Concepts of “Time” and “Space” as a Representation of Human Existence in Kazakh Philosophy and Language

Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 2026, vol. 94, pp. 1–22 Contents link / Turinio nuoroda ISSN 2669-218X (online / elektroninis) Copyright © 2026 Dinara Abitay, Saken Nurkabekuly, Assel Kukenova, Gulnar Bekkozhanova, Tursyn Gabitov, Gaziza Shoybekova, Angelika Molnar. Published by the Institute of the Lithuanian Language. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. // Išleido Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Šis straipsnis yra atviros prieigos, platinamas pagal „Creative Commons“ priskyrimo licencijos sąlygas, leidžiančias neribotai naudoti, platinti ir atkurti turinį bet kokioje laikmenoje, nurodant autorių ir šaltinį. Received: / Gauta: 2026-05-07. Accepted: / Priimta: 2026-06-12. 1 CONCEPTS OF “TIME” AND “SPACE” AS A REPRESENTATION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE IN KAZAKH PHILOSOPHY AND LANGUAGE „Laiko“ ir „erdvės“ sąvokos kaip žmogaus egzistencijos reprezentacija kazachų filosofijoje ir kalboje DINARA ABITAY Department of Foreign Philology and Translation Studies, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1387-9793 Fields of research: foreign philology, translation. SAKEN NURKABEKULY Chair of Philosophy, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-6731-5468 Field of research: philosophy. ASSEL KUKENOVA Department of Kazakh Literature and Theory of Literature, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University E-mail: kukenova[email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-7346-4279 Fields of research: Kazakh literature, literature. GULNAR BEKKOZHANOVA Department of Foreign Philology and Translation Studies, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University E-mail: Bekkozhan[email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6532-7405 Fields of research: foreign philology, translation. TURSYN GABITOV Chair of Philosophy, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1330-1799 Field of research: philosophy. GAZIZA SHOYBEKOVA Department of Theory and Methods of Teaching the Kazakh Language, Kazakh National Womens Teacher Training University E-mail: [email protected] 2 ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9484-1318 Fields of research: Kazakh language, education. ANGELIKA MOLNAR Faculty of Humanities, Institute of Slavic Studies, University of Debrecen E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7896-1480 Fields of research: humanities, Slavic studies. https://doi.org/10.35321/all94-01 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ABSTRACT The present article aims to examine the concepts of “time” and “space” as representations of human existence in Kazakh thought and language. The study employs an associative experiment as the primary empirical method, complemented by statistical and linguistic analyses based on conceptual analysis techniques. A survey was conducted with 200 Kazakh-speaking participants aged 20 to 70. Key conceptual categories, such as “time as emotion”, “time as a value”, “space as homeland”, and “space as freedom”, were identified through coding and interpreted in light of Kazakh philosophical traditions. Significant differences were observed between age groups: younger participants favoured emotional and abstract associations, whereas older respondents relied on metaphorical and concrete representations. These disparities suggest a generational shift in the cognitive and emotional framing of philosophical categories, likely shaped by sociohistorical experience, linguistic socialisation, and the influence of technological and cultural changes. The study demonstrates that “time” and “space” in Kazakh culture are not neutral constructs but deeply symbolic, ethically charged, and emotionally resonant categories. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of how culture-specific worldviews are encoded in language, offering practical implications for education, intercultural communication, and cultural policy. KEYWORDS: associative experiment, culture and language, Kazakh cognition, linguistic worldview, philosophical categories. ANOTACIJA Šio straipsnio tikslas – ištirti „laiko“ ir „erdvės“ sąvokas kaip žmogaus egzistencijos reprezentacijas kazachų mąstyme ir kalboje. Pagrindinis empirinis metodas, taikytas tyrime – asociacinis eksperimentas, kurį papildo statistinė ir lingvistinė analizė, grindžiama sąvokų analizės metodu. Buvo atlikta 200 kazachų kalba kalbančių individų, kurių amžius svyravo nuo 20 iki 70 metų, apklausa. Svarbiausios konceptualios kategorijos, tokios kaip „laikas kaip emocija“, „laikas kaip vertybė“, „erdvė kaip tėvynė“ ir „erdvė kaip laisvė“, buvo identifikuotos kodavimo būdu ir interpretuotos atsižvelgiant į kazachų filosofines tradicijas. Pastebėta reikšmingų skirtumų tarp amžiaus grupių: jaunesni apklausos dalyviai pirmenybę teikė emocinėms ir abstrakčioms asociacijoms, o vyresni respondentai atsakydami rėmėsi metaforinėmis ir konkrečiomis reprezentacijomis. Šie skirtumai rodo kartų kaitą filosofinių kategorijų kognityviniame ir emociniame kontekste, kurią greičiausiai suformavo socialinė-istorinė patirtis, kalbinė socializacija ir technologinių bei kultūrinių pokyčių įtaka. Tyrimas rodo, kad „laikas“ ir „erdvė“ kazachų kultūroje nėra neutralūs konstruktai, tai giliai simbolinės, etiškai įkrautos ir emociškai rezonuojančios kategorijos. Šie rezultatai prisideda prie platesnės sampratos, kaip kultūrai būdingos pasaulėžiūros yra užkoduotos kalboje, darančios įtaką švietimui, tarpkultūrinei komunikacijai ir kultūros politikai. ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: asociacijų eksperimentas, kultūra ir kalba, kazachų kognicija, kalbinis pasaulėvaizdis, filosofinės kategorijos. 1. INTRODUCTION The spatiotemporal relationship between humans and nature underpins all human interactions with the environment and plays a critical role in shaping their worldview. The ontological integration of humans into the objective world serves as a prerequisite for the formation of “space” and “time” as conceptual categories. Such ideas have been articulated by ethnographers, anthropologists, philosophers, psychologists, and other scholars (Röck 2019). The philosophy of “time” and “space” represents one of the key domains of philosophical thought, addressing fundamental aspects of existence and cognition. “Time” constitutes a fundamental ontological category, comparable in significance to “space”, matter, and motion. Research characterises temporal perception as a culturally discriminative trait (Tejada-Gallardo et al. 2021). Cultural differences manifest in the measurement, segmentation, and conceptualisation of “time”. As an inherent component of 3 linguistic content, “time” is reflected across various levels of language structure: as a morphological category (tense), as lexemes with temporal meaning (lexical level), and as temporally marked syntactic constructions (syntactic level). The study of spatial concepts reveals that ancient understandings laid the foundation for subsequent interpretations of “space” as a category throughout history (Massey 2020). Early conceptions of “space” were predominantly geometric or physical in nature, lacking considerations of societal, communicative, intellectual, and particularly cultural dimensions. However, disregarding these aspects makes it impossible to establish criteria for cultural “space” as a distinct form characterised by continuity, homogeneity (or heterogeneity), structural organisation, boundedness, finitude or infinitude, and other defining features. Digital technologies have reconfigured societal perceptions of “time” and “space”, thereby generating new conditions for the construction of identity (Giddens 2023). Virtual environments have enabled the simulation of movement across spatiotemporal domains (Chen, Wang 2022); accordingly, the question arises as to whether traditional conceptualisations are capable of being sustained within a digital milieu. The current study endeavours to explore traditional Kazakh identity through the conceptual frameworks of “time” and “space”. Focusing on Kazakh society proves particularly relevant as it undergoes profound transformations driven by globalisation, technological advancement, and intensified migration processes. These developments challenge traditional worldviews and necessitate a reconceptualisation of the fundamental categories through which individuals perceive, experience, and articulate reality (Reese et al. 2019). “Time” and “space” function not merely as cognitive universals but as culturally and philosophically mediated models for understanding human existence. From this perspective, Kazakh philosophical thought – rooted in nomadic traditions that conceptualise “time” and “space” as sacred existential dimensions – engages in a dynamic dialogue with contemporary global paradigms (Altayev, Imanbayeva 2021). Given these transformations, it is crucial to examine how concepts of “time” and “space” function as cognitive and linguistic representations of human existence, particularly within Kazakh culture and in its interactions with global trends. The present article aims to trace the evolution of these categories in philosophical and linguistic thought, analyse their manifestation in language, and explore how they respond to and reflect the challenges of the modern world. The present study is relevant in several respects. The associative experiment involved 200 informants, compared with 50 in the only preceding study (Beknazarova 2022); this expansion of the sample made it possible to capture variability that had previously remained unrecorded. Age stratification, which was not included in Ainur Zhangalieva, Garifolla Yessim, Zugura Rakhmatullina (2024), is introduced here for the first time. Conceptual metaphor theory has been tested primarily on Indo-European material; its applicability to Turkic-language data has not yet been sufficiently examined. Previous studies have not sufficiently addressed this subject, leaving a gap in the literature that the article seeks to fill. 1.1. Literature Review The conceptualisation of “time” and “space” has been examined across several scholarly domains, all of which are pertinent to the present study. Collective identity emerges at the intersection of continuity and rupture; temporal self-awareness and spatial attachment jointly shape its formation. It is precisely this intersection that provides a productive analytical point of departure (Clark 2019). Regarding the relationship between “space” and “identity”, continuity is particularly crucial among the components of contemporary identity. Building upon the perception that self-awareness possesses temporal significance, the continuity of identity represents a dynamic connection between temporal and spatial relations. Individual identity maintains continuity because human memory encompasses both temporal and spatial 4 dimensions (Obradović, Bowe 2021). Consequently, within the collective identity formed by individual identities, continuity addresses how the coherence of collective identity can be maintained across “time” and “space”. In academic research, spatial and temporal concepts are often treated as independent axioms (Lakoff, Johnson 2020). However, their immeasurable nature makes direct study impossible. The increasing prevalence and precision of measurement instruments have substantially altered the human perceptions of “space” and “time” (Buzsáki, Tingley 2018). The growing influence of technological innovations – from artificial intelligence to online communication – has further transformed the relationship between language and reality. The technological evolution raises critical questions about how traditional categories such as “time” and “space” are conceptualised, preserved, or restructured within linguistic and cultural consciousness. Research in various fields underscores the strong connection between these abstract concepts and their linguistic representation, suggesting that patterns of temporal and spatial discourse reflect deeper cognitive structures of thought and perception (Hanink, Koontz-Garboden 2025). Turkological research on conceptual metaphors remains fragmentary. Within Kazakh linguocultural studies, the concept of zher (land/earth) occupies a central position in national self-consciousness. In Kazakh-language primary sources, this centrality is clearly evident: the concept of *tugan zher* (“native land”) forms the core of the national conceptual sphere and is verbalised in heroic epics and in genres of toponymic folklore (Olzhabayev et al. 2022; Olzhabayev, Soylemez 2024). An analysis of mythological cognition embedded in Turkic toponyms reveals an underlying mechanism in which hydronyms preserve archaic spatial orientations associated with sacrality and aquatic symbolism (Sadirova et al. 2024). Chronotopic analyses of Kazakh literary prose demonstrate that temporal and spatial representations carry an evaluative dimension (Zhiyenalina et al. 2024). Canonical Kazakh thinkers conceptualised “time” and “space” in ethical categories; in their interpretations, conscience functioned as a temporal regulator of memory and moral judgment (Iskakova 2023; Ryskaliyev et al. 2023). A genealogical approach to philosophical prose interprets existential categories – fate, irreversibility, and moral transition – as elements of a cultural symbolic structure (Kossyn 2024). Ethnographic evidence documents a cyclical perception of “time” shaped by seasonal migrations and ritual calendars (Dosmurzinov 2023; Zeinullin et al. 2026). At the same time, empirical verification through controlled elicitation has been limited to a single associative study involving 50 Kazakh speakers (Beknazarova 2022). Thus, language constitutes a crucial internal factor shaping a culture’s temporal orientation. Beyond traditional measurement-based approaches, the study of cultural metaphors offers an effective methodological alternative for understanding how different cultures conceptualise abstract notions (Jang et al. 2023). Cultural metaphors refer to phenomena or activities that most members of a national culture cognitively or emotionally identify with (Kövecses 2021). Metaphorical constructs reveal how cultures perceive different societal aspects and conceptualise abstract domains, including “time” and “space”. Building on this research direction, scholars have examined “space” as a metaphor for temporal perception (Gu et al. 2019), viewing “time” as a void through which individuals move between events. Studies also point to cultural variations in these spatial-temporal mappings. Specifically, American cognition typically represents “time” horizontally (past to future) with left-to-right movement (Worrell, Andretta 2019). Conversely, Chinese cultural models frequently employ vertical orientations with upward temporal progression (Fiddler 2024). Both models, however, derive from the written traditions of sedentary cultures; the cyclicallinear hybridity of the nomadic chronotope remains unaccounted for in them. The present study is intended to address this gap. Marked differences in temporal conceptualisation have prompted investigations into their underlying determinants (Pitt, Casasanto 2020). Research has identified multiple cultural factors influencing temporal perception, including value systems, religious traditions, social structures, and linguistic patterns (Kapitańska 2024). 5 Environmental determinants, such as climatic conditions and socioeconomic circumstances, similarly contribute to cognitive variation. In relation to Turkic-speaking nomadic societies, these determinants have not been studied systematically; consequently, the generalizability of the models examined to date remains limited. Culture-specific metaphors explain why various cultural groups perceive “time” differently. For instance, most cultures conceptualise the past as behind and the future as ahead, aligning with the body’s forward movement (Michaels 2025). With regard to metaphorical representations, cultural differences in the perception of “time” are closely linked to how “time” is described. English speakers commonly measure duration through metaphors of linear distance (“a long time”), whereby “time” is conceptualised as a spatial path; in Spanish, by contrast, duration tends to be quantified (“much time”), with “time” construed as a substance (Alcaraz Carrión, Valenzuela 2021). In Kazakh, both strategies converge. Duration is encoded both in terms of distance (“ұзақ уақыт”, lit. “long time”) and quantitatively (*köp uaqyt*, “much time”); thus, the contrast described above intersects directly with the material examined in the present study. The observed divergence stems from distinct conceptual metaphors shaped by linguistic and cultural influences. Empirical studies demonstrate that individuals more accurately estimate “time” when using measurement frameworks consistent with their native language’s constructions (Götzelmann 2021). Additional linguistic features contribute to cultural variations in temporal perception. Writing system differences have been extensively examined as potential explanations for cross-cultural variation in temporal orientation. The Kazakh case, having undergone a succession of script changes – from Arabic script to Latin, Cyrillic, and again Latin – offers a non-trivial test of this hypothesis on Turkic material. “Time” constitutes an essential aspect of human experience, while culture plays a pivotal role in shaping cognition, motivation, emotions, and individual behaviour. Previous research has systematically investigated the relationship between cultural values and variations in temporal orientation across cultures (Alcaraz Carrión, Valenzuela 2022). Among different cultural dimensions, scholars have investigated how collectivism/individualism, regulatory focus, and a belief in control over one’s life correlate with temporal perception. Some studies claim that individualism and collectivism significantly influence cultural differences in future, present, and past temporal orientations (Chen et al. 2022). Individualistic cultures typically exhibit a stronger future orientation, whereas collectivist cultures emphasise present-focused perspectives. That is, collectivist frameworks prioritise concrete, context-specific events in the immediate moment, while individualist paradigms favour abstract events and universal rules applicable across situations. Beyond cultural values, mythologies, and religious systems constitute another critical factor explaining cross-cultural variations in temporal perception (Callizo Romero 2023). Growing evidence demonstrates that fundamental psychological processes often exhibit cultural specificity, suggesting that the conceptualisation and perception of “time” should similarly vary across cultures (Khatin-Zadeh et al. 2023). However, cultural studies have largely neglected temporal diversity and its differential impacts in cultural contexts. Despite progress in cultural research, the examination of temporal and spatial dimensions remains limited, with a lack of systematic integration of theoretical and empirical knowledge. The accumulated body of scholarship is marked by three structural limitations. First, conceptual metaphor theory has been empirically validated predominantly on Indo-European languages: a bibliometric analysis of 1,257 publications (2002–2022) identified research clusters concentrated in Spain, the United States, China, and Russia (Zhao et al. 2023). This imbalance calls into question the theory’s applicability to Turkic-speaking populations. Societies of Central Asia with nomadic heritage are rarely included in cross-cultural comparative research. Moreover, the very category of the “nomad” has been criticised for its reductionism, as it collapses diverse models of mobility into a single typology (Conte 2025). Second, the impact of bilingualism on the conceptualisation of basic categories in post-Soviet 6 contexts remains insufficiently explored. Kazakhstan’s trilingual policy shapes temporal and spatial imaginaries, generating competing associations with modernity and heritage (Ahn, Smagulova 2022); nevertheless, no study to date has examined whether policy-induced shifts transform foundational conceptual metaphors. A review of the existing literature reveals a striking paucity of research on the topic. While international studies have explored how metaphors shape cultural conceptions of “time” and “space”, the metaphorical frameworks of the Kazakh language have been systematically unexamined. Significant gaps persist in understanding how these categories manifest in Kazakh thought and language, with comparative cultural analyses being particularly scarce. Current research tends to treat “time” and “space” as discrete cognitive categories, overlooking their interdependence in shaping national consciousness. 1.2. Problem Statement The study aimed to analyse the concepts of “time” and “space” as representations of human existence within Kazakh thought and language. To achieve the stated objective, the following research tasks were formulated: 1) to identify dominant conceptual categories associated with “time” and “space” among Kazakh respondents; 2) to examine how these categories reflect culturally embedded meanings through an analysis of emotional, metaphorical, abstract, and concrete dimensions in linguistic associations; 3) to explore generational differences in the perception and conceptualisation of “time” and “space”; 4) to interpret the most frequent and culturally significant associations within the framework of Kazakh philosophical and cultural traditions. 2. METHODS AND MATERIALS 2.1. Theoretical Framework The current study is grounded in an interdisciplinary theoretical framework integrating cognitive linguistics, philosophical anthropology, and cultural semiotics. Central to this foundation is the premise that language not only reflects but also shapes human cognition and worldview (Lakoff, Johnson 2020). The conceptualisation of “time” and “space” is examined through the lens of conceptual metaphor theory (Bundgaard 2019), which posits that abstract concepts are structured through culturally rooted metaphors. Conceptual Metaphor Theory constitutes the central analytical framework of the present study. Two complementary theoretical perspectives extend its explanatory scope: Social Identity Theory elucidates intergenerational differences in conceptualisation through mechanisms of group affiliation and historical memory, while cultural semiotics substantiates the use of the associative experiment as a methodological instrument for accessing culturally encoded meanings embedded in language. The three approaches converge at a shared analytical nexus: conceptual metaphors emerge through processes of cultural semiosis and are transmitted across generations via channels of social identification. The research further draws upon social identity theory (Demirden 2021), particularly its proposition that perceptions of temporal and spatial continuity contribute to the formation of collective identity across generations. Social identity theory encompasses several subtheories, including collective identity theory, which examines identity formation in relation to social movements. Key works in both sociology and psychology highlight collective identity as a potential bridge between identity theory and social identity theory (Apoifis 2024). Identity theory classifies identities along three intersecting dimensions: personal, role-based, and group/social belonging. The framework additionally incorporates principles from 7 linguistic-cultural studies, which recognise that cultural cognition is encoded in language through associative patterns (Lupyan, Lewis 2019). These patterns can be systematically investigated through associative experiments. The associative experiment in linguistics serves to document responses motivated by culturally embedded information circulating among participants (Sternin 2020). The associative method facilitates access to respondents’ consciousness by eliciting reactions to presented stimuli. The experimental procedure involves recording verbal responses to stimulus words followed by analysis of the results. Associated words acquire new individualised meanings that connect the cognitive essence of the studied subject with images, emotions, and ideas present in participants’ minds. The philosophical foundation of the associative experiment rests on the premise that individuals recall mental images by relating them to each other (Halbwachs 2020). Accordingly, the experiment may establish a connection between the stimulus introduced by the experimenter and the participant’s response. From a psychological perspective, verbal reactions to stimuli relate to the hypothesis of predictive relationships among associations (Miller 2006). The cognitive capacity to use one concept as a starting point to establish mental connections with another exemplifies the process of accessing concepts through associations (Broccias 2021). Consequently, the experimenter gains access to the conceptual content under investigation, enabling a reconstruction of its cognitive structure. 2.2. Research Design The study employed a mixed-methods approach integrating qualitative and quantitative techniques to investigate and interpret the concepts of “time” and “space” within Kazakh linguistic consciousness. The research methodology incorporates philosophical, cultural, and linguistic tools to enable a comprehensive analysis of how native speakers cognitively and culturally perceive these categories. The research centres on an associative experiment as its primary empirical component, supplemented by statistical analysis and linguistic examination using conceptual analysis methods. This approach combines linguistic and cultural semantics of words, facilitating a thorough and objective logical analysis of natural-language concepts. Following statistical processing, the most frequent and culturally significant categories emerging from the survey were analysed through the lens of Kazakh philosophical and cultural traditions. The concepts identified during coding were interpreted not merely as linguistic data but as manifestations of underlying worldviews within the framework of qualitative-philosophical synthesis. 2.3. Sample The study employed a stratified purposive sampling method to ensure the representation of diverse Kazakh-speaking individuals across key demographic variables relevant to the research. The target sample comprised 200 native Kazakh speakers aged 20 to 70 years, representing varying educational backgrounds (secondary, vocational, and higher education). The selected age range effectively captured age-related differences in the perception and conceptualisation of “time” and “space”, which stem from diverse historical, technological, and cultural changes experienced by different generations in Kazakhstan. Stratification was based on two primary criteria – age and education level – to include perspectives from various sociocultural backgrounds while minimising the risk of demographic bias. Participant recruitment was conducted through multiple channels, including direct contact at educational institutions and public organisations. Invitations were distributed via email and through intermediaries at participating institutions. Prior to participation, all potential respondents received detailed information about the study’s 8 objectives, format, and confidentiality measures. Only those who provided informed consent were included in the final sample. 2.4. Survey The primary data collection tool was a structured associative questionnaire designed to identify both spontaneous and reflective linguistic associations with the concepts of “time” and “space”. Researchers manually developed the survey instrument based on methodological approaches from previous associative experiments used in conceptual studies of the Russian and Kazakh languages (Kuzembayeva 2021). Question selection was motivated by the need to document not only linguistic associations but also existential, emotional, and value-laden aspects that influence the perception of these fundamental categories. The final questionnaire contained six open-ended questions for each concept in the Kazakh language (Appendix). The selected question structure enabled multi-level analysis, encompassing direct linguistic associations, metaphorical and cultural content, and emotional perception. Participants completed the questionnaire either in person or via Google Forms, depending on availability and preference. 2.5. Statistical Processing The data collected through the associative questionnaire underwent a multi-stage analytical process. The analysis combined coding and quantitative statistical treatment to ensure a comprehensive interpretation of linguistic and conceptual patterns related to temporal and spatial categories. Following data collection, written responses were transcribed, digitised, and coded using SAS software, while responses from Google Forms required no transcription. Each participant received a unique digital code to maintain anonymity, while the responses were linked with demographic variables. The coding was conducted by two independent researchers trained in cognitive linguistics. During the pilot phase (n = 40 responses), inter-coder agreement reached 84% (Cohen’s κ = 0.79). Discrepancies were resolved through consensus discussion; in contested cases (12% of responses), a third expert was consulted. The final codebook comprised eight categories, each accompanied by an operational definition and illustrative examples. Through open coding procedures, broader semantic and metaphorical categories were developed, including “time as emotion”, “time as a value”, “space as homeland”, and “space as freedom”. SAS software converted all coded elements into numerical variables that indicate response frequencies, enabling the construction of frequency tables showing the most prevalent temporal and spatial associations. Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, summarised response type distributions and the prevalence of conceptual categories. Potential age-group preferences were identified for emotional versus metaphorical associations and for abstract versus concrete associations. To assess the statistical significance of differences between participant groups, the study employed inferential methods. A Student’s t-test was used to compare mean response frequencies between binary age groups (younger versus older participants). Education level was excluded from the inferential analysis for two reasons. First, the uneven distribution across categories (higher education – 68%; secondary – 18%; vocational – 14%) rendered statistically robust comparisons unfeasible. Second, reporting results disaggregated by educational attainment posed a risk of stigmatising particular subgroups. The variable was therefore retained solely within the descriptive statistics to characterise the sample. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated to evaluate the internal consistency of identified conceptual categories. This reliability measure verified whether elements grouped under the same thematic category exhibited sufficient correlation and semantic coherence. 9 2.6. Research Limitations Several methodological limitations should be acknowledged. First, while the sampling strategy aimed to represent various demographic segments, complete representativeness of all regional and dialectal variations may not have been achieved. Second, the associative method captures verbal responses but might not fully reveal unconscious or embodied conceptual structures. Third, technological factors such as participants’ familiarity with digital surveys could influence data completeness, particularly among older respondents. The fourth limitation concerns the fact that proficiency in the Russian language and the influence of bilingualism on processes of conceptualisation were not accounted for in the study. The fifth relates to inter-coder reliability: despite an acceptable agreement threshold (κ = 0.79), interpretive variability affected 21% of coded cases. 2.7. Ethical Considerations The study adheres to ethical standards for sociolinguistic and psychological research. Participants signed informed consent forms ensuring voluntary participation, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw at any time. All data remains stored in secure, encrypted databases accessible only to research team members. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Associations Related to “Time” and “Space” 1. Spontaneous Associations When participants were asked to provide spontaneous associations with the words “time” and “space”, their responses revealed distinct cultural cognitive patterns rooted in the Kazakh worldview. “Time” is predominantly associated with life, destiny, and existential cycles. The most frequent responses for “time” included “clock” (43%), “speed” (35%), “change” (32%), “life” (28%), and “old age” (24%), indicating a perception of “time” as a measurable, fleeting, and life-determining power. These associations reflect the growing awareness of “time” as a structured and limited resource, likely influenced by modern habits and technologies. At the same time, the concept retains existential connotations related to ageing and life cycles. Associations such as “life” and “old age” simultaneously reflect the traditional Kazakh understanding of “time” as a value-laden moral continuum, where temporal progression signifies wisdom, generational memory, and social heritage. Respondents’ associations with the word “space” showed broader and culturally grounded perceptions, with “steppe” (51%) emerging as the dominant image, followed by “freedom” (40%), “distance” (33%), “sky” (27%), and “home/land” (25%). Such responses illustrate the spatial consciousness shaped by Kazakhstan’s expansive geography, nomadic heritage, and profound emotional connection to land and openness. Accordingly, “space” transcends physical dimensions to symbolise identity, autonomy, and belonging. 2. First-Word Associations Participants were asked to say the first word that came to mind in response to “time” and “space”. Their associations confirmed the cultural grounding and metaphorical richness of these concepts in Kazakh consciousness. In terms of “time”, dominant responses included “clock”, “moment”, “future”, “death”, and “morning”, revealing that “time” is typically conceptualised through the ideas of movement, progression, and transformation. Spacerelated prompts elicited “steppe”, “sky”, “freedom”, “road”, and “distance” as the most frequent responses, highlighting experiential and geographical orientations toward boundlessness, openness, and mobility. Such patterns indicate the prevalence of embodied metaphors in Kazakh cognition. “Space” maintains concrete rather than abstract qualities, deeply connected to natural environments and nomadic heritage. Consequently, temporal and 16 transition from a nomadic mode of life to sedentarisation, as well as the ambivalence of the present moment, in which global mobility coexists with local identification. The emotional data reveal a parallel strain: “freedom” (38%) and “loneliness” (21%) point to an ambivalent perception of openness – experienced by some as liberation and by others as isolation. Social Identity Theory provides a productive interpretive lens for explaining intergenerational differences by construing them as transformations in the mechanisms of group identification (Demirden 2021). The metaphorical structures of older respondents, socialised during the Soviet and early post-Soviet periods, draw upon collectivist discourse and traditional cultural referents. By contrast, globalisation and digital communication – conditions under which younger respondents were formed – have fostered the internalisation of temporal and spatial categories grounded in individual emotional experience. The ethnolinguistic identity of Kazakhstan’s student youth is contingent upon the language of instruction, whose selection restructures identification models across age cohorts (Zharkynbekova et al. 2025). Youth language attitudes also vary regionally: the multilayered history of language policy exerts uneven effects on linguistic consciousness across territorial contexts (Khamit et al. 2025). The observed shift aligns with the broader transition from collectivism to individualism (Chen et al. 2022); nevertheless, the persistence of associations with homeland and ancestors attests to the durability of collective identity structures. The collected data substantiate the thesis of conceptual metaphor hybridisation under the influence of globalisation. The predominance of the association “clock” (43%) in temporal responses – atypical for a traditional nomadic orientation – indicates the penetration of an instrumental perception of “time”. Within this model, temporal experience is quantitatively measured and segmented through mechanical and digital devices. At the same time, existential associations (“life”, “fate”, “old age”) persist, signalling resistance of the cultural substrate to complete displacement. The mechanism of hybridisation warrants dedicated investigation: it remains unclear whether new metaphors accumulate upon traditional structures, forming a composite temporality, or whether they gradually supplant inherited conceptual mappings. The resolution of this question is critical for forecasting the trajectory of cognitive change in Kazakh-speaking populations experiencing intensifying exposure to digital technologies. 5. CONCLUSIONS The analysis of associative responses revealed dominant conceptual categories related to “time” and “space” within the Kazakh worldview. For “time”, key categories included emotions (e.g., anxiety, nostalgia), values (e.g., “time as a resource”), movement, and cyclical structure. “Space” was most frequently associated with homeland, freedom, silence, and identity. The linguistic coding of participant responses indicated that “time” is perceived as an emotionally charged and morally significant phenomenon, while “space” functions as a foundation for existential and cultural self-definition. Clear distinctions emerged between the two age groups in their conceptualisation of these categories. Younger participants (aged 20– 39) exhibited a pronounced preference for emotional and abstract associations, demonstrating a more introspective and psychological perception of “time” and “space”. In contrast, older participants (aged 40–70) favored metaphorical and concrete associations reflecting traditional worldviews. These differences were statistically significant, highlighting shifts in cultural cognition under the influence of modernity. The theoretical contribution of the study can be articulated as follows: in cultures with a nomadic heritage, spatial metaphors play a structurally formative role in the construction of identity, surpassing temporal categories in terms of emotional salience. This finding extends Conceptual Metaphor Theory, which has thus far been validated predominantly on data drawn from sedentary cultures. 17 The proposed four-component models – for “time” (emotion, value, movement, cycle) and for “space” (homeland, freedom, silence, identity) – may serve as a comparative framework for cross-cultural investigations involving Turkic, Central Asian, and post-Soviet linguistic communities. The examination of philosophical interpretations of “time” and “space” in Kazakh thought provides deeper insights into the unique aspects of the nation’s culture and history. Traditional conceptions of “time” and “space”, enriched by symbolic meanings and religious rituals, constitute a fundamental element of Kazakhstan’s cultural heritage. In order to preserve traditional values while critically engaging with emerging conceptualisations of “time” and “space”, continuous dialogue with the globalisation-driven shifts outlined in the introduction is necessary. Promising avenues for subsequent research include: a comparative analysis of the conceptualization of “time” and “space” across Turkic languages (Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Turkish) with the aim of distinguishing a pan-Turkic core from culturally specific patterns; longitudinal tracking of the dynamics of conceptual metaphors within the same cohort of respondents; and examination of the impact of Kazakh–Russian bilingualism on the structure of conceptualization, taking into account processes of metaphorical transfer and layering. In addition, experimental investigation of embodied metaphors using methods from cognitive psychology – such as priming and eye-tracking – would enable verification of the operation of the identified associations at the level of implicit information processing. Practical Value The findings of this study hold practical value for developing culturally sensitive educational materials in language instruction, philosophy, and civic identity formation, particularly within secondary and higher education in Kazakhstan. Recognising generational differences in the conceptualisation of “time” and “space” enables educators to adapt both curriculum content and teaching methodologies to align with students’ worldviews. Additionally, insights into the metaphorical and symbolic structures inherent in the Kazakh language prove valuable for translators, linguists, and specialists in intercultural communication. Such understanding becomes particularly crucial in contexts requiring the preservation of culturally significant associations. The study identified a series of tensions that warrant targeted investigation. Cyclical and linear perceptions of “time” coexist within the same respondent group: associations with seasons and repetition appear alongside associations of irreversibility and fate. The tension between “space-as-freedom” and “space-as-rootedness” reflects opposing orientations and may indicate a historical transition from a nomadic to a sedentary mode of life. A further incongruity emerges in the temporal data of younger respondents: instrumental associations (“clock”) and existential ones (“life”, “fate”) co-occur within the responses of the same cohort. This divergence points to a disjunction between functional time-management frameworks and philosophically inflected temporal consciousness. REFERENCES Ahn Elise S., Smagulova Juldyz 2022: English Language Choices in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. – World Englishes 41(1), 9–23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12552. Alcaraz Carrión Daniel, Valenzuela Javier 2021: Duration as Length vs Amount in English and Spanish: A Corpus Study. – Metaphor and Symbol 36(2), 74–84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10926488.2021.1887706. 18 Alcaraz Carrión Daniel, Valenzuela Javier 2022: Time as Space vs. Time as Quantity in Spanish: A Co-Speech Gesture Study. – Language and Cognition 14(1), 1–18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2021.17. Altayev Zhakypbek, Imanbayeva Zhuldyz 2021: Values of Traditional Kazakh Culture. – Central Asian Journal of Art Studies 6(2), 10–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47940/cajas.v6i2.373. Apoifis Nicholas 2024: Social Movement Theory and Collective Identity. – Anarchy in Athens, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 18–44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526184368.00007. Beknazarova Ulzhan 2022: Linguistic Metaphor of Time Concept in Kazakh Cognition. – Bulletin of the Karaganda University 105(1), 102–109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31489/2022ph1/102-109. Broccias Cristiano 2021: Cognitive Grammar. – The Routledge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, eds. W. Xu, J. R. Taylor, London: Routledge, 30–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351034708-4. Bundgaard Peer F. 2019: The Structure of Our Concepts: A Critical Assessment of Conceptual Metaphor Theory as a Theory of Concepts. – Cognitive Semiotics 12(1), [1–11]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/cogsem-2019-2010. Buzsáki György, Tingley David 2018: Space and Time: The Hippocampus as a Sequence Generator. – Trends in Cognitive Sciences 22(10), 853–869. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.07.006. Callizo Romero Carmen 2023: Time Conceptualization Across Cultures and Religions: Doctoral Dissertation, Granada: Universidad de Granada. Chen Lei, Chengbing Wang 2022: The Influence of Virtual Space on Contemporary Identity: The Perspective of Philosophy. – Filosofija. Sociologija 33(1), 32–39. Internet Access: https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1035947 [accessed 20.04.2026]. Chen Yidi, Gao Lingling, Sheng Zhengyu, Ma Jinjin, Guo (Hannah) Xiaohan, Lippke Sonia, Gan Yiqun 2022: Interdependent Self‐Construal Moderates the Relationship Between Pro‐Generation Investment and Future Orientation: A Cross‐Cultural Comparison. – Journal of Adolescence 94(7), 1008–1021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12082. Clark Andy 2019: Consciousness as Generative Entanglement. – The Journal of Philosophy 116(12), 645–662. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5840/jphil20191161241. Conte Cecilia 2025: Deconstructing the Concept of the “Nomad” in Central Eurasia. – Nomadic Peoples 29(2), 232–255. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3828/whpnp.63837646691076. Demirden Ahmet 2021: The Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory. – Politik Psikoloji Dergisi 1(2), 39–56. Internet Access: https://www.politikpsikolojidergisi.com/index.php/pub/article/view/7 [accessed 20.04.2026]. Dosmurzinov Rustem 2023: Pre-Islamic World Views of the Kazakh People: From the End of the 19th to the Beginning of the 21st Century. – TRAMES 27(77/72), 415–438. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3176/tr.2023.4.06. 19 Fiddler Michael 2024: Conceptual Metaphor in Areal Perspective: Time, Space, and Contact in the Sinosphere. – Language and Cognition 16(2), 452–480. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2023.41. Filipović Luna, Ibarretxe-Antuñano Iraide 2019: Motion. – Cognitive Linguistics-Key Topics, eds. E. Dąbrowska, D. Divjak, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 87–108. Giddens Anthony 2023: Modernity and Self-Identity. – Social Theory Re-Wired: New Connections to Classical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. W. Longhofer, D. Winchester, London: Routledge, 477–484. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003320609-62. Götzelmann Michael 2021: Stitching Time and Space: The Functions of Temporal Comparisons in Utopias and Beyond. – Time & Society 30(4), 581–597. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X211046149. Gu Yan, Zheng Yeqiu, Swerts Marc 2019: Which Is in Front of Chinese People, Past or Future? The Effect of Language and Culture on Temporal Gestures and Spatial Conceptions of Time. – Cognitive Science 43(12), [1–32]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12804. Halbwachs Maurice 2020: On Collective Memory, transl. by L. A. Coser, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hanink Emily A., Koontz-Garboden Andrew 2025: Possession in Categorization across Language and Category. – Linguistic Inquiry, [1–15]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/ling_a_00547. Iskakova Zulfija E. 2023: Religious and Philosophical Context in the Creative Heritage of the Great Representatives of Kazakh and Indian Culture (Shakarim, Iqbal). – Journal of Oriental Studies 104(1), 83–94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26577/JOS.2023.v104.i1.010. Jang Gyewon, Tinker Sachs Gertrude, Hye Park Jee 2023: Conflicting Understandings of Multicultural Society, Global World, and English: Multimodal Content Analysis of 5 Korean Elementary EFL Textbooks. – Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 21(2), 153–176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2023.2198130. Kapitańska Martyna 2024: Treating Time as Space in Polish: Metaphors and Metaphorical Expressions. – Beyond Philology an International Journal of Linguistics, Literary Studies and English Language Teaching 21(4), 49–72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26881/bp.2024.4.02. Khabizhanova Gulnara, Mensitova Gulzinat 2025: The Formation of Native Land Imagery in Traditional Kazakh Society: On the Example of Historical Toponyms of Western Kazakhstan. – Turkic Studies Journal 7(3), 106–126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32523/2664-5157-2025-3-106-126. Khamit Aidar, Smagambet Bayan, Tabyldieva Oryngul, Arashova Nabat, Tolepbergenova Aigerim 2025: Language Attitudes of Kazakh Youth: An Analysis of the Regional Aspect. – European Journal of Language Policy 17, 307–331. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3828/ejlp.2025.16. Khatin-Zadeh Omid, Banaruee Hassan, Reali Florencia, Tirado Carlos, Ruiz-Fernández Susana, Yamada Yuki, Wang Ruiming, Nicolas Robin, Khwaileh Tariq, Szychowska Malina, Vestlund Johanna, Correa Juan Carlos, Farsani Danyal, Butcher Natalie, Som Bidisha, Volkonskii Ivan, Plevoets Koen, Marmolejo-Ramos Fernand 2023: 20 Metaphors of Time Across Cultures. – Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science 7(3), 219–231. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-023-00125-3. Kogay Elmira R. 2018: The Concept of “time” in Signature Worldview of Anatoliy Kim. – Eurasian Journal of Philology: Science and Education 169(1), 108–114. Internet Access: https://philart.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-FIL/article/view/2157 [accessed 20.04.2026]. Kossyn Merey 2024: Genealogy of Being in Postcolonial Kazakh Culture: Re-Reading the Words of Edification. – Comparative Literature: East & West 8(2), 196–206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/25723618.2024.2433842. Kövecses Zoltán 2021: Standard and Extended Conceptual Metaphor Theory. – The Routledge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, eds. W. Xu, J. R. Taylor, London: Routledge, 191–203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351034708-14. Kuzembayeva Gulzhana 2021: Comparative Analysis of the Image of Kazakh in the Russian and Indian Linguistic Consciousness. – Eurasian Journal of Philology: Science & Education 184(4), 71–78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26577/EJPh.2021.v184.i4.ph7. Kuzembayeva Gulzhana 2023: Axiological Dimension of Citizenship and Patriotism in a Worldview of Kazakhs: A Psycholinguistic Study. – East European Journal of Psycholinguistics 10(1), 116–135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.29038/eejpl.2023.10.1.kuz. Lakoff George, Johnson Mark 2020: Conceptual Metaphor in Everyday Language. – Shaping Entrepreneurship Research, eds. S. Sarasvathy, N. Dew, S. Venkataraman, London: Routledge, 475–504. Internet Access: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/978131516192121/conceptual-metaphor-everyday-language-lakoff-johnson [accessed 16.06.2026]. Lupyan Gary, Lewis Molly 2019: From Words-as-Mappings to Words-as-Cues: The Role of Language in Semantic Knowledge. – Language, Cognition and Neuroscience 34(10), 1319–1337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2017.1404114. Massey Doreen 2020: Politics and Space/Time. – Routledge Handbook of Gender and Feminist Geographies, ed. A. Datta, London: Routledge, 102–117. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315164748-11. Michaels Debbie 2025: When Past Meets Present: Transference, Art, and Affectivity in Reflexive Research. – Reflective Practice 26(6), 795–807. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2025.2504093. Miller Carol A. 2006: Developmental Relationships Between Language and Theory of Mind. – American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 15(2), 142–154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2006/014). Obradović Sandra, Bowe Mhairi 2021: The Nation in Context: How Intergroup Relations Shape the Discursive Construction of Identity Continuity and Discontinuity. – British Journal of Social Psychology 60(2), 490–508. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12413. Olzhabayev Bekarys Koblanuly, Pangereev Abat Sh., Soylemez Orhan 2022: The Concept “Туған жер” in the Folklore of the Kazakh People. – Keruen 77(4), 62–74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53871/2078-8134.2022.4-05. Olzhabayev Bekarys Koblanuly, Soylemez Orhan 2024: The Concept and Conceptual Field “native land” in Kazakh Folklore. – Keruen 83(2), 249–259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53871/2078-8134.2024.2-19. 21 Pitt Benjamin, Casasanto Daniel 2020: The Correlations in Experience Principle: How Culture Shapes Concepts of Time and Number. – Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 149(6), 1048–1070. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000696. Reese Gerhard, Rosenmann Amir, Cameron James E. 2019: The Psychology of Globalization: Identity, Ideology, and Action, London: Academic Press. Röck Tina 2019: Time for Ontology? The Role of Ontological Time in Anticipation. – Axiomathes 29(1), 33–47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10516-017-9362-2. Ryskaliyev Tlekžan. K., Esengaliyeva Venera A., Sarkulova Galiya S., Sarkulova Manifasta B. 2023: On the Originality of Kazakh Philosophy. Bulletin of the Karaganda University. – History 111(3), 226–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31489/2023hph3/226-235. Sadirova Kulzat K., Zhazykova Raushan B., Yessenova Kalbike U., Sapina Sabira M., Mirov Orynbasaruly Mukhtar, Abdirova Sholpan G. 2024: The Manifestation of Mythical Cognition in Toponyms: On the Material of the Turkic Languages. – Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics 10(1), 92–103. Internet Access: https://ejal.info/menuscript/index.php/ejal/article/view/686/256. Sadirova Kulzat K., Abdirova Sholpan, Kultanbayeva Nurgul, Yermekbayeva Gulmira, Saduakas Nurbol, Zhazykova Raushan B. 2023: Delving into the Concepts of “Authority” and “Politics”: An Associative Word Analysis in Kazakh, Russian, and English. – International Journal of Society, Culture & Language 11(3), 130–145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22034/ijscl.2022.1971917.2819. Small Mario L., Adler Laura 2019: The Role of Space in the Formation of Social Ties. – Annual Review of Sociology 45(1), 111–132. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurevsoc-073018-022707. Sternin Joseph A. 2020: Interpretation Problems of Associative Experiments. – Questions of Psycholinguistics 3(45), 110–125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30982/2077-5911-202045-3-110-125. Tejada-Gallardo Claudia, Blasco‐Belled Ana, Alsinet Carles 2021: Feeling Positive Towards Time: How Time Attitude Profiles are Related to Mental Health in Adolescents. – Journal of Adolescence 89, 84–94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.04.002. Worrell Frank C., Andretta James R. 2019: Time Attitude Profiles in American Adolescents: Educational and Psychological Correlates. – Research in Human Development 16(2), 102–118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2019.1635860. Zeinullin Raimbek, Kudaibergenova Nazgul, Aidarbekov Zeinabil, Kuranbek Asset, Gabitov Tursun 2026: Understanding Nauryz among Kazakhs and Nogais: The Cyclical Concept of Time and Cultural Renaissance. – Frontiers in Communication 10, [1–9]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2025.1693748. Zhangalieva Ainur, Yessim Garifolla, Rakhmatullina Zugura 2024: Philosophical Interpretation of Time and Space in the Kazakh Falsafe. – Adam Alemi 99(1), 26–32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48010/aa.v99i1.510. Zhao Xia, Zheng Yi, Zhao Xincheng 2023: Global Bibliometric Analysis of Conceptual Metaphor Research over the Recent Two Decades. – Frontiers in Psychology 14, [1– 16]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1042121. Zharkynbekova Sholpan, Ayupova Gulbagira, Galiyeva Bakhyt, Shakhputova Zukhra, Zabrodskaja Anastassia 2025: Ethno-Linguistic Identity of Kazakhstani Student 22 Youth in Modern Multinational Context of Kazakhstan (Sociolinguistic Analysis of Empirical Research). – Languages 10(2), [1–25]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10020033. Zhiyenalina Aizhan, Anishchenko Olga, Zharkynbekova Sholpan 2024: Value Perception of the Chronotope in the Author’s Discourse (Based on the Works of Kazakh Authors). – Open Cultural Studies 8(1), [1–12]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/culture-2024-0025. Appendix Questions for the Associative Experiment 1. What associations emerge when you encounter the terms “time” or “space”? 2. What is the first word that comes to mind? 3. What additional words arise upon further reflection? 4. Which emotions or affective states do you connect with “time” and “space”? 5. What proverb, saying, or poetic reference related to “time” and “space” occurs to you? 6. How would you characterize the significance of “time” and “space” in your life?