106 ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXIV–LXV
Ma kus odune
Ins i u e o Li huanian Language
Resea ch a eas include Li huanian language syn ax, Bela usian
language syn ax, his o ical syn ax, a eal linguis ics, ansla ology.
aMbiPe sonaLas […]
Does his ca ego y
also apply o Bal ic coun ies?
ambipe sonal: a sui able ca ego y
o he bal ic languages oo?
Anno a ion This a icle discusses how he ambipe sonal ca ego y in Li huanian and […] only
b ie ly […] La ian is ealized by cons uc ions wi h non- unc ional ype pa icipan s. Since
ambipe sonali y can be exp essed in a a ie y o ways, e en in he same language, he ocus
he e is on cons uc ions wi h ine ec i e pa icipan s. I is only in he ambipe sonal, as in he
exp essi e cons uc ions wi h non- unc ional ypes o pa icipan s, ha a ce ain
g amma iza ion can be disce ned. he passi e ela ionship o hese languages o he
a o emen ioned ca ego y is also discussed.
anno a ion his pape discusses he ealisa ion o he ambipe sonal using pa iciple o ms,
adi ionally called passi e pa iciples, in Li huanian and […] o a much lesse ex en […] La ian. As
di e en means can be used o exp ess he ca ego y o he ambipe sonal, we concen a e in his
pape on cons uc ions wi h passi e pa iciples as a means o exp essing he ambipe sonal. his
decision was made, as hese cons uc ions wi h neu e passi e pa iciples show a high deg ee o
g amma icalisa ion. We u he discuss he connec ion be ween he passi e and he ambipe sonal.
The concep o ambipe sonal au o i y belongs o he Finnish linguis Tommola
( ommola 1993), and a ose in his s udy o he p oblems o he dia hesis o he Finnish
and Es onian languages (i.e. he ype o e b), p. These wo ds a e: ambipe sonal,
passi e, a ype o e b, o he Bal ic languages, a eal linguis ics.
keywo ds: ambipe sonal, passi e, oice, bal ic languages, a eal linguis ics.
ambipe sonalas – a ši ka ego ija inka i bal ų kalboms?
107 a icles by a icles
(1) o i s own. I 's spoken in Danish.
Danish. Loc.1 o speak. The Commission shall be
assis ed by a commi ee composed o ep esen a i es o he Membe S a es. I 's called P aes. Danish is spoken in Denma k (ka lsson 2000: 190).
(2) he es . You ha e a lo o wo k o do.
o wo k. The Commission shall be assis ed by a commi ee composed o ep esen a i es o he Membe S a es. I 's cold. The e's a lo o wo k o be done. No, no a all.
The e's a lo o wo k o be done ( ommola 1997: 3).
Šie pa yzdžiai ge ai ilius uoja bal ijos inų kalbų eiksmažodžio ūšies aiškini-
This is my p oblem. In he g amma s o he olde Bal ic Finnish languages, he
passi e is called he ca ego y ha mo e closely esembles he impe sonal passi e
o he Ge man language (o o he languages) ( ok. unpe sönliches Passi )2 and can
be made up o almos all ypes o e bs, e en om he s a e o non-cu si e ones3
(e.g. lie g ows, alls, sleeps). Simila cons uc ions a e ound in many o he
languages, bu he Bal ic Finnish languages do no ha e g amma ical means o name
he e b4 and, depending on he alency o he e b, only he wo-le e o
one-le e […]passi us[…] is possible. In hose languages, he ambipe sonal is g amma ical.
Wol gang Schlach e , who was one o he i s o examine he p oblem o he passi e in Finnish
in de ail, al eady has a dic iona y o his wo k en i led Ha das Finnische ein Passi (And Finnish
has a passi e, schlach e : 1985) a he beginning quo es he Bal ic Finnish languages […] bu no
only […] applied o hem. Oswaldo Szeme ény (1970) a gued ha i is especially impo an o use
he passi e cons uc ion om he iad, because he ac i e e b (named e b) is only a
ans o ma ion o he co esponding e b (hence he e b) and he ac i e e b (wi hou he
e b) is a syn ax. […] acu e, Loc. […] loca i e, no […] nomina i e, gen. […] geni i e, aMb. […] is he
i s le e o he alphabe . […] is ambipe sonal, P aes. […] cu en ime, P ae . […] u u e (ca d)
ime, a . […] a icle, page […] auxilia y ac ion wo d, PPP. used o be a non- unc ional ype o
day is, PPa. a pa icipan o he cu en ype o he ime, language: ai . I ish, please. […]
Es onian, La in […] La ian, lie. […] Es onian, La in […] La ian, lie. […] La ian is he language spoken
by he majo i y o he popula ion. […] Li huanian, F ench […] F ench, suo. […] Finnish, ok. […] o he
Ge mans, al. […] o he Ge mans.
2
The plg. ommola (1997): "In a s uc u al sense, his p ocess has been adi ionally conside ed
как особый случай пассива: „им пер со нальный“ пас сив“.
3 The passi e case o such e bs does no exis in many languages, since he e b o an ac i e sen ence is
no he ac o (agen ), bu mos o en he su e e . 4 T ue, in Es onian such a possibili y exis s and he
hi d membe can be called a cons uc ion wi h he polynx pool( )nuo ‘ om [...] he side (plg. auli 1983: 32).
Manninen, hiie am (2005) in his a icle also p o ides examples om bo h Es onian (wi h he a o emen ioned
polynksnu pool ) and Finnish (wi h he p e ix ( oimes a […]kieno nu odymu[…]) languages, whe e he e b can
be p onounced e en using syn he ic ([…] ik ąsias[…]) ambipe sonal o ms o sen ence seman ics. This
phenomenon should be u he in es iga ed on he basis o a la ge ex in o de o de e mine how
widesp ead i is al eady in hose languages and whe he i con inues o sp ead and gi e ise o a mo e
comp ehensi e passi e.
108 ac a Linguis ica
Ma kus odune
Li huanica LXIVLXV
he ac o is called and so on). In F edo Ka lsson's g amma o he Finnish language
2000: 187) ašoma, kad šios kalbos pasy ą ge iau bū ų adin i „inde ini u“. kaip
(Ka lsson we see, none o hese speake s, desc ibing he ine ec i e species o he
Bal ic Finnish languages, did no end o iden i y i wi h he passi e o he known
Wes e n Eu opean languages. In linguis ics, such ambipe sonal sen ences as (1) a e
adi ionally called impe sonal passi es, since he e is no openly named ac o o
expe ienced. Howe e , his is a p oblem because hey a e made up o all ypes o
e bs. and he desc ip ion as impe sonal (plg. hol oe 2001, ble ins 2003 and o he s) is
p oblema ic in seman ic e ms, because he cha ac e expe iencing is no named
only on he su ace o he sen ence, bu is unde s ood om he con ex as
[…]li ing[…] o e en […]man[…] […] example (1) i.e. Danish esiden s. he concep o
ambipe sonal (wi h an ambi alen ac ing expe iencing e e en ) would be mo e
app op ia e o his phenomenon. In addi ion, […] see he nex pa ag aph […] i allows
he compa ison o ambipe sonal exp ession by a ious means, no jus e b o ms, in he languages o he wo ld.
Tommola himsel (1997) in a discussion o he ambipe sonal ca ego y named his
p edecesso Igo Melchuk, sugges ed he "dia esis" by which ac an s a e supp essed,
called "sup esy" (Melchuk: 1991: 65). and ommola uses he wo d supp ess (see he i le
o his 1993 a icle), bu i is called supp essi iza ion, a syn ac ic ope a ion by which
he ac , he esul , is supp essed, and ambipe sonal […] a seman ic-p agma ic
ca ego y ha can be exp essed by a ious cons uc ions, e.g. g amma ical in
sepa a e e b o ms as in Finnish and Es onian. The desc ip ion o he ambipe sonal
as a seman ic-p agma ic ca ego y […] as s a emen s in which he ac o is no named
(supp essed), bu is e e en ially iden i ied ei he speci ically o as a gene ic […]
allows he discussion o he ambipe sonal in he Bal ic Finnish languages o discuss he
ambipe sonal o ms o a ious Eu opean languages, including he seconda y s a egic
e b o m (p. ussian), he ambipe sonal e b (p. i alian, p. ench on), he e b o m (p.
swedish) and he e b o m (p. english).
This a icle will ocus on he use o ambipe sonal o ms in he Bal ic, mainly
Li huanian, languages.
5
[…]Knowledge[…], since in o he Eu opean languages, he unc ion o one o he […]passi e[…]
o ms o he Cel ic languages is also desc ibed he e, e.g. al. sia edi ( alk o aMbP. P aes.)
cym aeg ([…] aliski[…]) yma ([…]čia[…]) […] […]čia is spoken in aliski[…] o ai . Labh aí ea (English p onuncia ion (help·in o)) is a dialec o he I ish language.
They speak I ish he e.
6 A simila case om he poin o iew o di e si y o exp ession is he ca ego y o e idenciali y.
ambipe sonalas – a ši ka ego ija inka i bal ų kalboms?
109 a icles by a icle
aMbiPe sonaLas
In Li huanian, why does his wo k s a a guing om he Bal ic languages o he
neighbou ing Finnish languages? This is because he in e p e a ion o he
non-wo king ypes o he Bal ic languages as a passi e o he uni e sal is as
p oblema ic as ha o he Bal ic Finns. The uni e sal passi e, in ag eemen wi h
he a o emen ioned au ho s, in his a icle is called only he iadic passi e, i.e.
one in which he di ec complemen o he ac i e sen ence is aised o he
posi ion o he e b, and he agen (ac i e e b) is aised o he p e ix
cons uc ion o indi ec le […] such as is discussed in many (p esen ) Wes e n
Eu opean languages:
(3a) he oc. De Mann is a acking a .
The mask. No, no a all. The man igh s. I 's called P aes. 3. he ollowing pa ag aph is inse ed:
Hund o he a . The mask.
he acc. The dog. he acc. he ollowing able is added:
A man is bea ing a dog.
(b) he ollowing pa ag aph is inse ed: The Hund
will be om a . The mask. No, no a all. The dog. No, no a all. he ollowing able is added: The page. I 's called P aes. 3. he ollowing pa ag aph is inse ed: om
A man wi h a is .
The PPP.
The dog is being bea en by a man.
Al hough he s a emen s "a dog is bea en by a man" o "a dog is bea en by a man" in
bo h g amma ical Li huanian co espond o all g amma ical ules, hey a e no
pa icula ly na u al7. Fo example, o he 202 ypical end-use e bs o punch, o en
ci ed o illus a e he pas ense, only 12 o he non-execu able ypes o he p esen
ense a e punched wi h he ac o 's punch. only one o hem could be desc ibed as a
ull passi e sen ence ( ig. 4):
(4) Piyau, Maleckis, e en hough he is a p o esso , is himsel a whip o he
go e nmen ! in o he examples, he pa icipan o he inac i e species is used as
an a ibu e (3) o he ac o is no named (4).
7 Plg. amb azas 2006: 492: […]agen ep esen a i e o he subjec in hose cons uc ions [passi e wi h
combined o ms o he noun o non-ac ing pa icipan s […] M. R.] is a ely used. […] 8 This a icle will mainly
a gue wi h examples wi h p esen ense non- unc ional ype pa icipan s, since cons uc ions wi h
u u e ense non- unc ional ype pa icipan s a e o en used wi h o he ca ego ies exp essions […] e.g.
esul a i e (e.g. geniušienė 1988) o e idencial (e.g. holė oe , semienė 2004).
110 ac a Linguis ica
Ma kus odune
Li huanica LXIVLXV
(5) E en oday, almos e e y newspape has s o ies o men being bea en, abused, o killed by
young men who ha e commi ed suicide o who ha e been mu de ed by young men.
(6) A man was bea en, logged, and his house was ansacked o money. The la e
ype o sen ences […] wi hou he adjec i e […] wi h a mo e chee ul p onuncia ion
[…] is qui e common in mode n common pa lance. Some ea u es, such as he
combina ion o he pa iciple wi h he nomina i e elemen (pa ia chal pa ien ), and
indica e ha he di ec complemen is aised o he posi ion o he e b, bu he
a e use o he e b and he a he a e use o he iadic passi e indica e i s
associa ion wi h he ambipe sonal.
and he s a emen (6), unlike he ull- alue iad passi e, has no ue ac i e
co espondence. in his "ac i e" co espondence, he man was bea en, bea en, and his
house was ansla ed, seeking money, also an unnamed ac o (ie). The e b can only be
iden i ied om he con ex , as can he e b in he sen ence "passi e" (5). Howe e ,
his does no necessa ily mean ha he is impe sonal, because, as in he example (1),
he e is a li ing, con ex ually iden i iable en i y […] in his case e en e y ac i ely
ac ing c iminals. So hese s a emen s a e bo h good examples o he ambipe sonal
ca ego y and show ha i s exp essions can be used by a a ie y o language ools.
Tommola (1997) a gues ha he unc ion o he ambipe sonal is di e en om ha
o he passi e iasman. In he la e , only he ac ual syllable is changed, i.e. he di ec
complemen o he ac i e sen ence is aised o he posi ion o he e b. The e o e,
he passi e is cha ac e is ic o languages in which i is a means o hema izing he
di ec complemen o he ac i e sen ence. And in he Bal ic and Bal ic Finnish
languages, all you ha e o do is pu he a gumen s in place (Gediminas ounded Vilnius […]
Vilnius ounded Gediminas). Bjö ns Wieme is (2001: 9) a gues ha he classi ica ion o
sen ences such as No mis akes no iced o Yes e day was ea en as passi e is
p oblema ic because i lacks a p i ileged syn ac ic a gumen . Compa ing he
s a emen No mis akes ha e been obse ed wi h he s a emen Two mis akes ha e
been obse ed clea ly show ha he unc ion o he la e sen ence is also
ambipe sonal. In bo h cases, he cha ac e is assumed, only supp essed.
One o he cha ac e is ics o he iad passi e is ha i can only be o med by
ansi i e e bs due o di ec addi ional ele a ion. You can' passi ely iew sen ences
wi h non- ansi i e e bs. This claim is allegedly con adic ed by he Li huanian
language cons uc ions wi h non- ansi i e e bs wi h non- unc ional ypes, plg. (7):
(7) The membe s o he expedi ion spen ou days in he ca e o Lukina Jama. The base
camp is loca ed in a ca e a a dep h o 750 m and 950 m.

ambipe sonalas – a ši ka ego ija inka i bal ų kalboms?
111s aipsniai / a icles
The iad o passi e sen ences wi h he e b o sleep because o i s alency has
ne e succeeded in o ming. The e's also no way o econcile a pa icipan in he
na a i e wi h anyone, because he e's no hing o b ing up in he ac ion posi ion.
Howe e , e bs such as sleep o lie, al hough in ansi i e, in some languages, such
as Ge man, allow hemsel es o be "passi e" as an ambipe sonal (impe sonal
passi e), e.g. (8):
(8) was laid o es on he g ound Pag. I 's cold. 3. he ollowing pa ag aph is inse ed:
on he da e. M. loo o sleep. The PPP. sleeping on he loo was sleeping on he loo
in Ge man can also be used synonymously wi h he cons uc ion wi h he
ambipe sonal p onoun man, e.g. man schlie (sleeping in P ae . 3. sg.) au dem Boden. In
bo h s a emen s, he sleepe s a e no men ioned by name, bu a e assumed o be
membe s o he expedi ion, i he membe o he expedi ion ells us so. he e b o
such e bs is ac i e (agen ), he e b is called ine . Howe e , in he same Ge man
language, sen ences wi h non-acous ic e bs, such as allen (‘k is i) o e s icken
(‘už) dus i, canno be […]passi a ed[…]. Fo example, *es wu de in den Abg und ge allen
([…]been c ooked in o a cu se[…]) is an ung amma ical sen ence, and in Li huanian i is
comple ely g amma ical, al hough i may no be e y common (only 6 examples o
c ookedness a e gi en). he ambipe sonal o ms o he non- ansi ional e bs a e
clea ly iden i iable […] hese a e he non- ansla ional o ms o he pa iciple o he
e b. As we ha e seen, in he gene al Li huanian language, he h ee-le e su ix
exis s, bu is a ely used. In many cases, he p e alence o wo ds wi h non-nominal
pa icipan s is e en mo e eminiscen o he Bal ic Finnish ambipe sonal, since he
pa icipan is no named wi h a nomina i e elemen :
The ield o a iama (amb azas 2001: 407)
(10) Well, i 's a monumen buil (k okšlys, Va ėnos ., expedi ion eco d) in such sen ences he di ec
supplemen is ma ked wi h he su name o he su name, bu i is no aised o he posi ion o he
ac ion, he pa icipan o he s o y is no associa ed wi h i . The adjec i e is used in sen ences
a dininko linksniu nebū inai eiškia iškėlimo į eiksnio poziciją, nes šiose a mė-
wi hou he e b o be exp essed openly, and he di ec adjec i e is used o ma k (see amb azas 2001
and he li e a u e e e ed o he e). In his case, he absence o such a combina ion is no
p oblema ic, since he noun indica es a non-g amma ical 9 o hem also occu in ex s, bu , like he
noun objec , mo e in he ica us. Among he mo e han 15,000 examples o non- unc ioning pa icipan s
om he dLk wi h he amily o he bea ded, collec ed o he disse a ion, only one sen ence wi h
he s uc u e men ioned he e was ound.
112 o he
Ma kus odune
Li huanian Linguis ic Ac LXIV[…]LXV
he subjec . This is also con i med by he occasional linguis ic examples in which
he su ix is used ins ead o he name bu he name o he b eed, e.g. wi h he
gein om he ees o he honeycomb (amb azas 1990: 205) 10.
In cons uc ions wi h membe s o he non-wo king ype o he amily wi hou a
su name, no examples o i s - o second-pe son (bo h o all h ee-digi ) p onouns
ha e been ound, a sen ence wi h a di ec complemen a y e b […] appea s, in which
case only ambipe sonal wi h a de i a i e pa icipan is possible, e.g. *I was bea en […]
I was bea en11. This is in e es ing because in Finnish, i is hese ambipe sonal nouns
ha a e exp essed in sen ences as he chee o he pe o me and he nouns as
he name o he objec . in addi ion o he a o emen ioned means, he ambipe sonal
in Li huanian […] as well as, o example, in Russian […] can also be exp essed as he
second singula pe son (some imes wi h he addi ional wo d "man").
This Regula ion shall en e in o o ce on he wen ie h
day ollowing ha o i s publica ion in he O icial Jou nal o he Eu opean Union. When you' e in lo e, you don' no ice when you lo e PPP. No, no a all. he ollowing able is added: M. no no iced P aes. he ollowing pa ag aph is inse ed: 2. he ollowing pa ag aph is inse ed:
недостатков любимого человека.
de ec gen. PL. My belo ed is gen. sg. The man is M. Gen. S.G. When you' e in lo e,
you don' no ice he laws in he pe son you lo e. The use o he second pe son
singula is also con i med by examples such as ok. man iss ( algy i P aes. 3. sg.),
which, like he Li huanian equi alen you a e, wha you ea , can also be said in he
second pe son: du bis , was du iss .
he ollowing able is inse ed:
In La ian
In La ian, he non- e bal o ms a e o med wi h auxilia y e bs ik ( ečiau and ap , kļū , e b
passi e) o bū ‘bū i (buzenas passi e) and - sdaly i. As emphasized by nicole nau (1997: 37, plg. and
hol oe 2001: 370), almos all e bs can be passi a ed12: 10 such cons uc ions wi h he non-wo king
membe s o he amily o he u u e ime and pe haps he esul ing su ix a e qui e common and in
some Sla ic languages (plg. wieme , gige 2005) […] his was he esul .
11
and he I ish ambipe sonal ac i e sen ence complemen is no aised o he ac ion posi ion, plg.
Ma aíodh (‘ o kill him a.m. P ae .) (léi) (‘ o kill him) é (‘ o kill him!): li e ally o kill him ( o kill him)
He was killed by he , she killed him.
12 axelio hol oe o (simila ly) men ioned es ic ion ha unlike in Finnish, in La ian i is no allowed o use
pasy izuo i / ambipe sonalizuo i jung ies bū i. as pa galioja i lie u ių kalbai – sakinys *bū a gud-
ed gud iam is ung amma ical; I is only when he conjunc ion is named and he e b is used ha i becomes
ambipe sonalas – a ši ka ego ija inka i bal ų kalboms?
113 a icles by a icle
In on o hem we e all he bu laks ha we e hen in he Romanian language and in he
Raganam Tika una s. All he bu lesque no els o he ime we e ead he e, and he e was
alk o wi ches.
1997: 38).
(13) hen i was di ided hen Pag. I 's
cold. o di ide he PPP. No, no a all. he ollowing able is added: The M.
was hen di ided.
egula : i s exis ing nau says ha he ambipe sonal (passi e) is a ely used in p o e bial speech, especially
wi h i s - o second-pe son e bs (1997: 38), s u la be g-olsen […] ha he use o he passi e in La ian is
mo e limi ed han in languages whe e he wo d o de is ixed (2001: 220). Howe e , i should be no ed ha
he unc ion o he ambipe sonal he e is ha he cha ac e is ma ked as assumed […] and ali e, o en I o
we, e.g. (13). This could explain he ac , which is also men ioned he e, ha i is possible o combine a
sen ence wi h a […]passi e[…] and an unconscious sen ence wi h a plu al 3 pe son e b, e.g. The olde
b o he was wounded and aken in o Ge man cap i i y. bo h o hese sen ences a e ambipe sonal
acco ding o he ca ego y se ou he e and can he e o e be combined.
I ind ha he ansi i e case o he e b has almos no meaning, in o de o assimila e i , he La ian
language is e y simila no only o Li huanian, bu also o neighbo ing Finnish languages. The peculia i y
ha La ian languages ha e in common wi h Bal ic Finnish, bu no wi h Li huanian, is ha in he common
La ian language, as in many languages, he e is no possibili y o name he e b " o ac " wi h he
auxilia y e b " o ac " (plg. be g-olsen 2001: 219, nau 1997: 38, ik hol oe 2001: 371). Howe e , be g-olsen (a
he same ime), quo ing endzelīnu (1951: 984), p o ides examples om olde La ian ex s in which he
cha ac e is called […] once wi h he cheek o he kilmin (as in Li huanian), he second ime wi h he su ix
no ([…]nuo[…]): (14) Bal ic men do no play wi h wa e , bu wi h asa ām, hey do no ouch he Bal ic skull,
hey do no whi en i , bu wi h ea s hey whi en he wa e . al edas gā e sas (1993: 295[…] 97) no es
ha in La ian songs he pe sonal cha ac e is almos ne e named, and emphasizes he p oximi y o
cons uc ions wi h - sdaly o cons uc ions wi h p edica es. I 's cle e o you. Ano he pa allel is I ish,
whe e almos all e bs can also be ambipe sonalized, excep o sen ences wi h he conjunc ion is. In
addi ion o he abo e-men ioned, he e a e also a numbe o o he a ia ions o he same e b, such as
he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b
o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he
e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m, he e b o m,
he e b o m. The same a icle also iden i ies he di e ence be ween he wo o ms o he
h ee-pe son e b mo […] plu al used o non- e e en ial, gene ic e b exp essed, singula e e en ial14.
ansi i e sen ences; only ansi i e clauses ha e passi e coun e pa s“ (noonan 1994: 5).
114 ac a Linguis ica
Ma kus odune
Li huanica LXIVLXV
he same a icle also e e s o o he simila cons uc ions ha a e common o La ian and neighbo ing
Finnish languages. We will no discuss he passi e s a e, as well as Li huanian s a emen s wi h p edica e
e bs, because o hei ela ionships wi h he esul an and p edica e cons uc s.
aMbiPe sonal name
As men ioned in he hi d insc ip ion, in he o he pa o Eu ope, in he wes , he
Cel ic languages also ha e g amma ical ambipe sonal o ms. Mode n I ish e en
dis inguishes be ween he wo "passi e" "ambipe sonal" and he " eal" "passi e"
(plg. noonan 1994):
Rinneadh a ai e and a hadhlacadh (12)
o do. I 's cold. His sh ines and his une al a anged his sh ines and his une al a anged his
sh ines and his une al a anged his sh ines and his une al a anged his une al a anged his une al a anged his une al a anged his une al a anged his une al a anged his une al a anged his une al a anged his une al a anged
(nolan 2005: 3) This Regula ion shall en e in o o ce on he day ollowing ha o i s publica ion.
(13) He was in his is -Vn.
passing h ough
I was bea en by he (noonan 1994: 6) i is clea ly seen ha in I ish […] as in o he Cel ic languages […] he
ambipe sonal is g amma ized, he passi e o mean is a sepa a e exp ession. The hi d-pe son p onoun is
used in he plu al o m o he e b " o be," bu in he plu al o m o he e b " o be," he e b " o be" is
used in he plu al o m o he e b " o be" and in he plu al o m o he e b " o be." 14 In his con ex , i
would be in e es ing o examine whe he he use o he second-pe son singula and he hi d-pe son
plu al ambipe sonal is simila ly seman ically di e en in Li huanian. 15 This subjec , like he designa ion
o he ac o as a ca pen e o o he humo ous cons uc ions, is he subjec o conside able
li e a u e, e.g. on he ac o as a ca pen e see amb azas 1990, hol oe 2000 and he li e a u e ci ed
he e. 16 Someone a anged o his bu ial and bu ial. [do(x) cause [make(x, a ai e agus a hadhlacadh)],
whe e x is an unspeci ied indi idual o anima e and human ype, and in e p e ed as ‘(some)one, ha is, a
speci ic (because hey exis ) inde ini e pe son. 17 This s a emen , which is made wi hou men ioning he
one who ac ed, is ambiguous: He was bea en o He bea him.