JANINA ŠVAMBARYTĖ-VALUŽIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

Research areas: dialect analysis of written sources, dialect lexicography and lexicology, sociolinguistics.

THE PRESENTATION OF PHRASEOLOGY IN MATAS SLANČIAUSKAS’S DICTIONARY¹

The presentation of phraseology in the dictionary of Matas Slančiauskas

ABSTRACT

The article discusses phraseology and its presentation in the lexical dictionary of narrative folklore recorded by Matas Slančiauskas and his collaborators (hereafter SŽ). Drawing on Lithuanian, Latvian, English, German, and Russian linguists’ views on phraseological units, it argues that dictionaries being compiled—historical, dialect and subdialect, and even contemporary-language dictionaries—may include stable word combinations alongside traditional phraseological units.

ABSTRACT

The article deals with the principles of presenting phraseology in the dictionary of folk narratives recorded by Matas Slančiauskas and his assistants (further – SŽ). Analysis of the views of various Lithuanian, Latvian, Russian, English and German linguists allows suggesting that not only traditional phraseologisms, but also stable word combinations ought to be distinguished in historical dictionaries as well as dictionaries of dialects, subdialects and even modern language.

¹ The material for Slančiauskas’s dictionary (hereafter SŽ) was collected from 2001 to 2005. From 2011 to 2012, it was prepared as a project of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language Lithuanian dialects in written sources of the late 19th and early 20th centuries: the dialect vocabulary of the collections of narrative folklore by Matas Slančiauskas and his assistants (Agreement No. K-12/2011).

KEYWORDS: semantic and stylistic criterion for identifying a phraseological unit, lexical and grammatical composition of a phraseological unit, traditional phraseological unit, stable word combination.

KEYWORDS: semantic and stylistic criterion of phraseologism distribution, lexical and grammatical composition of phraseologism, traditional phraseologism, stable word combination.

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0. INTRODUCTION

More than one hundred and sixty years ago, Matas Slančiauskas and his assistants recorded narrative folklore texts from informants living in the Joniškis area. Slančiauskas encouraged the more progressive people of his region to collect folklore, folk-medicine recipes, reminiscences, and charms. Among Slančiauskas’s assistants were: the Lithuanian-book distributor and poet Jonas Trumpulis (born in 1862 in Sargūnai village, Joniškis district; died on July 20, 1943, and buried in the Prankiškiai cemetery, Daunoravičiai village, near Sargūnai); the folklore collector and author of reminiscences, stories, and sketches who published the book Gimtinės takais in the USA in 1968, Pranas Narvydas (June 1 (13), 1882, in Trumpaičiai, Joniškis district – 1976, buried in New York); the gifted storyteller who recorded many a lengthy tale, Juozapas Stonevičius (1849, Bučiūnai village – July 19 (August 1), 1901, buried in Gruzdžiai cemetery); Jonas Lideikis (1891, Ražai village, Gruzdžiai district – May 26, 1927, buried in Gruzdžiai cemetery), who was not only a folklore collector but also a representative to the Vilnius Seimas and an initiator of a progressive Lithuanian youth union group; the folklore collector Pilypas Grigutis (June 7 (19), 1876, Trumpaičiai village – March 24, 1967, buried in Rudiškiai cemetery beside his friend and teacher Slančiauskas); and Steponas Strazdas, who recorded several folklore works and, according to Norbertas Vėlius, came from Vaškai parish (Pasvalys district), but lived for a long time in the Joniškis and Žagarė areas².

Thus, Slančiauskas’s dictionary (hereafter SŽ) reflects the local lexicon and phraseology that may not be used by the entire nation, but by a particular linguistic community connected by territorial, religious, economic, and customary ties. As times change, so does the phraseology used by that linguistic community: some remains in manuscripts or printed works, some fades into oblivion along with the community that used it, and some remains in active use (that is, in the speech variety, subdialect, or dialect still spoken by the community).

0.1. Research Aim and Methodology

The aim of the article is to examine the phraseology of SŽ and discuss how traditional phraseological units and stable word combinations used in the Joniškis area are presented in SŽ. The methodology used—a broader approach to phraseological units and the identification of stable word combinations—could be relevant to compilers of historical, speech-variety, and dialect dictionaries, as well as dictionaries of contemporary language. From stable word combinations, language historians could draw conclusions not only about the development of phraseology but also about how it changed at a particular time. Moreover, stable word combi-

² For more detail, see: Vėlius 1974: 9–36; 1975: 7–20; 1985: 7–34.

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nations are a particular source of phraseology, since a stable word combination formed under favorable linguistic circumstances can always become a traditional phraseological unit.

In preparing ŠŽ, the comparative research method was used. The forms and meanings of phraseological units were compared with those of, one might say, traditional phraseological units presented in Frazeologijos žodyne and Lietuvių kalbos žodyne (volumes I–XX). The material in ŠŽ also raised a number of issues for consideration, cf.: which criterion should be used to select phraseological units; whether combinations used as stable combinations in ŠŽ can be phraseological units; how to draw the boundary between traditional phraseological units and stable word combinations; and, finally, how to reconcile linguists’ traditional and non-traditional approaches to phraseological units (for more detail, see 0.2).

Perhaps not all the questions have been answered, but, in the author’s view, the phraseological combinations in ŠŽ, their synonyms and variants (in the broad sense), presented in the article, together with the issues raised, may be useful to lexicographers and lexicologists. The author prepared this article for that purpose, in the hope that it will merit discussion among lexicographers of phraseological units, whose definition and use—particularly in compiling dialect, speech-variety, and other dictionaries—still seem to leave much to be said.

0.2. Research Material

Folklore recorded by Slančiauskas (February 21, 1850 – March 11, 1924) and his assistants in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from the northern area of the Northern Šiauliai subdialect of Western Aukštaitian—the environs of Joniškis.

On the basis of the manuscript collections of folklore compiled by Slančiauskas and his assistants in 1866–1895, three publications have appeared: Tales of Northern Lithuania (1974), Legends and Anecdotes of Northern Lithuania (1975), Legends and Tales of Northern Lithuania (1985). The material was drawn from the publications mentioned above. The ŠŽ entries contain more than 580 phraseological units, including over 380 traditional phraseologisms and over 200 stable word combinations.

It should be recalled that phraseologisms from the places mentioned above have already been included in Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKŽ) and Phraseological Dictionary (hereafter FŽ), though by no means all of them; the material prepared for ŠŽ should not only supplement these works, but also bring out the synonyms of phraseologisms and their usage.

For example, the phraseologisms with the word kārtas presented in ŠŽ would add new combinations to LKŽ and FŽ; cf.: ant karto ‘immediately’; ant vieno karto ‘at once, suddenly’; katrą kartą ‘constantly’³.

³For at once the bottom of that pulpit goes thud-thud and comes loose, and the countess herself slips and falls down. ŠLP 382 So, having gone to the other side of the wall, take aim straight at that spot and stab; then that witch will be done for at once. ŠLSA 229 — I’ll cook twelve dishes all at once in one pot, but after the wedding, sir, give me that ring your daughter has on her finger. ŠLSA 150 And the husband would answer a word or two for his mother: she was old, toothless, unable to bite; while she was in the grave, he would keep silent again—whether he might make peace with his wife sometime. ŠLSA 70

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For instance, LKŽ lists the following phraseological combinations under the word kaŕtas: iš kaŕto adv. 1. ‘at first’ 2. ‘all at once, in one go, at the outset’; iš pat kaŕto adv. ‘from the very beginning’; kaip kaŕtas adv. ‘certainly, just so, exactly’; kaŕtas iš kaŕto adv. ‘from time to time, intermittently’; kaŕtas nuo kaŕto adv. 1. ‘see kartas iš karto’ 2. ‘at a set time, regularly’; kaŕtų kaŕtais adv. 1. ‘many times, often’ 2. ‘occasionally’; kas kaŕtas 1. adv. ‘every time’ 2. prt. ‘always’; kitą kaŕtą adv. 1. ‘formerly’ 2. ‘sometimes, on occasion’; lig su tuo kartu adv. ‘immediately’; nė tam kaŕtui adv. ‘entirely, completely’; pagedìmo kaŕtas ‘a fit of madness, frenzy’; vieną kaŕtą adv. ‘once, at some time in the past’⁴

FŽ supplements the phraseologisms in LKŽ with the following: kaŕtas kaŕtemis ‘very often’; kaŕtų kaŕtais 1. ‘often’ 2. ‘occasionally’; iš kaŕtas karčių ‘at the beginning’; kitais kaŕtais 1. ‘formerly, in the past’ 2. ‘sometimes, on occasion’; šiam kaŕtui 1. ‘said when taking leave’ 2. ‘earlier’; tám kaŕtui 1. ‘temporarily’ 2. ‘a little, a tiny bit’ 3. ‘said when taking leave’; vienas kaŕtas nemeluoja ‘one gets caught (after many evasions); what is bound to happen happens, and there is no escaping it’; iki su tuo kaŕtu ‘immediately’; iš pat kaŕto ‘from the beginning’; per ariamą kaŕtą ‘very much’; kaŕtas prie kaŕto ‘now and then’; sulig tám kaŕtui ‘for a very short time’; sulig tuo kaŕtu ‘for a very short time’⁵.

The phraseological combinations (synonyms) highlighted in SŽ—išleisti žinias ‘to report, disseminate information’; nuginti žinią ‘to report or tell urgently’; (pa)duoti žinią ‘to tell, report’—would also supplement the material in LKŽ and FŽ⁶.

⁴ LKŽ V 330–331. Cf.: At first he promised to help, but then changed his mind and did not come. Glv. (Dbk., Slm., Skp., Brž., Ut., J. Balč.) When he had sharpened the knife, he cut it off at once. Rd. (Brž., Vb., Slm., Skp., Dbk.) It is hard to remember and say straight away. Skp. (Glv., Rd., Dbk.) I liked the work from the very beginning. Skdv. (Šts.) It will be just as it is. Tvr. (Ad.) You fed it once and then you can go on your way. Užv. The dog just kept jumping around him and licking his hands now and then. rš. He eats three times a day, regularly. J. Have you not already sinned against him many times? PG. Each time they felt weaker. rš. As the little sun rose higher each time, it tore through the mist and grew hotter and hotter. Žem. Our people are even uglier nowadays. Ėr. By then I’ve forgotten the tale. Nt. I don’t want silk clothes at all. Vkš. (rš.) What a fit of madness—that I should have run into such a mishap! Sdb.

⁵ FŽ 272–273. Cf.: She used to go around to those doctors and committees from time to time. Trk. Those shoes have been mended many times. Šts. At first the child asked for bread. Lk. That will do for now, and afterward I’ll look again. Skr. I have enough bread for now. Pn. (Sl., Všn., Kpč.) That’ll do for now. Slm. One time, at least, it won’t lie. C. (Rm., Žem., Slnt.) It doesn’t happen from the very beginning. Šts. (Skdv.) Every now and then a snort of laughter could be heard in the classroom. Avyž. (Pt., rš.) I got very drunk. Šts. Everything is temporary for him. Grž. They sent that fool to Šiauliai, promising he’d help with the work at home—those were the promises, and that was that. Žem.

⁶The village people gathered, listened, and gave the assessor and the forester the news. ŠLSA 31 And the hostess gave the priest word of how much vodka that fellow had drunk. ŠLSA 89 Immediately he gave word to the priests, and more people gathered there. ŠLSA 93 Then those watchmen-soldiers gave the king word that so-and-so had arrived with a bear, and a little devil was driving the coach. ŠLSA 268 Well, they immediately closed those doors and at once gave the manor lords the news. ŠLP 133 Those lords immediately sent word to other churches, to other priests, that they should all come together right away. ŠLP 133 Then that prince immediately sent word to the princess that such-and-such a prince had come to marry her.

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Under the word žinià, LKŽ gives the following phraseological expressions: be Dievo žiniõs 1. “a great deal” 2. “very”; be [gãlo] žiniõs “very”; kójoms (į kójas) žìnią [dúoti] “to run, flee”; nerà žiniõs [kiék] “a great deal”; pãdams žìnią [dúoti] “about preparing to run”; su žinià 1. “little, unable to express oneself much” 2. “predictable, calculable”; visojè žiniojè “certainly”; žiniojè [žinión] eiti “to fare well”⁷.

Phraseological expressions in FŽ that supplement the material in LKŽ would include: Jobo žinia “an unhappy message”; į žinią “in a conspicuous place, so that it need not be searched for”; žiniõs nerà “unclear”⁸.

The SŽ idiom kaip su viedru verčia ‘heavily (it is raining)’ would fit well alongside the word viedras and the expression given in LKŽ and FŽ, kaĩp iš viẽdro “heavily (to rain)”⁹.

More than one idiom from Slančiauskas’s writings has made its way into LKŽ, but, for instance, under the word būrỹs neither LKŽ nor FŽ gives any phraseological expression, whereas the SŽ in preparation contains several; cf.: ant to būrio 1. “then”; 2. “unexpectedly”; 3. “at that time”; ant vieno būrio “suddenly”; kitą būrį “once”; kitų būriu “in times past, once”; nuo to būrio “then”; tam būriui “for that moment, briefly”; tuo būriu “then”¹⁰.

ŠLP 252 That woman immediately sent him word to come this evening. ŠLP 252 They immediately sent word from the army; he had not yet returned home, and they were already lying in wait for him. ŠLP 358 So he sent word throughout the world that anyone who saw two wolves running somewhere with white collars should not be afraid, but should call them by the names Jonas and Petras, and then they would begin to speak. ŠLSP 55 The lady, on hearing that Mikalojus was going to say goodbye, sent word to the rectory that Mikalojus was going to come—let the gentleman save her. ŠLSP 173

⁷ LKŽ XX 629–632. Cf.: It poured a great deal. Švnč. (Ds.) It cooled down suddenly. Dglš. (Kp., TDRiV262(Prng.)) He is very angry. Aln. (BŽ131., Švnč., S. Dauk.) When he started yelling, I just took to my heels and ran off. Mrj. (Krš., Vdk.) If I had my health, I could do anything. Sug. (Smal., Rš., Lb.) Take to your heels—and run home. KzR. And a penny is also a lot for us. Grd. (Pv.) A beggar’s prayers are many. Šl. (LTR (Mrc.), Krš.) If I don’t get back tomorrow, I’ll certainly be back the day after. Jnš. Stories were more often told to him. Krs. (LTR (Brž.), Brž., J. Jabl. (Kp.))

⁸ FŽ 2001: 873. Plg.: Nėr žinios, kaip čia bus. Vj. (Ds.) Tas pakulas padėk į žinią. Lkv. Jobo žinios. Pt.

⁹ And outside a terrible storm can be heard: lightning, thunder, rain pouring as if from a bucket. ŠLSA 108; FŽ 831; LKŽ XIX 124. Cf.: It pours as if from a bucket. Krs. (Trgn., Slm., Rod., Pns., Dglš.).

¹⁰ LKŽ I 1086 (examples containing possible idioms are included there when explaining meanings); FŽ 112. SŽ: That man came home at that time, fell down, and died. ŠLSA 133 She began to tell him, and the guests too had by then gathered in the sitting room. ŠLP 130 At that time the master who had sold the dog to the gentleman had become a beggar. ŠLSP 282 That gentleman’s son had become governor in another province and had come to visit his father at that time. ŠLSP 220 After turning [the meat], two beggars came along at that time. ŠLP 163 As he walked, head bowed and absorbed in deep thought, suddenly—look!—he heard the musicians’ loud crash. ŠLSP 37 So he tried it another time—again and again. ŠLSP 304 On another occasion, as he walked past the shepherd boys, he saw that girl. ŠLSA 68 Another time the hedgehog found a whole horse’s worth of meat. ŠLP 39 So from then on he forbade the killing of the old people. ŠLSA 171 The dog said [to the wolf]: “Be quiet; earlier, while we were gnawing bones, those two looked around at everything—and if they look around and find you, they’ll kill you.” At that, the wolf fell silent. ŠLP 138 They had no beer of their own at that time, so he ran to the village and brought back a barrel of beer. ŠLP 100 Those guests too had arrived at that time. ŠLP 130

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Thus, the material shows that the diversity of phraseological combinations, their variants, and their forms of expression has not yet been documented comprehensively; consequently, it remains to be studied so that we can investigate the centre and periphery of phraseology, its development and synonymy more effectively, and understand that the phraseological expression of each region of Lithuania often differs somewhat and varies, and is not always included in foundational publications. Historical dictionaries and dictionaries of dialects and local speech varieties therefore usefully supplement the material in these publications.

0.3. Methodology for the Analysis of Phraseological Units in Linguistic Publications

In recent years, new ideas have been voiced in Lithuanian linguistics concerning the criteria for identifying phraseological units, and a somewhat broader view of phraseological combinations has been presented. The aim is to define the centre and periphery of phraseological units; accordingly, a distinction is proposed between traditional phraseological units and stable word combinations. The traditional conception of phraseological units is linked to expressive, semantic, usage, and stylistic aspects. Traditional phraseological units are understood as expressive word combinations with a fixed lexical composition, a unified, generalized meaning, and a defined lexical environment¹¹. Lithuanian linguists present these criteria for selecting phraseological units in various ways: some first point to expressiveness and imagery (Pikčilingis 1975: 348; Jakaitienė 1980: 99; Barauskaitė 1995: 60; Jakaitienė 2010: 281, 284)¹², while others emphasize fixed lexical and grammatical composition (Drotvinas 1975: 60; Lipskienė 1979: 9–10)¹³,

¹¹ The definitions of phraseological units by Lithuanian linguists, presented below in the article’s footnotes, show that the traditional approach to phraseological units is still followed today.

¹² Cf.: “Phraseological units are expressive and vivid combinations with fixed lexis and a semantically unified meaning, in which the meanings of individual words have receded more or less into the background and are overshadowed by the meaning of the whole” (Pikčilingis 1975: 348); “Expressive and vivid word combinations with a fixed lexical and grammatical structure and a unified meaning, which have a defined lexical environment and are not created in the process of communication but are retrieved from memory, are called phraseological units, or phrasemes” (Jakaitienė 1980: 99); (Phraseological units are) “vivid word combinations whose fixed lexical composition and grammatical structure have undergone semantic reinterpretation” (Barauskaitė 1995: 60); (Phraseological units are) “more or less vivid, fixed and indivisible word combinations” (Jakaitienė 2010: 281); “In Lithuanian linguistics, phraseological units may be considered vivid word combinations with a unified, reinterpreted meaning and a fixed lexical and grammatical structure” (Jakaitienė 2010: 284).

¹³ Cf.: “Phraseological units may be regarded as vivid word combinations with a fixed lexical and grammatical composition and a generalized meaning, having a grammatically and semantically defined environment, reproduced in the ‘process of communication’ and ‘used from memory, like formulas of collective creativity’ (Vosylūtė, 1972, 23)” (Drotvinas 1975: 60); “Phraseological units are generally called stable word combinations with a fixed composition, grammatical structure, and generalized semantics, whose individual components’ meanings are weakened or have completely faded, that is, become desemanticized” (Lipskienė 1979: 9–10).

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dar kiti iškelia semantinį kriterijų – reikšmės vientisumą (Paulauskas 1977: 6; Jakaitienė 1980: 95; Vosylytė 1985: 3; Župerka 1983: 34)¹⁴.

One distinguishing criterion—imagery—has begun to be criticized. Imagery, being a rather subjective distinguishing feature, should not be an essential criterion for identifying phraseological units, Rūta Marcinkevičienė observes. She proposes broadening “the traditional Lithuanian conception of phraseology by including various types of stable word combinations, constructions, or sentences, since stability, fixedness, and frequent co-occurrence [...] should be considered the most important and reliable feature” (Marcinkevičienė 2001: 83)¹⁵.

Representatives of cognitive linguistics, when defining phraseological units, most often emphasize the indivisibility and fixedness of the word combination, discuss variants of phraseological units in discourse, and identify their patterns (Langlotz 2006). Latvian linguists regard the lexical unity of a word combination as a phraseological unit¹⁶. English scholars likewise emphasize the arrangement of words—their occurring together¹⁷. German linguists describe a phraseological unit as a word combination¹⁸. Russian scholars primarily emphasize the semantic relation between words in a combination¹⁹.

¹⁴ Cf.: “Phraseological combinations are fixed combinations with a unified and vivid meaning” (Paulauskas 1977: 6); “A phraseological unit is a semantically indivisible word combination, in other words, it has a generalized, or unified, meaning” (Jakaitienė 1980: 95); “Not all fixed comparisons should be considered phraseological units, since some of them are not entirely fixed: the meaning of their components is merely somewhat faded, although all of them are retrieved from memory, have a more or less unified meaning, and are vivid” (Vosylytė 1985: 3); “Phraseological units, or phraseological combinations, are semantically indivisible (unified in meaning), fixed, vivid word combinations” (Župerka 1983: 34).

¹⁵ See Marcinkevičienė 2001: 81–98; 2010 for a fuller discussion.

¹⁶ Cf.: “A phraseological unit is a lexically indivisible word combination, relatively stable in composition and structure, established by the language tradition, whose meaning is usually associated with a transfer of meaning involving the whole word combination or one of its individual components (VPSV)” (Oļehnoviča 2012: 30); “A phraseological unit is a relatively stable word combination, since both structural and semantic variations may be introduced into it, in synchronic as well as diachronic terms” (Oļehnoviča 2012: 30).

¹⁷ Cf.: “Phraseology – choice or arrangement of words; a mode of expression” (IOD 616); “Phraseology – choice or arrangement of words; study of fixet phrases and idioms” (OALED 672); “Phraseology – a particular mode of expression, especially one characteristic of a particular speaker or subject area: legal phraseology” (ODE 1327); “Phrase – a small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit, typically forming a component of a clause. An idiomatic or short pithy expression” (ODE 1327).

¹⁸ Cf.: “Phraseology – the totality of typical word combinations, fixed constructions, turns of phrase, and idioms of a language; idiomatics; presentation or compilation of phraseology (especially under a headword in a dictionary)” (Duden 1996: 1148)

¹⁹ Cf.: “Phraseological unit – a general term for semantically related combinations of words and sentences which, unlike syntactic structures similar in form, are not produced in accordance with the general principles governing the selection and combination of words in the formation of an utterance, but are reproduced in speech with a fixed correlation between semantic structure and a specific lexical and grammatical composition” (БЭСЯ 559).

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Phraseologisms can also be understood as concepts. Cognitive linguistics has revealed and substantiated the idea of conceptual metaphors, which should be understood in language not as embellishments of speech but as reflections of the thought process—that is, as a necessity of the speaker’s linguistic expression²⁰.

Thus, the proposal to broaden the understanding of phraseology in Lithuanian linguistics is well-founded and justified. It is especially useful to compilers of historical dictionaries, since there are many stable word combinations that did not become phraseologisms over the course of the language’s development.

In compiling the SŽ, the traditional understanding of phraseology was not the only one followed: an effort was made to bring out in the dictionary entries all stable word combinations on the periphery of phraseology and to show their syntactic range. This was done because some phraseologisms and stable word combinations are no longer used in contemporary Lithuanian, while others are used only to some extent; most often, however, they are found in the discourse of present-day Joniškis dialects (and those of other regions as well).

1. TRADITIONAL PHRASEOLOGY IN SLANČIAUSKAS’S DICTIONARY

Traditional phraseologisms are understood as combinations based on the distinctive features of their constituents (see 03). As stated in the Frazeologijos žodynas, some of the main words in traditional phraseologisms are names of body parts: eye, ear, head, hand, hip, leg, nail, udder, belly, lungs, heart²¹. The SŽ lexicon is no exception: it contains over 25 phraseological combinations with names of body parts. Most phraseologisms are formed with words describing active human actions, such as blaizyti, dvėsti, graužti, kušėti and the like (over 60). Quite a few phraseologisms include names of nearby objects or objects in frequent use, for example: pečius, žvakė, kartis, bulka and the like (about 30). Over 20 phraseologisms are formed on the basis of names of natural phenomena, e.g. aušra, vasara, žiema, žaibas and the like; over 10 are based on names of domestic (wild) animals, birds, and objects in their environment (kiaulė, strazdas, zuikis and the like). There is a group of phraseologisms with names of clothing and its parts (over 3), supernatural beings (over 3), and expressions of thought (over 5). It should be noted that the SŽ also contains many phraseologisms with words more characteristic of written literature, such as: būrys, daiktas, galas, laikas, valia, žemė, žinia, žodis. The abundance of phraseologisms of this type leads to the conclusion that

²⁰For more on concepts, see Papaurėlytė-Klovienė 2004; 2012: 3–9.

²¹For more, see: FŽ VII.

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collectors of folklore could also have taken phraseology from publications printed at the time, that is, from written literature (see 0.1).

All phraseologisms in the SŽ are presented alphabetically at the end of the entry, for example:

akis sf.: [...]

◊ akies mirksny adv. in the blink of an eye: Having sat down on that fallow field, you’ll traverse the whole world in the blink of an eye. ŠLP 252 akis ištempti to stare intently [...]²² akių gale adv. in no time, instantly [...] dienos akim adv. by day [...] kur akys mato, o kojos neša adv. anywhere [...] par akis adv. in sight, before one’s eyes, brazenly [...] po akių adv. in sight, in plain view [...] po visų akių adv. in full view of everyone [...] prapulti iš akių to disappear from sight, vanish [...] tom pačiom akim būti to stay awake at night, not fall asleep [...]

Fixed combinations of several words, usually nouns, are likewise presented as phraseologisms, with one (principal) noun from the combination used as the headword; cf.:

juosta sf.: [...]

◊ dermės juosta rainbow: When you see the rainbow, you must not point at it with your finger. ŠLSP 131

Phraseologisms in the SŽ made up of different parts of speech, usually a verb and a noun, have variants because of the variety of verbs. These combinations should not, of course, be assessed from the perspective of the contemporary language; nevertheless, the context of the tales allows them to be regarded as an indivisible combination—a phraseologism. Therefore, combinations with different verbs are listed separately in the SŽ as phraseological variants, for example:

žinia sf.: [...]

◊ (pa-) give word say, inform: The village people gathered, listened, and gave the assessor and the estate steward the news. ŠLSA 31 carry the news say, inform [...]

Phraseological expressions expanded into sentences are presented under various dictionary entries. For example, skin over the head to peel off “to punish”: They said that her heart, too, was trembling: if her mother found out that she was taking in the children, she would peel the skin right over her head. ŠLSP 209 is also found under the nouns head, skin, and under the verb to peel off.

It has already been mentioned that not all traditional phraseological expressions in SŽ are included in the Lithuanian Phraseology Dictionary. For example, the phraseologisms with the light of day ‘during the day’, to strip the hide over one’s head ‘to punish’; to shout at the top of one’s voice ‘to yell, scream’, to talk someone out of it by witchcraft ‘to bewitch’, to carry someone off by witchcraft ‘to flee, run away’, as the belly knows best ‘as …'

²² Given the considerable length of the entry, only one example is retained for phraseologisms, or examples are omitted altogether.

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es,” to get thoroughly fat “to put on weight,” and so on, should enrich the ample resources of the Lithuanian phraseological inventory. Many phraseological expressions presented in SŽ illustrate the commonality of phraseology across the Baltic languages²³.

2.

FIXED WORD COMBINATIONS IN SLANČIAUSKAS’S DICTIONARY

As Marcinkevičienė notes, these phenomena belonging to the periphery of phraseology have not yet been widely studied and/or described in Lithuanian linguistics. Their principal characteristic is fixedness, the frequent co-occurrence of the same words (Marcinkevičienė 2001: 83). Thus, fixed word combinations are words that regularly occur together.

Fixed combinations include politeness formulas, well-wishes, exhortations, warnings, curses, clusters of particles, adverbial constructions, pronoun combinations, parenthetical expressions, interjection combinations, syntactic parallels, variable phrases, and so on.

In SŽ, fixed word combinations are marked with the same conventional symbol ◊²⁴. Often the head word of a fixed word combination is an inflected word used with a preposition. Combinations of the genitive, instrumental, and accusative cases of nouns (or adjectives) with prepositions are used.

¹ T A B L E. Fixed word combinations with fossilized cases and prepositions

Structure of the combination

Examples

from + genitive form

out of sight (to disappear) to be seen; from the easy gradually, slowly, from the sudden suddenly²⁵

(not) after + genitive form

behind the eyes in the eyes, in plain sight; behind the heads at the head of the bed; after an hour shortly; not after long shortly

with + instrumental form

with good will gladly; with force by force, under compulsion; with a storm loudly, noisily

23 Cf.: jump into fire or water “do everything” (iet caur uguni un ūdeni – LLV 503), put into one’s head “memorize” (ieņemt kaut ko galvā – LLKŽ 20), (go wherever the eyes see “anywhere” (iet, kur deguns rāda – LLV 26), in front of all eyes “in full view of everyone” (visu acu priekšā – LLKŽ 582), seen both warm and cold (to see) “to experience everything” (redzējis gan baltas, gan nebaltas dienas – LLV 503), skin and bones “emaciated” (kauli un āda – LLV 219). The author of the article deliberately chose these bilingual dictionaries, in which phraseological expressions are presented as still in current use in both languages. It should be noted that more fixed expressions are included in the Latvian-Lithuanian Dictionary, compiled by Alvydas Butkus (2003), than in the Lithuanian-Latvian Dictionary, compiled by Jonas Balkevičius et al. (1995).

24 In the SŽ, both inflected and uninflected words are used as headwords for fixed expressions. Examples are repeated under different headwords.

25 Calques are not discussed from the perspective of borrowing.

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Structure of the expression

Examples

after + instrumental form

after together together; after haste quickly, in a hurry; after unwillingness by compulsion; after masters in serfdom;

through + accusative form

before dawn at daybreak, before sunrise; in a hurry quickly, soon

It should be said that, in discussing structural models of phraseological units, Vincentas Drotvinas distinguishes a two-part preposition–noun phraseological unit²⁶. In the Dictionary of Phraseology, genitive (dative) noun constructions with the prepositions be, nuo, po. are presented as phraseological units.

In the SŽ, such two-part expressions are classified as fixed expressions, cf.: without a number “many” (ŠLSA 89; FŽ 613)²⁷; without spirit “out of breath” (ŠLSP 207; FŽ 172), from (one) thing “continuously” (ŠLP 174, ŠLP 175, ŠLP 251, ŠLSA 297, ŠLP 76; FŽ 124), to this day “until now” (ŠLSP 80; FŽ 149). The SŽ also lists the noun laikas as a fixed expression, cf.:

laikas see: [...]

◊ pirm laiko adv. beforehand: They had already asked each other for forgiveness beforehand. ŠLSA 74

Dictionary of Phraseology it is listed as a phraseological unit, but with a different meaning—“pregnant” (FŽ 372)²⁸.

Often, the basis of a stable word combination is a pronoun used substantivally (kas) or adjectivally (koks) (LKG 1994: 252). In SŽ, stable word combinations of this type would be:

whatsoever, –a pron.: [...]

◊ koks noriant any whatsoever: We’re only hauling manure on Friday, so some mishap or other is bound to happen to us: either an animal falls down, or some other thing goes wrong. ŠLP 156

kas pron.: [...]

◊ ko tik (tiktai) prt. barely: But when I gave it, I gave it with that poppy seed— I almost forgot. ŠLSA 93

As phraseological combinations, the Phraseology Dictionary lists Frazeologijos žodyne ne po kam “of no importance at all, meaning nothing at all” (ŠLP 125; FŽ 277), and iš savęs “independently” (FŽ 602). In SŽ, iš savęs is used in a different sense—“by oneself”: And how could it be that at the end of the year, poor uneducated people did not know for themselves? ŠLSP 169 This shoemaker’s wife tells

²⁶ Drotvinas 1987: 75–76.

²⁷ First, the word-combination reference in the sources is given, followed by the Phraseology Dictionary.

²⁸ Cf.: A man goes off to the army, leaving his wife behind before her time. Dl.

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they liked it, because they themselves could not think of what answer to give the king. ŠLSP 229. These phraseological expressions are also classified in SŽ as stable word combinations.

Stable word combinations also include combinations in which an adverb is the head word and is joined with particles, nominal words, or verbs.

² T A B L E. Stable word combinations with adverbs

Structure of the combination

Examples

anė kaip in no way, not at all

And I just cannot forget that word of yours... ŠLP 45

kaip be kaip tolerably, somehow or other

So, they say, you would get by somehow during the day, [but] when evening came, they say, you would be afraid to set foot outside the house. ŠLSA 135

nė juste nesijusti without noticing²⁹

Having lost his way in the fields, he did not even notice how he had returned to Gedvydžiai. ŠLSA 39

paleisti valio set free

She set him free, told him to work with his eye, as she had promised. ŠLSP 165

po drauge together

– They began to chase and stir them up with sticks, and drove in many other sparrows—and this one along with them. ŠLP 394

In the Dictionary of Phraseology, the expression šiada tada “sometime, at some point” (ŠLP 100; FŽ 665), presented as an idiom, could also be regarded as a stable word combination from the perspective of lexical expression. In the Dictionary of Phraseology, the expression kaip ne kaip “somehow or other, barely” (ŠLSA 174; FŽ 255), presented as an idiom, would fit very well among the stable word combinations identified above.

Various combinations of particles, interjections, and ideophones that express the speaker’s evaluative or emotional attitudes are classified as stable word combinations.

³ T A B L E. Stable word combinations formed on the basis of particles, interjections, and ideophones

Structure of the combination

Examples

just barely barely

Having found the child—barely alive, not very long before—a Grodno man carried him inside, barely revived him, and raised him. ŠLP 215

barely barely

All three set to work, but that head was stronger than them all—barely had all three struck him down. ŠLP 143

there, there said while rocking a child

—There, there, there, there, little one, there, there, poor little thing. ŠLSP 115

clattering and rattling making one’s way noisily, clattering

By then it was past nine; from the church cellar, a huge crowd of devils came clattering out, carrying a coffin into the middle of the church, opened it, and released that lady. ŠLP 119

²⁹The category of adverbs in SŽ also includes adverbial forms. See in more detail: Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian 2006: 413.

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Interjection combinations formed by repeating other forms of the same word (kabaru kabarais “crawling, climbing,” dulku dulkiais “hurrying, rushing,” alu alais “raving, speaking incomprehensibly,” tutu tutais “hurrying, running,” etc.) clearly become verb-like and are highly vivid. There are quite a few such examples in SŽ³⁰.

It cannot be categorically claimed that all the stable word combinations discussed here are entirely non-vivid, since vividness depends not only on a person’s understanding, but also on their way of thinking, the choice of vocabulary in the text they create, and syntactic expression. This is the main obstacle to distinguishing traditional phraseological units from stable word combinations. As their aura of vividness grows stronger and speakers use them more often, a stable word combination can at any time turn into a traditional phraseological unit. It is therefore worth recalling once again that, from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, stable word combinations are not regarded as embellishments of language; rather, they reflect the speaker’s thought process.

2. CONCLUSIONS

The body of Lithuanian phraseology presented in LKŽ and FŽ is neither exhaustive nor capable of being exhaustive. Much undocumented phraseology is found in dialect and regional dictionaries, among others, where one should distinguish not only traditional phraseological units but also the periphery of phraseological units—stable word combinations.

The entries in SŽ contain more than 580 phraseological combinations, over 380 phraseological units, and more than 200 stable word combinations. They supplement the core of Lithuanian phraseology, that is, traditional phraseological units, and reveal a broad periphery—the functioning of “forgotten” stable combinations.

The phraseological combinations in SŽ show that the headwords of most traditional phraseological units are names of body parts (akis, ausis, galva, ranka, koja, pilvas, širdis). Many of them were probably borrowed from written literature, with the words būrys, daiktas, galas, laikas, valia, žemė, žinia, žodis. All phraseological units in SŽ are listed alphabetically at the end of the entry.

Traditional phraseological units composed of nouns are listed under the headword of the main component of the combination. Every variant is included where possible, especially for combinations consisting of a noun and a verb. Phraseological combinations expanded into sentences are listed under various dictionary entries. Traditional phraseological units not only enrich the phraseological inventory but also provide information about common features of phraseology in the Baltic languages.

In SŽ, stable word combinations are also classified as traditional phraseological units and marked with the same conventional symbol ◊. They are most often composed of all parts of speech (daik-

³⁰ For more detail, see Švambarytė 2000: 54; 2001: 73–84.

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(of nouns, adjectives, pronouns in fixed inflected forms with prepositions, adverbs, particles, conjunctions, interjections, and onomatopoeic words). The use and expression of fixed word combinations are connected with a particular local, ethnic, and historical development and change of the Lithuanian language.

Variants of phraseological and fixed word combinations in the dictionary will reveal the local expressive potential associated with the mindset and creativity of the ethnic community.

Traditional phraseologisms and fixed word combinations in the dictionary, as may be inferred from the syntactic expression of the combination and the text, reflect objects of evaluation and criteria for evaluation in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, associated with the person, personal behavior, and activity.

LITERATURE AND SOURCES

B a r a u s k a i t ė J a n i n a 1995: Lexicology. – Lietuvių kalba 1, ed. Kazimieras Župerka. Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing, 4–78.

Grammar of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, ed. Vytautas Ambrazas. Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing, 2006.

D r o t v i n a s V i n c e n t a s 1987: Lithuanian Lexicon and Phraseology. Vilnius: Motiejus Šumauskas Printing House.

Duden 1996 – D u d e n. German Universal Dictionary A–Z. Nördlingen: C. H. Beck’sche Buchdruckerei.

Dictionary of Phraseology, compiled by Irena Ermanytė, Ona Kažukauskaitė, Gertrūda Naktinienė, Jonas Paulauskas, Zita Šimėnaitė, Angelė Vilutytė; ed. Jonas Paulauskas. Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2001.

IOD – Illustrated Oxford Dictionary. Vilnius: Alma littera, 2001.

J a k a i t i e n ė E v a l d a 1980: Lithuanian Lexicology. Vilnius: Mokslas.

J a k a i t i e n ė E v a l d a 2010: Lexicology. Vilnius: Vilnius University Press.

L a n g l o t z A n d r e a s 2006: Idiomatic Creativity: A cognitive-linguistic model of idiom-repre-sentation and idiom-variation in English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins B. V.

L i p s k i e n ė J o n i n a 1979: Somatic Expressions in the Lithuanian Language. Vilnius: Mokslas.

LKG – Grammar of the Lithuanian Language, ed. Vytautas Ambrazas. Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing, 1994.

LKŽ I, V, XIX, XX – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 1, 2nd ed., responsible editor Jonas Kruopas. Vilnius: Mintis, 1968; 5, responsible editor Kazys Ulvydas. Vilnius: State Publishing House of Political and Scientific Literature, 1959; 19, chief editor Vytautas Vitkauskas. Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing, 1999; 20, chief editor Vytautas Vitkauskas. Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language Press, 2002.

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LLKŽ – Butkus Alvydas 2003: Latvių–lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Kaunas: Æsti.

LLV – Lietuviešu-latviešu vārdnīca, Jons Balkevičs, Laimute Balode, Apolonija Bojāte, Valters Subatnieks. Riga: Zinātne, 1995.

Marcinkevičienė Rūta 2001: Tradicinė frazeologija ir kiti stabilūs žodžių junginiai. – Lituanistica 4 (48), 81–98.

Marcinkevičienė Rūta 2010: Lietuvių kalbos kolokacijos. Kaunas: VDU leidykla.

OALED – Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

ODE – Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Oļehnoviča Ilze 2012: Frazeoloģismu komponentu substitūcija Latvijas laikrakstu diskursā. – Literārā valoda (standartvaloda) vēsturiskā, normatīvā un sociolingvistiskā skatījumā. Akadēmika Jāņa Endzelīna 139. dzimšanas dienas atceres starptautiskās zinātniskās konferences materiāli. Rīga: LU Latviešu valodas institūts, 29–31.

Papaurelītė-Klovienė Silvija 2004: Liūdesio koncertas lietuvių ir rusų kalbose. Daktaro disertacija. Vilniaus universitetas.

Papaurelītė-Klovienė Silvija 2012: Konceptualioji metafora emocinė būsena – kryptis žemyn lietuvių kalbos pasaulėvaizdyje. – Gimtoji kalba 1, 3–9.

Paulauskas Jonas 1977: Lietuvių kalbos frazeologijos žodynas. Kaunas: Šviesa.

Pikčilingis Juozas 1975: Lietuvių kalbos stilistika 2. Vilnius: Mokslas.

ŠLP – Tales of Northern Lithuania, collected by Matas Slančiauskas, edited by Norbertas Vėlius and Ada Seselskytė. Vilnius: Vaga, 1974.

ŠLSA – Legends and Anecdotes of Northern Lithuania, collected by Matas Slančiauskas, edited by Norbertas Vėlius and Ada Seselskytė. Vilnius: Vaga, 1975.

ŠLSP – Legends and Tales of Northern Lithuania, collected by Matas Slančiauskas’s collaborators: Jonas Trumpulis, Pranas Narvydas, Juozapas Stonevičius, Jonas Lideikis, Pilypas Grigutis, Steponas Strazdas; edited by Norbertas Vėlius. Vilnius: Vaga, 1985.

Švambarytė Janina 2000: Poriniai ištiktukai darybos ir linksnių adverbializacijos požiūriu. – Материалы XXIX межвузовской научно-методической конференции преподавателей и аспирантов. Выпуск 1. Секция балтистики, 1–3 марта 2000 г. Морфология и словообразование балтийских языков, Санкт Петербург, 54.

Švambarytė Janina 2001: Šiaurės Lietuvos paribio ištiktukai: struktūra ir reikšmė. – Linguistica Lettica 9. Rīga: Latviešu valodas institūts, 73–84.

Vėlius Norbertas 1974: Matas Slančiauskas ir jo pasakos. – Šiaurės Lietuvos pasakos, surinko Matas Slančiauskas, parengė Norbertas Vėlius, Ada Seselskytė. Vilnius: Vaga, 9–36.

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Vėlius Norbertas 1975: M. Slančiausko užrašyta pasakojamoji tautosaka (anekdotai, sakmės, pasakojimai). – Šiaurės Lietuvos sakmės ir anekdotai, surinko Matas Slančiauskas, parengė Norbertas Vėlius, Ada Seselskytė. Vilnius: Vaga, 7–20.

Vėlius Norbertas 1985: M. Slančiausko bendradarbiai ir jų surinkta pasakojamoji tautosaka. – Šiaurės Lietuvos sakmės ir pasakos, surinko Mato Slančiausko bendradarbiai: Jonas Trumpulis, Pranas Narvydas, Juozapas Stonevičius, Jonas Lideikis, Pilypas Grigutis, Steponas Strazdas, parengė Norbertas Vėlius. Vilnius: Vaga, 7–34.

Vosyl y tė Klementina Birutė 1985: Lietuvių kalbos palyginimų žodynas. Vilnius: Mokslas.

VPSV – Explanatory Dictionary of Basic Linguistic Terms, ed. in chief Valentīna Skujiņa. Riga: Institute of Latvian Language, 2007.

Župerka Kazimieras Romualdas 1983: Lietuvių kalbos stilistika. Vilnius: Mokslas.

БЭСЯ 1998 – Large Encyclopedic Dictionary: Linguistics. Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia.

ABBREVIATIONS

Ad. – Adutiškis, Švenčionys District.

Aln. – Alanta, Molėtai District.

Avyž. – Jonas Avyžius, his writings.

Brž. – Biržai.

BŽ131 – Jonas Baronas. Russian–Lithuanian Dictionary.

C – German–Lithuanian Key.

Dbk. – Debeikiai, Anykščiai District.

Dglš. – Daugėliškis, Ignalina District.

Ds. – Dusetos, Zarasai District.

Ėr. – Ėriškiai, Panevėžys District.

Glv. – Gelvonai, Širvintos District.

Grd. – Girdiškė, Šilalė District.

Grž. – Grūžiai, Pasvalys District.

J. – Литовский словарь А. Юшкевича съ толкованіемъ словъ на русскомъ и польскомъ языкахъ.

J. Balč. – Juozas Balčikonis, his writings and translations.

Jnš. – Joniškis.

Kp. – Kupiškis.

Kpč. – Kapčiamiestis, Lazdijai District.

Krs. – Karsakiškis, Panevėžys District.

Krš. – Kuršėnai, Šiauliai District.

KzR. – Kazlų Rūda, Marijampolė District.

Lb. – Labanoras, Švenčionys District.

Lk. – Luokė, Telšiai District.

Lkv. – Laukuva, Šilalė District.

LTR (Brž.) – Lithuanian Folklore Manuscript Repository, Biržai.

LTR (Mrc.) – Lithuanian Folklore Manuscript Repository, Marcinkonys, Varėna District.

Nt. – Notėnai, Skuodas District.

PG – Improved Hymn Books... newly revised by F. Kurszat.

Pn. – Panevėžys.

Pns. – Punsk, Poland, Sejny County.

Pt. – Gabrielė Petkevičaitė-Bitė, her writings.

Pv. – Pivašiūnai, Alytus District.

Rd. – Radviliškis.

Rm. – Ramygala, Panevėžys District.

Rod. – Rodūnia, Belarus, Varėnavo District.

Rš. – Rimšė, Ignalina District.

S. Dauk. – Simonas Daukantas, his writings.

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Sdb. – Sidabravas, Radviliškis District.

Skdv. – Skaudvilė, Tauragė District.

Skp. – Skapiškis, Kupiškis District.

Skr. – Skirsnemunė, Jurbarkas District.

Sl. – Salos, Rokiškis District.

Slm. – Salamiestis, Kupiškis District.

Slnt. – Salantai, Kretinga District.

Smal. – Smalvos, Zarasai District.

Sug. – Suginčiai, Molėtai District.

Šl. – Šiauliai.

Šts. – Šatės, Skuodas District.

Švnč. – Švenčionys.

TDrIV262 (Prng.) – Works of Folklore, Paringys, Ignalina District.

Trgn. – Tauragnai, Utena District.

Trk. – Tirkšliai, Mažeikiai District.

Tvr. – Tverčius, Ignalina District.

Ut. – Utena.

Užv. – Užventis, Kelmė district.

Vb. – Vabalninkas, Biržai district.

Vj. – Vajašiškis, Zarasai district.

Vkš. – Viešniai, Akmenė district.

Všn. – Viešintos, Anykščiai district.

Žem. – Žemaitė, her writings.

The presentation of phraseology in the dictionary of Matas Slančiauskas

SUMMARY

The variety of Lithuanian phraseological word combinations, their variants and expression is not yet fully recorded. Historical dictionaries, dictionaries of dialects and subdialects constantly complement not only the core of phraseology, so-called traditional phraseologisms, but also a periphery – stable word combinations (frozen linguistic units). Such word combinations reflect the development and synonymy of phraseologisms as well as slightly different phraseological expression in each region of Lithuania, the variety of which is not always fully covered in major dictionaries.

The article deals with phraseological word combinations taken from collections of folk narratives prepared by Matas Slančiauskas and his assistants at the end of 19^th and the beginning of 20^th centuries.

There are more than 580 such word combinations in Slančiauskas’ dictionary: over 380 traditional phraseologisms and over 200 stable word combinations. They complement the core of Lithuanian phraseology and uncover a wide periphery – functioning of “forgotten” stable combinations of words.

In traditional phraseologisms used more than 160 years ago in the areas surrounding Joniškis, the main word frequently names a part of the body (akis (eye), ausis (ear), galva (head), ranka (hand or arm), koja (leg), pilvas (stomach), širdis (heart)). Quite a few of them could have been taken from written sources, because the main words of phraseologisms such as būrys (party, group), daiktas (thing), galas (end), laikas (time), valia (will), žemė (earth), žinia (message), žodis (word) were more common in printing and literature.

Stable word combinations in Slančiauskas’ dictionary are marked with the symbol ◊. Fossilized cases of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns with prepositions form the basis of stable word combinations

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binations. Combinations with particles, adverbs and onomatopoetic interjections usually are not treated as phraseologisms. Stable word combinations of Slančiauskas’ dictionary illustrate various possible lexical links which in some aspects could be dependent on society using a particular language, its customs, moral attitudes, fashions, vitality of a dialect, etc.

As could be judged from syntactic expression of the word combination and the text, the traditional phraseologisms and stable word combinations of Slančiauskas’ dictionary can be viewed as a reflection of assessed objects and assessment criteria of the end of 19^th and the beginning of 20^th centuries related to a person, personal behaviour and activity.

Submitted on January 10, 2013.

JANINA ŠVAMBARYTĖ-VALUŽIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius, Lietuva

[email protected]

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