and plural, and only some are formed by analogy, that is, on the basis of existing examples.

The following word-formation and structural classification of these adverbs is proposed.

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First of all, it is useful to divide all these adverbs into two groups: the first consists of adverbs corresponding to the instrumental singular, and the second of adverbs corresponding to the instrumental plural. Each of these groups is then classified according to the stems of the nouns to which the adverbs themselves correspond. Thus, one may speak of adverbs corresponding to the instrumental singular of nouns with stems in -a, -ia, -o, -io, etc., as well as of adverbs corresponding to the instrumental plural of nouns with the same types of stems.

The distribution of these adverbs by noun stem is directly proportional to the distribution of the nouns themselves by stem.

Since these adverbs correspond not only to simple words, but also to prefixed and compound words, they themselves may also be simple, prefixed, or compound. Adverbs corresponding to a prepositional construction (consisting of the instrumental case and a preposition) should also be mentioned; its main component may in turn be simple, prefixed, or compound.

This particular classification is determined by the material under analysis, by the close connection between these adverbs and nouns, especially substantives.

The present section of the article is devoted to a word-formation and structural analysis of simple adverbs in -ais corresponding to the instrumental plural.

Alongside adverbs of the type under study, the language also has forms of a transitional nature, which should be distinguished, as far as possible, from genuine adverbs. This section also covers peripheral phenomena—words whose external form coincides with that of the type of adverb under study, but which in fact have nothing, or very little, in common with these adverbs.

Among forms of a transitional type, the following should be mentioned: kraštāis “along the edges,” rūožāis “in places,” rytāis “in the mornings,” vakarāis “in the evenings.” When such forms acquire more abstract and generalized meanings, they approach the category of adverbs so closely that they become difficult to distinguish from the latter; for example: tārpais “at times,” šōrais “in places,” šmorais “the same.”

Before characterizing the formation tendencies or structure of the adverbs under study, the section identifies their principal meanings and illustrates their use in sentences.

By origin, the adverbs of the type under study form two groups: one consists of native Lithuanian words, and the other of borrowings from Slavic languages.

Most of the adverbs under study derive from nouns. Some of them reflect a process of adverbialization; cf. dāiktais “in places” and dāiktas “object, thing; place,” kārtāis “sometimes” and kārtas “time, occasion,” žarāis “scattered about; in heaps” and žāras “detachment, heap (of people).”

The particularly close connection between the adverbs under analysis and nouns should be noted. This connection is perceptible even when there is no corresponding noun alongside the adverb,

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when the adverb is related to a verb, e.g.: almaís “in a stream, in streams” (: álma, -ėjo, -ėti “to flow, to stream”), keperzais “at a gallop” (: keperžioti, -úoja, -ávo “to run at a gallop”), plėsais “with all one’s might” (: plėšytis, -osi, -ėsi “to strive with all one’s might”).

The close connection of the adverbs under investigation with nouns is evident even in cases where they are related to adjectives, e.g.: dykais “for nothing; free of charge” (: dūkas, -à “empty; idle”), pilnais “with a full cart, motor vehicle, etc.” (: pilnas, -à “full”), saváitmais “of its own accord; arbitrarily” (: saváitmas, -à “spontaneous”), tolimais “far away, in the distance, afar” (: tólimas, -à “distant, far”).

The formation of the adverbs under investigation is often purely individual in character. Such individual formations have various suffixes, sometimes not even found in the formation of nouns in modern Lithuanian. Therefore, these individual formations are not easily, or at all, amenable to being related to inflecting parts of speech. Examples: ankstáinintais “very early” (cf. ankstì “early”), dū́rtais “on someone’s heels, following in someone’s tracks” (cf. dūrti, dūria, dūrė “to stab, poke, or touch something or someone sharply”), greičiū́mais “nearby” (cf. gretà “nearby,” grẽčiūm “nearby,” grẽčiūmai “nearby”). The adverbs cited here have no corresponding forms among the nouns of the modern language, so they may be regarded not only as frozen (lexicalized) instrumental forms of adjectives that once existed in the language but subsequently fell out of use, but also as individual analogical formations, whose final -ais may be regarded as a distinctive suffix.

Among peripheral words whose final -ais resembles frozen instrumental forms, the following may be cited: añdais “recently, a few days ago,” čianájonais “here,” dabārais “now,” niekadais “never.” The final -ais in these adverbs, especially when it is unstressed or has a rising intonation, could be explained by the influence of adverbs ending in -ais that are related to the plural instrumental case. Thus, for example, -ais in the adverb nórmais nenórmais “willy-nilly” could be explained in this way (cf.: nóromis nenóromis, nóróm nenórom, nórómais nenóromais, nórmais nenórmais), where -ais (by analogy with adverbs in -ais) most likely first arose in the form nórom nenórom. However, the final -áis, whose intonation differs from the ending of the plural instrumental case, cannot be explained by the influence of plural instrumental forms, e.g. čianáis “here.”

Besides peripheral words belonging to the adverb category, other peripheral words are also common in Lithuanian: particles (aurēntais “over there, yonder,” dēltais “after all,” nórintais “although”), modal words (mātomais “apparently,” žinómais “of course, certainly,” mūšetais “probably”), and imitative words whose meanings overlap with those of adverbs (džingu džìngais “ding,” grabu grabais denoting groping or feeling about, klėdaru klėdarais denoting staggering or swaying). In these peripheral words, the final -ais can hardly in every case be related to the plural instrumental ending -ais. The final -ais in these words most likely consists of the particle -ai or the most common adverb suffix -ai and the particle s.

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This -ais as a result of analogy or the influence of the plural instrumental ending could hypothetically be considered only in imitative words such as džingu džingais, which, as already noted, also overlap in meaning with adverbs.

Analysis of this relatively small class of simple adverbs in -ais, related to the plural instrumental case of nouns, reveals the diversity of connections between these adverbs and other parts of speech and identifies entire series of peripheral words that, in their outward form, resemble the adverbs examined in this section but, by origin, are unrelated or only very weakly related to them.

2. Adverbs in -(i)úoju, -(i)ája

Formations in -(i)úoju, -(i)ája should also be partly classified as adverbs, e.g.: blogúoju “on bad terms, badly,” gerúoju “in a good way,” gražiuoju “amicably, on friendly terms.” Of course, the -(i)úoju of these adverbs—the ending of the instrumental singular of pronominal adjectives—acquires the function of a suffix. Adverbs are formed with the suffix -iúoju from adjectives with stems in -a, and with the suffix -iúoju from adjectives with stems in -u. The adverb nesavúoju “1. in a bad mood; 2. very; 3. against one’s will” derives from nesàvas, -à.

In dialects, not only the final -u but also -ju may be lost from these suffixes, e.g.: gerúoj, blogúoj, piktuõ; older forms in -(i)úojuo are sometimes found, e.g., piktúojuo “badly, harmfully.”

Alongside some of the adverbs mentioned, instrumental singular forms of adjectives, with or without the preposition su, are used with the same meaning, e.g.: (su) gerù “in a good way,” (su) piktù “badly, harmfully.”

The basis for the formation of these adverbs is adjectives that directly or metaphorically denote inner properties and qualities, e.g.: gẽras, -à “good,” dõras, -à “moral,” blõgas, -à “bad,” gražùs, -ì “pleasant, good,” piktas, -à “angry, bad.” Only very rarely can adjectives with other meanings serve as the basis for forming these adverbs; cf. greitúoju “hurriedly, hastily” (: greĩtas, -à “fast, hurried”).

In a sentence, the adverbs examined here function as manner adjuncts expressing quality and sometimes have a predicative meaning, e.g.: Salos gyventojai sutiko Kolumbą ir jo žmones gerúoju “The island’s inhabitants received Columbus and his people in a friendly manner”; Gerúoju viskas gerai “If things are amicable, everything is fine”; Greitúoju pavalgiau pietus “I ate lunch in a hurry.”

There are cases in which the adverbial meaning of adverbs in -(i)úoju becomes weaker, and these adverbs not only function as manner adjuncts but also take on part of the predicative function. In such cases, forms of the verb būti “to be” are readily understood alongside the adverb in -(i)úoju, e.g.: Nuo vakar aš su juo piktuoju “Since yesterday, I have been on bad terms with him (I am angry with him).”

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Adverbs in -(i)ája also approach suffixal formations. They are very rare. In the literary language they do not even form a particularly prominent category. The following examples may be cited: greitája “hurriedly” (: greitas, -à “quick, swift”), karštája “quickly, hastily” (: karštas, -à “hot”), savája “in turn” (: sàvas, -à “one’s own”), nesavája “1. in an uncharacteristic voice; very; 2. at an inopportune time” (: nesavas, -à “not one’s own”), umája “at once, suddenly” (: ùmas, -à “sudden”).

The final -(i)ája of these adverbs is nothing other than the ending of the instrumental singular of feminine pronominal adjectives, which here is becoming a suffix. Adverbs motivated by adjectives with a stem in -o end in -ája, whereas adverbs motivated by adjectives with a stem in -io end in -iája.

Some of these adverbs have parallels among adverbs in -(i)úoju, cf.: greitúoju – greitája.

Adverbs in -(i)ája, like adverbs in -(i)úoju, are most often used in sentences as adverbials.

3. Adverbs derived from finite and non-finite verb forms

With a few isolated exceptions, finite verb forms in Lithuanian are not prone to adverbialization, since they cannot be used adverbially, the function from which the process of adverbialization usually begins.

Of all the non-finite verb forms, only half-participles approach adverbs to some extent in meaning and use; these also underlie the formation of such adverbs as nedėłsiant “soon, without delay,” negaištant “same,” netrūkus “same,” bėregint “at once, immediately,” bemàtant “same,” bežiūrint “same,” (cf. the Samogitian bevėizdint, bevėizint “same”), vėrkiant “by all means, certainly; very.”

Some gerunds, together with other words (usually adverbs and particles), form combinations undergoing or having already undergone adverbialization, e.g.: akìm bemàtant “at once, soon,” ilgai nedėłsiant “soon, before long,” ilgai netrūkus “same,” kaip (be)màtant “at once, soon,” kaip reikiant “properly, well,” kaip vien reikiant “same,” kiek nereikiant “abundantly, generously,” kiek reikiant “enough,” kur reikiant “where (wherever) necessary,” kur nereikiant “where (wherever) unnecessary,” neilgai trūkus “soon, before long,” ne kiek netrūkus “at once, very soon,” nórint nenórint “inevitably, in every case,” toliau bùvus “subsequently, as time passes, over time.”

Some gerunds have become particles or conjunctions, e.g.: nelyginant “as if, as, like,” nórint “although” (cf. also the conjunction nórs < nóris).

Cf. prepositions derived or developing from gerunds: išskiriant, išskyrus (ką) “with the exception of (whom, what),” nepaisant (ko) “despite”

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“(to what)”, neskaitant (ko) “not counting (whom, what)”, nežiūrint (ko) “despite (what)”.

Adverbs are formed from participles, both in the literary language and in dialects, most often with the suffix -(i)ai, e.g.: abejojanciai “doubtfully,” išglebūsiai “limply, lifelessly,” deramai “appropriately,” užtarnautai “deservedly,” dirbtinai “artificially.” This formation of adverbs should be considered purely suffixal¹.

In Samogitian dialects, adverbs formed with the suffixes -ie², -io(je) are found; the first coincides with the ending of the adverbialized inessive without a postposition, while the second coincides with the ending of the inessive with a postposition, e.g.: dàikantie “when there is a lot of dust, when the road is dusty,” lýnantie “when it rains,” pašàlusie “when it has turned frosty,” lýnançioj “when it rains.”

Cf. also the particles-conjunctions esą “as if,” būsia “the same,” derived from the corresponding active participles.

It is also appropriate here to mention the fossilized forms of Samogitian reflexive half-participles, used adverbially and thus approaching adverbs, e.g.: dziaugdamós “rejoicing, joyfully, with joy,” juokdamós “laughing, with laughter,” pašūkėdamos “bouncing, skipping.”

Occasional adverbialized infinitive forms of verbs are also found, e.g.: nepalýginti “incomparably, much, considerably,” žūt būt “at any cost, no matter what.”

Adverbs derived from finite verb forms are even rarer. Finite verb forms can be said to undergo adverbialization only when, together with other words, they form adverbialized or adverbializing combinations. Cf., for example, the adverb bematai “immediately, right away” and the adverbialized or adverbializing combinations kaip matai, kur pakliūk, kaip reik(ia), kaip stóvi, kaip švìnta, kiek nerėik(ia), kiek tik nereik(ia) “the same,” “any which way, superficially,” “properly,” “the same,” “at daybreak, at dawn,” “a great deal, more than necessary,” “the same.”

Such combinations of fossilized finite verb forms as lùš (ar) pliš, lùžt(a) (ar) trūks-t(a), pliš (ar) trūks, ar pliš ar trūks, rùks (ar) trūks, etc., also have the adverbial meaning “whatever it takes.”

Cf. modal words or particles derived from finite verb forms or containing such forms as components: būdau (< būdavo), būsis, gal būt, girdi, ràsit, ràstum “it used to be,” “as if, supposedly,” “perhaps,” “they say,” “perhaps,” “the same.”

In all likelihood, the following dialectal adverbs also derive from second-person verb forms: amàt (< ar matai), kabėrgi (< kaip bėregint), kabežiūrai (< kaip bežiūrai) “right away, immediately,” “the same,” “the same.”

Adverbs derived from verb forms, or verbal components of adverbialized combinations, may become truncated, deformed, or acquire various formatives or non-etymological elements, e.g.: be-

¹ Шире об этом см. „Lietuvių kalbos gramatika“, т. II, Vilnius, 1971, §§ 755—762.

² See K. Ulvydas, Vienaskaitos vietininko prieveiksmėjimo klausimu, „Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai“, vol. IX, Vilnius, 1967, p. 18.

3. 520

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màt “right now, immediately,” hematōs “the same,” kabetmàt “the same,” kqbemàt “the same,” kaip bemàt “the same,” kaip reīk “properly, as it should be,” and others. The adverb bemàt derives from bemataì or bemàtant; the adverb kabetmàt derives from kaip bemataì or kaip bemàtai, kaip bemàtant; the adverb kqbemàt derives from kq bemataì or kq bemàtai, kq bemàtant. The final -os in the adverb bematōs is inseparable from the final -os in the adverbs nuolatōs “constantly,” visadōs “always,” niekadōs “never.”

One should distinguish from adverbs also clipped, deformed verbal modal words and particles, or particle-conjunctions, with all their variants, for example: bùsia “as if, supposedly,” kàžì “who knows, it is unknown,” kàžina “the same,” kàžin, kàžine, kàžino “the same,” màr̄dos (màr̄dos) “it seems to me,” ràšek “perhaps,” ràšet (ais) “the same,” and others.

It is interesting that the verbal component žino, following the first component kàs in compound pronouns and adverbs, may be reduced to a single ž; cf.: kažkàs “someone, somebody, something,” kažkaìp “somehow, in an unknown way.”

Nor should such verbal or to some extent verb-related modal words originating in Slavic languages as vèlyk “better, more willingly,” bevèlyk “the same” be confused with adverbs. It goes without saying that all the numerous variants of these words likewise do not belong to the category of adverbs; cf.: bevèly “better, more willingly,” vàlent “the same,” vàly “the same,” vèl “the same,” etc. The particle màž “perhaps” must be distinguished from adverbs, as must the modal word musèt “apparently, probably,” along with all their variants, for example: mažàk, mažàlai, mažàm, mažì, etc.; musè, musèt, musèk, etc.

The earliest sources of the words listed here are the Slavic languages; cf. Russian dialectal валей “better, more willingly,” Belarusian dialectal валі́й “the same,” велей “the same,” вялей “the same,” Russian dialectal волей “the same,” Polish wolej “the same,” Belarusian вялець “to wish, want,” Russian dialectal волить “the same,” Polish wolej “to prefer, want more”; Polish może “perhaps,” Belarusian можа “the same,” Russian может “the same,” Polish musi “apparently, probably,” Belarusian мусіць “the same.”

The numerous variants of these words were for the most part formed later within Lithuanian.

It is interesting to note that among the variants of the word musèt are forms such as musètai, musètais, in which the final -ai, -ais coincide with the corresponding endings of adverbs. The final -ai, -ais in the variants mentioned here, as in particles or modal words generally, may serve only an emphatic or rhythm-and-melody function.

The words vèlyk, bevèlyk and their variants may also be related to the verb vèlyti “to want, wish; allow; advise,” which originated in the Slavic languages.

The prefixed formations used in dialects atvèlyti “to permit,” bevèlyti “to want more, prefer,” išsivèlyti “to obtain permission,” ivèlyti “to persuade,” pavèlyti “to permit,” and the like, may also have contributed to the formation of variants of the words vèlyk, bevèlyk.

Received 1 June 1973