doi.org/10.35321/term31-06

Structural Features of Definitions of Specific Geography Terms

Peculiarities in the Structure of Definitions of Specific Terms of Geography

AUŠRA RIMKUTĖ-GANUSAUSKIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

ORCID id: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8655-7333

A B S T R A C T

The definition of a concept in any field is a complex logical act requiring knowledge of that field, and the result of this act is a term definition. In terminology, each term has a unique definition. It helps link a concept to the term that represents it. The article analyzes 648 definitions of specific terms in the 2021 edition of the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, briefly reviews the requirements for definitions, and identifies the models of definitions for specific terms found in that dictionary. The most common model for defining a specific term names the logical dominant at the beginning of the definition and, after a comma, presents the essential features of the definition that explain the specific component or components of the term being defined. In the dictionary under analysis, the logical dominant of a definition is defined separately as a generic term. The other four models for definitions of specific terms are less productive; some can readily be transformed into definitions following the first model.

KEYWORDS: definition, definition structure, definition requirements, terminological meaning, specific term.

A B S T R A C T

The process of defining a concept within in any field is a sophisticated and systematic endeavor that requires expertise in the subject matter. The result of this process is the definition of term. Each term carries unique definition. It helps to link a concept to the term that represents it. The article analyses the definitions of 648 specific terms founded in Aiškinamasis geografijos terminų žodynas issued in 2021 (Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, 2021), shortly overviewing the definitions‘ requirements and identifying definitions‘ models of specific terms. The most common model of definition of specific terms is such model, when at the beginning of definition is told logical dominant and after comma the essential

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attributes of definition are indicated. This logical dominant is defined as a general term in the dictionary. The other four models of definition of specific terms are less productive, some of them can be readily transformed into the most common model of definition.

KEYWORDS: definition, structure of definition, requirements of definition, terminological meaning, specific term.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

How to define a simple or compound term precisely and formulate a definition that meets the requirements applicable to definitions, just as to terms—for example, that the scope of the concept being defined be equal to the scope of the defining concept; that the definition be precise, clear, unambiguous, non-tautological (where the defining and defined concepts are expressed identically); that it be consistent with other definitions in the system of concepts; and that it be neither too narrow nor too broad, among other requirements—is a matter of concern to specialists engaged in practical terminological work. It must be acknowledged that the works of Lithuanian terminologists do not contain a systematic compilation of all requirements for definitions. Kazimieras Gaivenis has written perhaps the most on the subject (Gaivenis 2004: 85–117; 2014: 204, 221, 223, etc.); one or another observation can also be found in the works of Angelė Kaulakienė (2014), Palmira Zemlevičiūtė (2018), Alvydas Umbrasas (2008, 2022), Aušra Rimkutė-Ganusauskienė (2021), and others. However, the works of terminologists offer no clear and comprehensive rules or guidelines for writing definitions. Even if such rules existed, they would most likely be based on requirements commonly mentioned in textbooks on logic and terminology and in standards. In addition, it would be possible to define a concept in a particular field with scientific precision only by having a thorough knowledge of the object denoted by the concept, understanding the concept’s content and scope, and possessing not only theoretical but also practical knowledge.

The aim of this article is to identify the structural features of definitions of specific geographical terms. To achieve this aim, the following objectives are set: 1) to review Lithuanian and foreign authors’ insights into the writing of term definitions and the requirements they must meet; 2) to examine definitions of specific terms in a selected field and identify their structural models. The study focuses on one of the most recent printed explanatory dictionaries of terminology, the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, published in 2021. It is “the first systematic dictionary of terms from various branches of geography on such a large scale, prepared in cooperation with the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language” (AGTŽ 2021: 7). It presents 3,405 of the most important and frequently used terms in general,

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physical and human geography, as well as landscape geography, land management, cartography, and geoinformatics. A distinctive feature of this publication is that term entries are presented in a table comprising “10 semantic columns presenting the terms: subsection sequence number, generic term, (sub)specific term, abbreviation, definition, synonyms, non-recommended terms, English equivalent, Russian equivalent, and German equivalent” (AGTŽ 2021: 11). The 648 definitions of specific terms assigned by the dictionary’s compilers to the physical and human geography groups were selected at random as the object of study. It is expected that this sample size will make it possible to draw conclusions about structural models of definitions of specific terms and help identify the most characteristic features of such definitions. In addition to definitions of specific terms, the dictionary’s authors also provide definitions of generic terms, which are not examined in this article due to its limited scope; however, analysis of these definitions is an interesting and under-researched subject that warrants a separate study. It should be added that the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms selected for analysis was prepared by specialists with expertise in their field, reviewed by a terminologist, and considered by the Terminology Subcommittee of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language. This suggests that geographical terminology has been systematized and that the definitions of terms presented in the dictionary meet the terminological requirements applicable to them. Thus, the study material will show the principles on which term definitions are formulated and reveal certain structural aspects of term definitions that are methodologically useful.

The article employs the analytical-descriptive method, which makes it possible not only to describe the object of study—the definitions of specific terms in the dictionary—but also to examine it in detail on the basis of theoretical material on terminology. It also uses the comparative method, which helps compare both the definitions selected for analysis and the insights of different scholars. In addition to these methods, a quantitative method is used to present the data obtained graphically and to support the conclusions drawn, as well as to reveal certain features of the object under study.

ON TERM DEFINITIONS

Terms are the foundation of every field of science. Their terminological meaning is expressed through definitions, or definitional statements. As Regina Kvašytė writes, a term definition is “a comprehensive verbal description that reflects the semes of the core of the t e r m i n o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g¹ and describes the content of the concept by which the

1 Here and below, emphasis has been added by the dictionary’s author, R. Kvašytė.

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“At a certain level of abstraction, the essential features that distinguish it from neighboring concepts are revealed” (Kvašytė 2005: 13). In other words, the definition of a concept in a particular field must reveal its content, which consists of the set of features of the object or phenomenon being defined. According to Kristina Rickevičiūtė, “[w]hen defining a concept, a dual aim is pursued: 1) the features indicated should help distinguish the object of the concept being defined from other objects belonging to the same genus, and 2) the features indicated in the defining concept should be selected and grouped so that the definition reveals the essence of the object of the concept being defined and its historical development” (Rickevičiūtė 1960: 149). Klaus-Dirk Schmitz points out that “it is best when definitions are linked to other concepts and identify the characteristic features of the concept being defined. On the basis of definitions and the features of concepts, concepts can be linked and organized into systems that reflect knowledge in a particular field or subfield” (Schmitz 2015: 25). The latest 2022 international standard ISO 704 Terminology work – Principles and methods essentially emphasizes the same points: a definition must state the essential features of the concept being defined, thereby distinguishing it from other concepts in the same subject field (ISO 704 2022: 33). Consequently, the necessary and supplementary (secondary) features selected for a definition should show how the concept being defined is related to other concepts in the same field and how it differs from them. Thus, there is no doubt that defining a concept is a complex logical act requiring knowledge of a particular field, and the result of this act is a term definition.

With regard to Lithuanian terminology in general, the Russian school of terminology had a major influence on Lithuanian terminology in the twentieth century, owing to political, historical, and other circumstances. The 1973 publication translated from Russian, Terminological Work (Principles and Methods), compiled on the basis of the work of engineer Dmitry Lotte (1898–1950) and the Scientific and Technical Terminology Committee of the USSR Academy of Sciences, states that when revealing the content of a concept, attention must be paid to its place in the concept classification; therefore, concepts in a particular field must be classified appropriately. In addition, it identifies general requirements for definitions, such as that definitions should record the precise content of a concept, reveal its essence, “not constrain scientific and technical thought” (TD 1973: 21), be verbal wherever possible, comply with language norms, and “should use concepts (terms) that have already been defined or are known to everyone” (TD 1973: 22).

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Guidelines for writing definitions can be found in the now-obsolete Lithuanian standard RST 1115–90, Principles and Methods of Terminology, adapted to the Lithuanian language and prepared according to ISO 704–87 by staff of Vilnius University and the Institute of the Lithuanian Language in 1993. It sets out principles for compiling definitions: “Concepts used to formulate a definition² must be designated by terms that are either already used in this system or are well known. In all cases, the specialist compiling the definition must be certain that the terms will be understood by everyone” (Lithuanian RST 1115–90: 7). The standard also specifies the rules to be followed when writing definitions. First, it mentions one of the essential requirements: “definitions must reflect the essential features of a concept” (Lithuanian RST 1115–90: 8). The second requirement is: “A definition must include all the essential features that allow the concept to be directly identified within a particular concept system. Distinguishing features are selected from the relevant concept system” (Lithuanian RST 1115–90: 8). A third important consideration is the systematic nature of definitions: “A definition must reflect the features of a concept and the systematic relations between concepts in the following ways: 1) by indicating the essential features of the broader concept on which the relations are based; <...>; 2) by distinguishing them from coordinate concepts” (Lithuanian RST 1115–90: 8). The final requirement mentioned in the standard is concision: “Only the essential (external and internal) features of a particular concept must be included in a definition. It is not advisable to include in a definition other features that can be derived from these” (Lithuanian RST 1115–90: 9). The latest international standard ISO 704 Terminology work – Principles and methods, mentioned above, essentially emphasizes the same requirements (ISO 704 2022: 33). Since terminology standards, like terminology dictionaries, are prepared with these requirements in mind, terminologists and authors and editors of terminology dictionaries have followed—and, in essence, continue to follow—them when evaluating or writing term definitions.

The General Requirements for the Preparation of Terminology Dictionaries, approved by a resolution recorded in the minutes of the meeting of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language on 20 December 2007 (recommendation R-4), as amended by the resolution recorded in the minutes of 3 December 2015 (No. PN-8), indicate what should be taken into consideration when writing definitions for terminology dictionaries prepared under language programs implemented by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language and evaluated according to the Rules for Evaluating Terminology Dictionaries: “The definition of a term must state precisely

² In the standard, the word definition is used in the sense of ‘definition’.

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the essence of the concept and identify its distinguishing features (avoiding non-essential details). A definition should be comprehensive, but as brief as possible, linguistically correct, and stylistically fluent. Definitions of concepts distinguished on the same basis should follow the same model. The Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian and similar publications in other languages cannot be sources for term definitions, since they explain lexical rather than terminological meanings” (TŽRBR 2015). These requirements provide no more detailed guidelines for writing definitions.

According to Augustinas Ndi-Kimbi, written forms of definitions should meet certain requirements generally accepted by terminologists and terminographers alike (Ndi-Kimbi 1994: 327). In his view, although the ancient Greeks and later philosophers who examined definitions did not take the requirements of terminology into account or analyze cases of definition use beyond their own field, the logical definition models and rules they applied are not always suitable and therefore in some cases do not meet the needs of modern terminology. However, since there is little theoretical discussion of term definitions, in many cases it is necessary to return to the rules for formulating definitions proposed by philosophers and logicians (Ndi-Kimbi 1994: 328).

As already noted, logic and its laws are especially important when discussing term definitions. For this very reason, in logic a definition is considered first and foremost a logical act that reveals the essential features of the object being defined and distinguishes that object from others (Ažubalis 2008: 30, cf. VLEe³). It is stated that a definition consists of the following parts:

1) definiendum (Latin definiendum, Dfd) – the concept being defined;

2) definiens (Latin definiens, Dfn) – the concepts by means of which the concept is defined;

3) connecting expression (“is,” “means,” “is called,” “the same as,” etc.; it may be replaced by a dash), which indicates the relation between the definiendum and the definiens (Plečkaitis 2004: 163; Ažubalis 2008: 30; Eidukienė 2009: 60; Bubelis et al. 2012: 116; Valatka 2014: 63). Thus, the logical form of a definition can be expressed by the following formula:

T ≡ A,

where T is the term (the definiendum), A is the definition (the definiens), and ≡ is the sign of equivalence (i.e., the connecting expression).

3 Cf. “definition, definicija (Latin definitio), a logical act that establishes criteria for distinguishing the object under study from other objects by indicating its specific characteristics and the meaning of a linguistic expression that is used or introduced” (VLEe).

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The linking expression is most often found in texts, but it is absent from terminology databases and explanatory terminology dictionaries (both printed and electronic). Usually, the term is written out and its definition is distinguished graphically (by a different color, font, etc.); in databases, the definition may be entered in another data field, and so on. The linking expression is also absent from the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms examined here because, as already noted, information in the terminology entries is presented in a table, and the definition is therefore given in a separate column.

Bruno de Bessé argues that the act of defining a concept itself must be based on an analysis of concepts, and adds that terminologists or specialists who create terms very often do not undertake such an analysis—that is, they do not systematically analyze concepts and their conceptual systems, although they should do so in some way, whether mentally or in writing, in order to address the most complex problems concerning the relationships between concepts, the identification of their features, their definition, and other matters (De Bessé 1997: 66, 106). Thus, to define a particular concept properly—that is, to create a term definition—it is necessary to carry out preparatory work.

K. Gaivenis observes that the “structure of definitions in explanatory terminology dictionaries depends on the content and breadth of the scope of the concept named by the term, and on the term’s place in the system of concept classification” (Gaivenis 2002: 74). In analyzing definitions in explanatory terminology dictionaries, we cannot avoid discussing the notion of terminological meaning. Terminological meaning is not the same as lexical—or, in other words, ordinary word—meaning⁴; however, from a structural perspective, these meanings are quite similar because they are linked by semantic components, also called semes (Jakaitienė 2010: 57). Lexical meaning, as defined by VLEe, is “the individual part of a word’s content—the conceptual information conveyed by a word about the thing it names. A word’s content consists of meanings of varying degrees of abstraction: grammatical (the part of speech to which the word belongs), general (the derivational or semantic groups to which the word belongs), and individual. For example, the word rašytojas is a concrete noun; its general group meaning is ‘agent designation’ (like other nouns formed from verbs with the suffix –tojas, which designate the one who performs the action expressed by the base word); its individual meaning is ‘a person who creates works of fiction’.” In K. Gaivenis’s view, lexical meaning reflects the “intension and some of the implicational” of terminological meanings

4 Cf. “Meaning that reveals the relationship between the complex of sounds making up a word and the thing, phenomenon, or concept represented by that complex” (Kvašytė 2005: 52).

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semas“ (Gaivenis 2002: 17). Terminine reikšmė terminologų suvokiama kaip reikšmė, būdinga žodžiui tam tikros srities terminijoje (Kvašytė 2005: 53). Kitaip tariant, terminine reikšmė siejasi su specialiu, ne visiems žinomu tikrovės objektu (denotatu). Pvz., terminas nuotėkis geografijos specialistų suprantamas kaip vandens apytakos procesas:

Vandens apytakos procesas, kai vanduo teka drenažo srities link. AGTŽ 2021: 122.

In the field of hydrogeology, the term nuotėkis is defined as a quantity of water:

The quantity of water flowing off a unit area of land over a certain period of time; expressed as discharge, runoff modulus, or runoff coefficient. EHTŽ 2003.

Thus, comparing terms from physical geography and hydrogeology, we see that the terminological meanings of the term nuotėkis differ across the two fields. In both fields, however, the concept nuotėkis is related to water. As we can see from the first definition, its first part consists of the most important word in the definition, process, and also specifies what kind of process it is—the water cycle. The second part of the definition describes an essential feature of the concept: water flows toward the drainage area. The definition used in hydrogeology is somewhat broader: here the logical dominant, that is, the main word in the definition, is quantity; it is specified as a water quantity, and then the distinguishing feature of this quantity is described: it flows off a unit area of land over a certain period of time. The definition under discussion is expanded with additional information indicating secondary features associated with the concept being defined.

To summarize, it can be stated that the terminological meaning of a term in every field has precise boundaries established by its definition. However, it is not always clear what these boundaries should be or how they should relate to the essential and non-essential (additional) features of terminological meaning that must be highlighted when defining a particular concept. The essential features of a concept being defined may be understood as features each of which is necessary and, taken together, sufficient to define the concept and distinguish it from other concepts in the same category. According to Algirdas Ažubalis, the essential features of an object are those “each of which is necessary on its own, while all of them together are sufficient to distinguish a particular object from others (even similar ones)” (Ažubalis 2008: 24). The non-essential features of a concept are those that supplement it, but without which the content of the concept does not change. Logic also distinguishes general features, which are important when discussing both

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term definition. General features are “characteristic of all objects in a particular group” (Ažubalis 2008: 24). In view of what has been said, it should be added that each concept being defined may have not just one or two, but many features; for this very reason, indicating all of them is practically impossible. Therefore, when formulating a definition, the principle is to indicate only the essential features that distinguish the concept being defined from other concepts. Lexical meaning can, of course, be the basis of terminological meaning.

There are cases in which a term has more than one terminological meaning, so each meaning is usually defined separately as an independent unit. In the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, there are not many terms with more than one meaning. Where a term has more than one meaning, each is defined separately, with the meanings numbered, for example:

kolonizacija

1. The seizure of another country or territory and its conversion into a colony.

2. The mass relocation of people to live in other countries and territories. AGTŽ 2021: 208.

As we can see from the example, the term kolonizacija has two terminological meanings: the first is associated with the seizure of a country or territory, and the second with mass relocation to live elsewhere. Alvydas Umbrasas notes that “[T]he computerization of dictionaries and the inclusion of entries in terminology databases encourage the definition of each meaning more independently” (Umbrasas 2008: 222). A review of the selected geographical terms under consideration shows that polysemous terms—that is, terms with two or more meanings (the term europeizacija in the geographical dictionary (AGTŽ 2021: 280) has as many as four meanings; five terms (sėklius, metropolis, miestas, geografinė kultūra ir tauta) have three meanings each—make up approximately 2.3 percent. Thus, this is a small proportion compared with terms that have one meaning (97.7 percent). It should be recalled that polysemy has traditionally been regarded as a semantic phenomenon and one of the main problems in terminology, and that the principle pursued is: one term for one meaning in a given field, in order to avoid ambiguity⁵. As can be seen, the requirement that terms be unambiguous is, in essence, observed in the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms under consideration.

However, returning to the structure of term definitions, it should be noted that in terminology, including terminography, the term definition is the most important

5 In her article On the question of polysemy in medical terminology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Palmira Zemlevičiūtė discusses in detail the concept of polysemy in terminology and medical terminology (Zemlevičiūtė 2020: 98–131).

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a means that helps to state the essence of a concept clearly, precisely, and logically; in other words, a definition helps link a concept to the term that represents it. Difficulties arise because there is no single form, type, or structural model of definition that is suitable for all types of concepts. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that all of this also depends on the kind of definition to be created: a term definition must be written one way, an encyclopedic definition another, and a definition of an ordinary word yet another.

In the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, terms are divided into two groups according to content: generic and specific. Calculations showed that generic terms account for the largest share of defined entries in the dictionary—71%; specific terms account for considerably less—only 29%. A generic term is a term that names a concept with a more general meaning, that is, a generic concept, whereas a specific term denotes a more concrete, that is, a specific concept (Kvašytė 2005: 67, 69). A more detailed analysis of generic and specific terms is not undertaken because of the limited scope of the article.

FEATURES OF DEFINITIONS OF SPECIFIC TERMS

Specific terms are compounds in form. In the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, two-word specific terms account for the largest proportion of definitions (50%); considerably fewer are three-word terms (37%), and only 13% are multiword terms consisting of four or more words. An examination of 648 definitions of specific geographical terms shows that they are generally formulated systematically: the specific component or components of the compound term are usually explained, while the generic term that serves as the logical dominant of its definition (whether one word or several) is defined separately in the dictionary. It should be noted that in this article the term logical dominant, used by terminologist K. Gaivenis (Gaivenis 2004: 106), is understood as the main, most important word or phrase that begins a definition. When a two-word term is defined, the logical dominant generally coincides with the head component of the term, that is, the component denoting the generic concept. When a compound term with more than two components is defined, the logical dominant is a phrase that corresponds to a compound term with two or more components.

It was found that most definitions of specific terms (81.5%; see Fig. 1) follow this model:

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Model I

ST = LD + ES,

where ST is a specific term, LD is the logical dominant, and ES is the essential distinguishing feature(s) of the concept being defined.

For example:

frontal precipitation

Precipitation that falls as a warm, cold, or occluded atmospheric front passes. AGTŽ 2021: 92.

equivalent air temperature

The air temperature that a volume of air would attain if all the water vapour it contained condensed into water droplets. AGTŽ 2021: 96.

As the definitions show, they begin with the logical dominants precipitation and air temperature, followed by explanations of the specific components of the compound terms, frontal and equivalent. The authors of the dictionary regard these logical dominants as generic terms and define them separately in the dictionary:

precipitation

Products of atmospheric condensation of water vapour, in liquid or solid form, that fall onto the underlying surface. AGTŽ 2021: 92.

air temperature

The temperature shown by a thermometer located in the air and not exposed to direct sunlight. In meteorology, temperature is expressed in degrees on the Celsius scale (°C), whereas absolute temperature is expressed in degrees on the Kelvin scale (K). AGTŽ 2021: 96.

Thus, most of the definitions of specific terms presented in the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms begin with a logical dominant (one-word or multiword). As already mentioned, the logical dominant is itself defined in the dictionary, that is, its definition is given among the definitions of related terms. A comma is usually placed after the logical dominant, followed by the essential characteristics that explain the specific component or components of the term being defined.

This model of defining a specific term in an explanatory dictionary essentially corresponds to the most widespread type of term definition—the intensional definition. An intensional definition is a definition that specifies “the nearest already defined or universally known generic concept, and the characteristics that describe the specific differences of the concept” (Kvašytė 2005: 13; cf. Gaivenis 2002: 30; Löckinger, Kockaert, Budin 2015). According to K. Gaivenis,

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“[I]ntensional definitions are usually classical definitions definitio per genus proximum et differentiam specificam. In these definitions, the specific difference may consist not of one but of several characteristics. This is because there are cases in which it is impossible to find the single characteristic that would distinguish the object being defined from all other objects and essentially reveal its content” (Gaivenis 2002: 30). In logic, the classical definition mentioned by the terminologist, based on the relationship between generic and specific concepts, is also called a definition by nearest genus and specific difference. The intensional definition is the most widely used type of term definition in terminology. Apparently, that is precisely why some works call it a terminological definition (Pavel, Nolet 2001: 24). The 2022 international standard ISO 704 Terminology work – Principles and methods states that intensional definitions are the most suitable for defining terms and should be used most often, because they best reveal the characteristics of the defined concept within the system of concepts (ISO 704 2022: 33). Thus, the intensional definition is considered the standard definition in terminology. K. Gaivenis also calls such definitions full definitions (Gaivenis 2004: 105) and states that “[T]his type of definition addresses two cognitive tasks: a) revealing the essential features of the terminological designate being defined; b) distinguishing the designate being defined from adjacent designates” (Gaivenis 2004: 105).

The structure of the second model of definitions of specific terms is somewhat different: it begins by stating the essential characteristic or characteristics of the concept being defined, while the logical dominant is placed at the end of the definition. Schematically, such a definition could be represented as follows:

Model II

ST = EC + LD,

where ST is the specific term, EC is the essential distinguishing characteristic(s) of the concept being defined, and LD is the logical dominant.

This definition model can be illustrated by the example of the specific term non-family household:

non-family household

Giminystės ryšiais nesusijusių asmenų grupės namų ūkis. AGTŽ 2021: 178.

The definition shows that it explains the modifying component of the three-word term, non-family, while the logical dominant, household, which is defined separately in the dictionary, is stated only at the end of the definition. Specific terms in this model

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Definitions in the material under study account for only about 2.1% (see Fig. 1) of all definitions of specific terms. Such definitions can easily be transformed into definitions of the first model. The distinguishing feature of this definition model is brevity. The definitions consist of a single, short sentence. Thus, definitions of this model meet one of the important requirements identified by terminologists and mentioned at the beginning of the article.

Another model of definitions of specific terms may be regarded as a subtype of the first model. It can be represented by the following schema:

Model III

RT = PLD + EP,

where RT is a specific term, PLD is the logical dominant and the feature preceding and supplementing it, and EP is the essential distinguishing feature(s) of the concept being defined.

For example, the term occluded atmospheric front (see the example below) begins with an explanation using the generic term atmospheric front, already defined in the dictionary, supplemented by secondary information (usually expressed in one or two words); after the comma, the definition explains why the atmospheric front is occluded, i.e., the second part of the definition describes the characteristics of this atmospheric front (has the properties of a cold front and a warm front)—in other words, how it differs from other specific terms with the logical dominant atmospheric front, such as secondary atmospheric front, arctic atmospheric front, polar atmospheric front, stationary atmospheric front, cold front, warm front, and upper atmospheric front, listed in the source under study:

occluded atmospheric front

A compound atmospheric front having the properties of a cold front and a warm front, which in the upper layers of the troposphere corresponds to a ridge. <…>. AGTŽ 2021: 82.

A closer examination of the definition discussed suggests that the feature compound, “made up of parts, composed,” in DLKŽe, preceding the generic term atmospheric front, most likely arises from the fact that an occluded atmospheric front has the properties of two fronts—both a cold and a warm front. If the definition of the term occluded atmospheric front began with the logical dominant atmospheric front without the word compound, it seems the definition would still be clear and would reveal the essential features of the concept being defined.

Definitions of the type discussed account for more than one-tenth of all definitions of specific terms in the sample examined (11.9%; see Fig. 1).

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Thus, they are not frequent, but can very easily be transformed into definitions of the first model. Compare also:

bipolar range

A disjunct range in which the same species is distributed in the temperate latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, but is absent from the tropics. AGTŽ 2021: 136.

As in the case of the definition of the term occluded atmospheric front, the definition of the two-word term bipolar range begins with the logical dominant, which is followed by a generic term (range), and a certain feature of it is specified before it (disjunct); further on, after the logical dominant, it is explained why the range is called bipolar, that is, the essential features of the defined object are indicated (distributed in the temperate latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, absent from the tropics).

Another—the fourth—model of definitions of specific terms is essentially the same binary type as those discussed earlier, but differs from the others in that the definition begins with an already defined logical dominant, i.e. a generic term supplemented by a word indicating or specifying a relationship, for example:

general geomorphology

A branch of geomorphology that studies the general principles and regularities governing the formation of landforms and their complexes, as well as their global distribution and evolution. AGTŽ 2021: 38.

As can be seen from the definition of the complex term general geomorphology, it likewise begins with the phrase branch of geomorphology, which follows the logical dominant; its first word, geomorphology, is a generic term defined separately in the dictionary, while the word branch supplements this generic term. A comma follows the logical dominant, after which the distinguishing features of the specific term are stated. This model of definition structure can be represented by the following diagram:

Model IV

ST = LD + EP,

where ST is the specific term, LD is the logical dominant with a word indicating the relationship, and EP is the essential distinguishing feature(s) of the concept being defined.

Thus, as already mentioned, the structure of the definition model discussed coincides with that of the most common definitions in the first model; however, a difference from the first model’s definitions is apparent when considering the formal expression of the definitions. The fourth definition model is uncommon: only 3.1% of specific-term definitions in the study material were found to follow this model (see Fig. 1).

The fifth model of specific-term definitions, found in the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, is very rare (1.4%; see Fig. 1). This model is as follows:

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Model V

ST = PSETD + EP,

where ST is the specific term, PSETD is the description of the principal specific-term component, and EP is the essential distinguishing feature(s) of the concept being defined.

These definitions differ from the others in that they do not have a logical dominant defined in the dictionary. Such definitions begin with a brief description of the principal component of the specific term, followed by the essential distinguishing features of the concept being defined, stated after a comma. Let us compare the definitions of two specific terms:

orographic cyclone

An area of low atmospheric pressure forming on the leeward side of a mountain range—the mountains block the airflow. <...>. AGTŽ 2021: 86

ir

tropical cyclone

A low-pressure atmospheric vortex characterized by a zone of storm-force winds at the periphery and forming over ocean waters in the tropical belt (where T_pav ≥ 26 °C). AGTŽ 2021: 86.

In the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, the term cyclone, which is a generic term, is defined separately:

cyclone

1. A low-pressure atmospheric vortex (with the lowest pressure at its centre), in which air circulates anticlockwise around the centre in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. 2. An area of atmospheric pressure lower than that of surrounding areas, distinguished on weather and climate maps. AGTŽ 2021: 86.

As can be seen from the definition, the dictionary gives two meanings of the term cyclone. The specific term orographic cyclone is associated with the second meaning of cyclone (“an atmospheric pressure area lower than that of the surrounding regions”), while tropical cyclone is associated with the first meaning (“a low-pressure atmospheric vortex”). It is generally maintained by both terminologists and terminographers that generic terms already defined need not be explained again in specific terms; the most important thing is to reveal the essential distinguishing features of the concept being defined and, if necessary, to try to explain how these features arise, and so on. However, as we can see, the fifth definition model under discussion occurs when clarity and precision are sought in order to avoid ambiguity. There are not many such cases in the source under study, since, as already mentioned, there are only a few terms with two or more meanings.

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Fig. 1. Frequency of definition models for specific terms (percent)

There are also only a few terms defined according to this model that have more than one meaning. All terms defined according to this model are two-word terms.

As the study shows, in the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms, specific terms are defined according to five models (see Fig. 1). It can be argued that classical definitions, also known as definitio per genus proximum et differentiam specificam, predominate in the systematized and standardized terminology of geography. In these definitions, genus and specific difference are used to reveal specific differences alongside the genus (generic term), that is, what this article calls distinguishing features. As the examples showed, these features help characterize the concept being defined as a species (specific term) and distinguish it from all other corresponding concepts in the same category. Identifying the specific difference is one of the essential steps in precisely defining the concept and distinguishing it from others. For this very reason, it is argued that there need not be a single definition for the same concept; there may be as many definitions as there are important features identified, and “not just one, but several definitions of terms may be correct” (Gaivenis 2002: 19). The choice of one predominant model for defining specific terms indicates that definitions are written according to the principle of analogy. Such standardization of definitions is apparently related to the requirements for explanatory terminology dictionaries.

Some important requirements for definitions are brevity and logicality, mentioned not only by terminologists but also by logicians, and also specified in the latest ISO 704 standard. Thus, ideally, a term definition should be formulated in a single sentence (Ndi-Kimbi 1994: 334), but this

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requirement cannot always be met. A review of definitions of specific terms shows that about 77 percent of all definitions consist of one sentence, while the remainder are multi-sentence definitions. There are very few very short definitions; longer sentences predominate, with sentence components separated by commas or even semicolons. Such definitions describe essential or additional features needed to characterize the concept. Although it might seem that the longer the definition, the more precise and comprehensive it is, this should not be assumed in every case, since it should be sufficient to state the distinguishing feature(s) and/or the most important feature(s) of the concept in order to reveal the terminological meaning of a specific term.

CONCLUSIONS

Defining a concept in any field is a complex logical act requiring knowledge of that field, and the result of this act is a term definition. To define a concept properly, that is, to create a term definition, preparatory work must be done. In explanatory terminology dictionaries, a definition should be regarded as the result of a constructive agreement among the dictionary’s authors. A definition distinguishes a concept from other concepts, establishes the boundaries of its terminological meaning, records the conceptual relations of the term naming the concept with other terms, and so on. The structure of a term definition depends on the content and scope of the concept it names, as well as on the term’s place in the system for classifying concepts.

The study data show that definitions of specific terms in the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms are constructed according to five models. The most common model for defining a specific term names the logical dominant, represented by a simplex or complex term already defined in the dictionary, and then, after a comma, reveals the essential features of the concept being defined that explain the specific component or components of the term. The other four models for defining specific terms are less productive; some can readily be transformed into definitions following the first model.

The uniformity, and consequently the coherence, of definitions of specific terms in the Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms is determined by the relatively clear hierarchical system of dictionary terms, as well as by the consistent work of specialists and terminologists.

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ŠALTINIAI

AGTŽ 2021: Aiškinamasis geografijos terminų žodynas. Parengė Paulius Kavaliauskas (moksl. red.), Dovilė Krupickaitė (ats. red.) ir kt., Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas.

EHTŽ 2003: Enciklopedinis hidrogeologijos terminų žodynas: lietuvių–anglų–vokiečių–rusų kalbų. Parengė Vytautas Juodkazis (ats. red.), Viktoras Kemešis, Gailė Žaliūdienė, Vilnius: Lietuvos geologijos tarnyba. Prieiga internete: https://terminai.vlkk.lt/.

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PECULIARITIES IN THE STRUCTURE OF DEFINITIONS OF SPECIFIC TERMS OF GEOGRAPHY

Summary

In the field of terminology professionals focus on creating precise definitions of one-word or compound terms. They aim to ensure that these definitions meet specific criteria, including having the extension of concept, also definition must be unambiguous, clear, and non-tautological, must accord with other definitions in the concept system, and must avoid being overly narrow or broad.

This article aims – to identify the characteristics of the structure of definitions of specific terms in the geosciences. To accomplish this goal, the following tasks have been established: 1) to examine insights from both Lithuanian and foreign authors regarding the formulation and criteria for term definitions; and 2) to investigate the definitions of specific terms and ascertain their structural models. Aiškinamasis geografijos terminų žodynas (Explanatory Dictionary of Geographical Terms), published in 2021, is selected for this study.

It is investigated, that five different definitions’ models of specific terms are used in Aiškinamasis geografijos terminų žodynas. The most common model of definition of specific terms is such model, when at the beginning of definition is told logical dominant and after comma the essential attributes of definition are indicated. This logical dominant is defined as a general term in the dictionary. The other four models of definition of specific terms are less productive, some of them can be readily transformed into the most common model of definition.

The clear hierarchical system of terms in Aiškinamasis geografijos terminų žodynas and consistent work of specialists and terminologists determines the uniformity of definitions of specific terms.

Gauta 2024-07-05

Aušra Rimkutė-Ganusauskienė

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

E. paštas [email protected]

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