JŪRATĖ PAJĖDIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERBS

KAŽKADA AND KADA NORS: A RELATION OF MEANING AND USAGE

KEYWORDS: indefinite temporal adverbs, pronominal adverbs or pronoun as pro-form, adverbials, indefiniteness marker.

ABSTRACT

The article discusses the expansion of the usage domain of kažkada, from the traditional model used to specify the time of an (actual) event that took place at an indefinite moment in the past, toward the less usual model in which kažkada is chosen to specify the time of an event that may occur in the future (an unreal event), traditionally described by the adverb kada nors. Martin Haspelmath’s (1997) typological study of implicational universals of indefinite pronouns, including adverbs of pronominal origin (PRO-ADVERBS), shows that choosing kažkada to describe the time of an unreal event violates the cooperative principle with the interlocutor (the cooperative principle; cf. Grice 1975). On the other hand, this choice must nevertheless also be linked to the general tendency for changes in the meanings and functions of indefiniteness markers—that is, to the possibility that an indefiniteness marker may acquire the meaning of another marker occupying an adjacent position on the map of implicational universals (cf. Haspelmath 1997: 63).

INTRODUCTION

At first glance, the use of the adverbs kažkada and kada nors seems to be grounded in the contrasting arrangement of temporal situations (past–future)¹. The increasingly frequent recent choice of the adverb kažkada, which indicates uncertainty about a temporal situation in the future, instead of

¹ Cf. the following comment found on a website: “kada nors is used to refer to the future, while kažkada refers to the past. I will be rich someday; I was rich once” (https://vaistininkouzrasai.lt/ skaitytoju-klausimai/pastaba-kada-nors-vartojama; accessed 2020-12-29). Interestingly, kažkada and kada nors in the texts on this website correctly mark the distinction between past and future, so the linguistic advice should be regarded as a form of website advertising.

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ISSN 2351-7204

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reikšmės santykis ir vartosena | 2

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the expected sometime indicates that speakers’ awareness that this temporal adverb is intended only to describe past situations is fading; cf.:

1) Sometime I will write a book about the kinds of people I have had the chance to work with in my life.²

2) it is unlikely that such computer systems sometime will perform better than a human can <...>.³

3) It is necessary <...> to say sometime “Stop.”⁴

4) if we are thinking about the state of the economy here and now, rather than sometime ten years from now, then the most important factors determining it <...> are consumer expectations and the resulting demand for consumer goods and services.⁵

5) A career is not a process that will begin sometime after graduation.⁶

6) Theatre is an ephemeral art; it does not endure. <...>. Therefore, all performing artists—singers, actors, directors—if they are to be recognized, are recognized here and now, not sometime after death.⁷

7) That money could also be used <...> to support children in other ways—not by trying to support those who will only be born sometime next year, but by looking at where the social problems actually are and what financial assistance is needed.⁸

In works on the standardization of the Lithuanian language, much attention continues to be devoted to errors in using indefinite adverbs (including sometime, at some time) in combinations with ever⁹. Although such combinations are no longer used extensively, their examples are important from another perspective: they highlight the usual contexts for using sometime. Linguistic studies have made observations about sometime and at some time

² https://www.15min.lt/max/naujiena/verslas/versmes-sanatorijos-direktore-apie-135-atsauk imus-per-savaite-keista-nes-pas-mus-tikrai-saugiau-nei-uzeiti-i-parduotuve-1224-1409156 (accessed 2020-12-29).

³ https://kauno.diena.lt/naujienos/nuomones/nuomones/snekamoji-kalba-mitai-realybe-ir-tyrimu-galimybes-870672 (accessed 2020- 12- 29).

⁴ https://m.delfi.lt/lietuvoje/article.php?id=86384825 (accessed 2021-02-12).

⁵ https://www.llri.lt/naujienos/ekonomine-politika/o-gal-ekonomikos-prognozuotojai-ne-taip-jau-ir-klydo/irinka (accessed 2020-12-29).

⁶ http://www.vpvp mc.lt/karjeros-ugdymo-centras/580-karjeros-plano-nauda-siekiant-karjeros-tiksl1.html (accessed 2020-12-29).

⁷ http://www.lkti.lt/apie_mus/knygynas/teatras/gintaro-varno-teatras.html (accessed 2020-12-29).

⁸ https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/maciulis-apie-10-tukst-euru-mokejima-gimusiam-vaikui-siulymas-galintis-tureti-neigiamu-pasekmiu.d?id=86100285 (accessed 2020-12-29).

⁹ Cf. http://www.vlkk.lt/aktualiausios-temos/didziosios-klaidos/zodyno/neteiktini-vertiniai (accessed 2020-12-29).

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cases of confusion between meanings are difficult to find; therefore, the aim of this article is to clarify the appropriate—semantically motivated—uses of the indefinite temporal adverbs kažkada and kada nors. To this end, three tasks are undertaken: 1) to review the illustrations used to support the meanings of these adverbs and their synonyms in the main Lithuanian dictionaries: the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽe), the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (DŽ), the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (BŽe), and the Dictionary of Synonyms (SŽe); 2) to discuss how the grammatical status and meaning of these markers of temporal indefiniteness are described in linguistic studies; 3) to examine the frequency distribution of kažkada in the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian (DLKT) and the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian (SLKT). The structure of the article reflects the order in which these tasks are addressed: 1. Kažkada and kada nors in dictionaries; 2. the grammatical status and semantics of Kažkada and kada nors; 3. the use of Kažkada, kažin kada in DLKT and SLKT. Analytical and comparative methods are used to review the theoretical material and examine the empirical data.¹⁰

1. KAŽKADA AND KADA NORS IN DICTIONARIES

The aforementioned distinction between the uses of kažkada and kada nors to describe past or future events can be discerned in the explanations and illustrative examples of these adverbs’ meanings in DŽ and BŽe (see Table 1 for a comparison of dictionary entries for kažkada and kada nors and possible synonyms). DŽ distinguishes two meanings of kažkada: “at an unknown time” and “long ago,” both illustrated with examples of actions that took place in the past. BŽe also supports the use of the adverbs kažkada, kažin kada with a past action (without a definition of meaning). In LKŽe, kažkada and kažin kada are linked by cross-references: the meaning of kažkada is explained by referring to kažin kada, while kažin kada refers to nežinia kada and kažkada. The examples in Table 1 show that not only SŽe, but also LKŽe and, to some extent, DŽ associate the adverb kažkada with kažin kada, kadaise, kadai kadà, kadais, which indicate an indefinite time of a past action. To explain the meaning of the adverb kada nors, dictionaries use descriptions involving the selection of a point in time and/or indefiniteness, cf.: at any time

¹⁰ DŽ and BŽe are normative dictionaries, cf. http://lkiis.lki.lt/lkz-pratarme, http://lkiis.lki.lt/lkz-ivadas and http://bkz.lki.lt/?pg=bendros_zinios.

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(LKŽe), at any indefinite time (DŽ), at an indefinite time (BŽe). BŽe illustrates the use of kada nors in greater detail: this adverb describes not only the time of an action that will take place in the future, but also the possibility of an action in the past.

TABLE 1. Dictionary entries for Kažkada, kada nors and temporal adverbs synonymous with them in certain aspects of meaning in the main Lithuanian dictionaries

LKŽe

DŽ

BŽe

ŠŽe

kažkadà

see kažin kada

1. at an unknown time: Kažkada he lived here. 2. long ago: We already kažkada finished the work.

Kažkada there used to be a shop.

kadaise

kaži(n) kadà

1. who knows when, sometime: Who knows when the train will come; we’ll have to wait. 2. long ago: We who knows when finished digging potatoes already <...>. ‖ a very long time ago: Who knows when I was in Kupiškis. ‖ once: Once I too knew how to embroider like this <...>.

sometime

I have somehow found myself in a situation similar to yours now.

–

once

sometime, long ago, in former times: Tilindis <...> smiled, remembering that he himself had once been <...> restless. Once there were forests here. <...>. I too once sang well. <...> ◊in days of yore, a very long time ago:

in former times, long ago: We lived differently once. There were forests here once.

Once that region belonged to the Germans.

not now, but in times long past: An oak grove once grew here.

once upon a time

There were forests here once. <...>. I too once sang well. <...> ◊in days of yore, a very long time ago:

long ago: Once upon a time that happened, I don’t remember anymore. once upon a time, long ago adverb colloquial: I came back long ago. I saw you a long time ago.

That was a long time ago.

long ago, in former times (He once lived in the city), formerly, another time, on another occasion (There once lived an old man), sometime, in former times,

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There once lived a poet named Mačys.

kadaĩ kąs prv. long ago, not now: Someone of ours once cut the rye

long ago, earlier (S. forests once slept), in the times of the flood book., whenever <...>. –

once

1. see once: They used to travel around here. <...> 2. sometime: And we know for certain that one day we will all die BPII6.

kadaĩ adv. 1. long ago: I have been waiting for you for ages. He has been home for a long time. <...> 2. once: A forest once grew here.

I once believed in love with all my heart.

kadaĩ adv. → once

another time

earlier, another time, formerly: <...> twelve hours, which are sometimes long and sometimes short BPI 232. A cough will afflict us another time Mž 290.

adv. another time, once: Once there lived a certain man

I will not be able to come either then or another time.

–

formerly

1. another time: <...> Once upon a time there was a king. <...> 2. sometimes: Sometimes he himself does not even know what he wants

another time

There used to be an old cemetery on this spot.

–

ever

at any time: And you come by sometime. J. Jabl.

at any unspecified time: Perhaps we will meet sometime. Come sometime.

at an unspecified time: Have you ever bought anything online? I would so much like to sometime to go to Paris. It is the most powerful ever improvised explosive device.

–

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Thus, the examples presented in DŽ provide only a contrastively perceived use of kažkada ‘sometime’ and kada nors ‘ever’ (indefinite time in the past: indefinite time in the future); BŽe presents the range of meanings of these markers of temporal indefiniteness in greater detail: kažkada ‘sometime’ is associated with real (factual) past situations, whereas kada nors ‘ever’ is associated not only with the time of an action that will take place in the future, but also with the time of an action that may have taken place within a certain period.

Before discussing the grammatical status and semantics of these words, it is important to consider which categories of verbal modality and mood are related to the aforementioned descriptions of an action that took place in reality (factual) and an action that is possible (non-factual). Factual (real / completed) actions are usually expressed by verbs of epistemic (evaluative¹¹) modality. From the perspective of the category of mood, they are associated with the indicative: “Epistemic modality is related to people’s knowledge of the world <...>. Epistemic predicates modify propositions that can be evaluated in terms of truth, and the result of this operation is also a proposition whose truth can be determined” (Holvoet, Judžentis 2004: 82, 85). Non-factual actions are expressed by verbs of deontic (irrealis¹²) modality. Non-factual verbs of deontic modality are selected when conveying actions related to the future—intentions, exhortations, commands, and needs: “Deontic modality—unlike epistemic modality—characterizes not propositions, but abstract propositions expressing the actions or deeds of some agents” (Holvoet, Judžentis 2004: 83). The future tense is distinctive from the perspective of modality¹³. It describes future actions; therefore, verb forms in this tense “express propositions that cannot be verified at the moment of speaking: they can only come true, and thus be tested, at some point in the future” (Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2004: 123). The future is associated with intentions¹⁴, which are usually presented as plans, since the sequence of projected future events can be disrupted and the predicted event may not take place. Therefore, the naming of future matters cannot be associated solely with the expression of time—future matters also involve an element of prediction (prognostication) and a certain aspect related to modality

¹¹ Cf. Vladimir Plungian’s definition of evaluative modality: “the speaker’s assessment of the reality (or degree of probability) of a situation” (Plungian 2011: 192).

¹² According to V. Plungian, from a cognitive and communicative perspective, irrealis modality meanings are among the most important; they are used to describe irrealis situations—“when modal markers characterize a certain ‘alternative world’ existing in the speaker’s mind at the time of the utterance” (Plungian 2011: 193).

¹³ For more on the problems surrounding the concept of the future tense, and references to the literature, see Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2004: 122–124.

¹⁴ Apie ketinimų interpretaciją žr. Lyons 1993: 814tt.

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reikšmę (plg. Lyons 1993: 677). Lietuvių kalboje būsimojo laiko veiksmažodžių formomis reiškiamus teiginius¹⁵ galima laikyti modalumo požiūriu nežymėtais (plg. Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2004: 123).

2. SOME TIME AGO AND AT SOME TIME: GRAMMATICAL STATUS AND SEMANTICS

2.1. In linguistic studies, some time ago and at some time (and their variants and synonyms¹⁶) may be described as belonging to three different grammatical subclasses—adverbs (cf. Senn 1966; Ulvydas 1971, 2006; Paulauskienė 1976; Forssman 2003), adverbials (cf. Makauskaitė 2016, 2019), or indefinite pronouns (cf. Haspelmath 1997). These differences in classification are determined by the scope and nature of the grouping of the material under study.

Traditionally, some time ago and at some time are distinguished as adverbs, which are considered an independent part of speech and characterized by “the autonomy of lexical meaning” (cf. Ulvydas 1971: 425; 2000: 1; 2006: 410); this distinction is based on their function of indicating “the circumstances of an action or state expressed by a verb” (cf. Ulvydas 2006: 410). The concept of adverbial is chosen to describe means of expressing temporal meaning that are of different origins (formation types)¹⁷. In Indrė Makauskaitė’s study of the positional possibilities of temporal adverbials in contemporary Lithuanian, adverbials include “temporal adverbs and their semantic equivalents that are not formally considered adverbs, as well as words or word combinations that have become almost adverbialized” (Makauskaitė 2019: 76). It is worth noting that Antanas Smetona and Aurelija Usonienė, the first authors to have spoken of the need to distinguish a class of adverbials in describing certain phenomena of the Lithuanian language¹⁸, emphasize that the semantic-functional class of adverbials “is not equated with adverbs as a traditional part of speech in grammar or with adverbials of manner, time, etc., as traditional sentence constituents in syntax,” and that this choice “does not call into question the status of the linguistic phenomena under discussion in terms of parts of speech or sentence constituents” (Smetona, Usonienė 2012: 124).

¹⁵ Cf.: “Lithuanian has tense forms that are clearly distinguished from the modal system; therefore, three values are assigned to the category of deictic tense—present, past, and future” (Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2004: 124).

¹⁶ Cf. some time, somewhen, sometime, at any time, cited in linguistic studies (Ulvydas 1971: 454; 2000: 30), or sometime(s), some time, somewhen, at any time (Makauskaitė 2019: 77, 91, 107, 108).

¹⁷ For semantic studies of Lithuanian means of expressing time that are considered adverbials, see Makauskaitė 2016.

¹⁸ See Smetona, Usonienė 2012: 124, 128–131, 136.

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When considering the possibilities for appropriately choosing some time ago and at some time, it is important to take typological studies into account as well. These Lithuanian markers of indefiniteness receive particular attention in Martin Haspelmath’s work Indefinite Pronouns (1997), which presents the results of a study of implicational universals in the indefinite pronouns of 140 languages. M. Haspelmath uses the concept of pronoun not only in its etymological sense (PRO-NOUN), but also more broadly—in the sense of an original form (PRO-FORM)—as a term describing various formations of pronominal origin, including pronominal adverbs (in English, pronominal adverbs; cf. Haspelmath 1997: 10–11). The need to consider some time ago and at some time as members of the set of words classifiable as pronouns is also indicated by Lithuanian grammatical descriptions, where these words and their synonymous or derivational variants are presented as adverbs, their pronominal origin and their formation as combinations of several pronouns are emphasized, and other similar characterizations are given (cf. Senn 1966: 313; Paulauskienė 1976: 202, 204; Valeckienė 1979: 130¹⁹; Kniūkšta 2001: 161²⁰; Forssman 2003: 284). Before turning to the meanings and usage possibilities of some time ago and at some time (and their synonymous variants) highlighted in Haspelmath’s study, it is important to mention the descriptions of the meanings of these markers of temporal indefiniteness found in earlier (Ulvydas 1971, 1985) and recent (Forssman 2003; Makauskaitė 2019) studies of Lithuanian material.

2.2. In the description of semantic groups of adverbs in Grammar of the Lithuanian Language (LKG), sometime, somewhen²¹ and at some time, whenever are classified as circumstantial temporal adverbs denoting “the present or general notions of time” (Ulvydas 1971: 454; 2000:

¹⁹ Adelė Valeckienė (1979: 131–133) aptaria kada etimologijas, taip pat mini ir kartūna „kada nors“ (ten pat, 130), kuris LKŽe šia reikšme iliustruojamas tarminiais pavyzdžiais (plg.: Kartūnta gal ir aš būsiu laimingas; Kartūnta tu paprašysi manęs).

²⁰ Cf.: “Nowadays, the diversity of indefinite pronouns and their corresponding adverbs is forgotten, and people begin to make do with forms containing kaž-: kažkas, kažkoks, kažkada… A. Vienuolis uses forms with kaž- and kazin as is customary in everyday speech—when referring to one somewhat unclear thing: <...>. When speaking of one among several unknown things, the writer subtly chooses a different word: <...> Everyone remembered that they, too, would have to die sometime (sooner or later) (R II 84). From contemporary literature we could collect hundreds of sentences in which some kind and sometime are already inserted even in such cases. A. Vienuolis has no need at all for the semantically muddled word sometime—he expresses indefinite past time with the adverbs once and in days gone by <...>” (Kniūkšta 2001: 161).

²¹ Cf. the LKG note that the adverbs “<...> once, <...>, formerly, in former times <...>” have “a more general past meaning” (Ulvydas 1971: 455; 2000: 31).

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30)²², subgroup, although the examples intended to support the claim do not show this: kažkada is illustrated by sentences with past-tense forms, whereas kada nors, kuomet norint are illustrated by sentences with future-tense verb forms; cf.:

8) Kažkuomet <...> stumbled onto the scythe that had been left lying <...>.

9) Kažin kada I, too, knew how to embroider like this <...>.

10) Kada nors I will tell you about Damulienė.

11) Whenever will have to let go <...>.

In the Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian (DLKG), one can see a refinement of this description: in the subgroup of circumstantial adverbs denoting “the present or general notions of time,” only kada nors is mentioned, while in the subgroup of adverbs denoting the past, only kadaise is listed among those mentioned earlier²³ (cf. Ulvydas 2006: 426).

Recent studies draw attention to the deictic nature of these words. Berthold Forssman (2003: 51, 264) classifies kažin kada / kažkada / kažkuomet “irgendwann” (the context of the description suggests that kada nors is also included²⁴) as punctual but non-deictic²⁵ indefinite temporal adverbs, whereas I. Makauskaitė (2019) treats them as deictic temporal adverbials. The differences in assessment are connected with the definition of deixis determined by the methods used to study the material: in the first case—in a morphosemantic description of the adverb system—the elements under study were treated as anaphoric references (i.e., references with a place in the overall perception of discourse), whereas in the second case they were examined according to the semantics of the elements described in actual discourse, or subjective deixis²⁶. When temporal adverbials are described according to the three-part distinction—deictic, intrinsic, and

²² Further, cf. the value “any time” incorrectly assigned to the phrase kuomet norint in another work, illustrated by the sentence Oh, he’ll get it from me whenever (Ulvydas 1974: 23; 2000: 320).

²³ Cf. the Russian translation given in Грамматика литовского языка: kada nors “когда-либо”, kadaise “некогда, когда-то” (Ulvydas 1985: 341).

²⁴ Classification of Kada nors in this group of punctual non-deictic indefinite adverbs is implied by the meaning given in German; cf.: kadanorint (kadanonts, kadanorįs, kadanōrs) “irgendwann” (Forssman 2003: 200). Here one may recall the translations of the adverbs under discussion given by Alfred Senn (1966: 313), cf.: kažkada, kažkuomet, kaž(n) kada, kaž(i)n kuomet is translated as ‘irgendwann einmal, vor langer Zeit einmal, wer weiß wann’, while kada nors is translated as ‘je, einmal’.

²⁵ According to B. Forssman, non-deictic temporal adverbs denote an absolute position grounded in knowledge of the world, which can be classified as preceding, following, or coinciding with a specified reference time, or they denote a position at which the time of the action is deliberately left open or considered unimportant (cf. Forssman 2003: 51).

²⁶ Apie deiksę ir anaforą dar plg. Lyons 1993 [1977]: 673tt; Levinson 1983: 54–55.

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…the model of extrinsic temporal reference – temporal concepts dependent on the observer’s position were assigned to deictic adverbials (cf. Makauskaitė 2019: 12, 37, 39, 40).

I. Makauskaitė (2019: 82) adverbialą kažkada vadina daugiazoṅiu²⁷: juo gali būti nusakoma tolima praeitis, nežinomas laikas praeityje bei ateityje. Tyrėja adverbialą kada nors apibūdina kaip galintį nurodyti nežinomą laiką praeityje ir ateityje, kuriuo realizuojami leksiniai konceptai NEŽINOMAS LAIKAS PRAEITYJE ir NEŽINOMAS LAIKAS ATEITYJE, bet daugiazoṅiu jo nevadina (plg. Makauskaitė 2019: 91, 107–109, 228–229). Remdamasi DLKT užfiksuotos vartosenos pavyzdžiais, autorė teigia, kad ir kada nors, ir kažkada būna pasirenkami leksiniams konceptams NEŽINOMAS LAIKAS PRAEITYJE ir NEŽINOMAS LAIKAS ATEITYJE²⁸ perteikti, o adverbialais kažkada, kažkuomet (kaip ir adverbialais kadaise, kitados, kitąkart, kitąsyk, seniai ir senokai bei jų variantais) dar gali būti realizuojamas ir leksinis konceptas TOLIMA PRAEITIS (plg. Makauskaitė 2019: 230–231). Taigi, naujausiame tyrime pateiktas kada nors semantinių galimybių apibūdinimas atitinka įprastą vartoseną (kuri atspindima ir BŽe pateiktuose pavyzdžiuose), o kažkada, kažkuomet ir jų variantų reikšmės aprašai skiriasi. Tai skatina pažvelgti ne vien į DLKT pasitaikančius paskirus kažkada vartojimo atvejus pasirenkamam leksiniam konceptui NEŽINOMAS LAIKAS ATEITYJE realizuoti, bet ir nustatyti santykinį tokių atvejų dažnumą tiek visame tekstyne, tiek jo dalyse (žr. šio straipsnio 3 sk.).

2.3. Martin Haspelmath’s (1997) typological study of implicational universals of indefinite pronouns makes it possible to observe systems of indefiniteness expressed by pronouns as proforms in different languages and to predict possible changes in the forms of indefinite pronouns²⁹. According to M. Haspelmath, the SERIES characteristic of indefinite pronouns is determined by two components: a stem indicating an ONTOLOGICAL CATEGORY (in this case, the temporal-category forms kada and kuomet, cf.: kada nors,

²⁷ According to Renaat Declerck’s proposed model for classifying adverbials that indicate four types of time (cf. Declerck 2006: 590), an adverbial that can denote a time span in the present, future, and past is considered multizonal (cf. Declerck 2006: 593; Makauskaitė 2019: 85).

²⁸ I. Makauskaitė notes that this lexical concept is realized “by the same adverbials that can also denote an unknown time in the past. In themselves, these adverbials indicate only temporal indefiniteness, and it is precisely the context that determines whether they refer to the past or the future” (Makauskaitė 2019: 107–108).

²⁹ Apie šį tyrimą žr. Croft 2003: 133–138. Apie proformomis perteikiamo apibrėžtumo ar neapibrėžtumo semantinę ir pragmatinę skirtį žr. Bhat 2007: 201–202.

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kuomet nors; kažkada, kažkuomet) and an accompanying affix (prefix or postfix) that functions as an INDEFINITENESS MARKER—namely kaž(i(n)) or nors / norįs / norint(s), cf.: kada nor(int)s / kuomet nor(int)s, kaž((i)n)kada, kaž(i)n))kuomet (Haspelmath 1997: 21–22). Indefinite pronouns may be associated with negation, negative-polarity phrases, references to specificity and nonspecificity, expressions of the speaker’s knowledge, and free choice (cf. Haspelmath 1997: 31–52). The Lithuanian markers of temporal indefiniteness under discussion, formed with kaž- and nors³⁰, are related by a contrast based on their distributional possibilities: forms with kaž- characteristically express specific indefiniteness, whereas forms with nors express nonspecific indefiniteness (cf. Haspelmath 1997: 38–39). Whether a reference is specific or nonspecific depends on whether a real-world counterpart exists: specific reference is associated with real-world counterparts—the domain of knowledge or fact; references that do not convey specificity are associated with the domain of desire or irrealis, expressed by constructions of possibility, obligation, future tense, and imperative, as well as by conditional sentences and questions (cf. Haspelmath 1997: 108, 109)³¹. With regard to the temporal-indefiniteness markers selected in Lithuanian, it should be emphasized that specificity is conveyed by adverbial pronouns derived from the stem of the verb žinoti ‘to know’: kažkada / kažkuomet (<-- kažin kada / kuomet <-- who knows when), whereas nonspecificity is conveyed by adverbial pronouns derived from the stem of the verb norėti ‘to want’³²: kada / kuomet nors (kada / kuomet norįs / norint(is). According to M. Haspelmath, the opposition between specificity and nonspecificity conveyed by indefinite pronouns can be realized in many contexts, but is especially salient when choosing how to describe factual and unreal actions (Haspelmath 1997: 39). In realis contexts, only specific indefinite pronouns are selected—for example, the use of kažkada to mark temporal indefiniteness in the past. In certain irrealis contexts³³, both specific and nonspecific markers of indefiniteness may be used.

³⁰ According to Alberto Rosinas, two types of indefinite pronouns (nominal and adjectival) are used in standard Lithuanian and dialects, formed with kaž(in) (preposed) and nors (postposed), and these stand in a relation of complementary rather than contrastive distribution (cf. Rosinas 1988: 114–115; 1996: 116). Pronouns of this type, formed with kaž- and nors, are assigned to the group of existential (‘indefinite’) pronouns, characterized by the distinctive feature ‘indefinite’, since they indicate or denote elements unknown and unspecified to the addressee (cf. Rosinas 1988: 113, 253).

³¹ For the possibilities / necessities and the domain of desire that constitute the irrealis modality, see Plungian 2011: 199–200.

³² Dar plg. Forssman 2003: 200.

³³ For the meanings of the terms realis and irrealis and their use to denote mood types, see Holvoet, Judžentis 2004: 88ff.

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The possibility of choosing either kažkada or kada nors can also be seen in some sentences in the DLKT describing hypothetical past situations, cf.:

12) some children’s songs kažkada may once have been an important part of the repertoire of seers and priestesses.

13) That the defined area kažkada may have been considerably larger is indicated by references <...>.

14) It is hard to believe now that people kada nors could have babbled so wonderfully <...>.

Pasak M. Haspelmatho (1997: 41), kai kuriuose irrealis kontekstuose dera tik nespecifinis neapibrėžtumo rodiklis. Specifinių neapibrėžiamųjų įvardžių netinkamumą imperatyvo konstrukcijoms M. Haspelmathas (1997: 42) grindžia bendradarbiavimo principo (angl. the cooperative principle; žr. Grice 1975) pažeidimu, šiam teiginiui iliustruoti pateikdamas ir lietuviško sakinio variantus su kada nors ir kažkada³⁴ kaip tinkamo ir netinkamo vartojimo parinktis, plg.:

15) (a) Visit me kada nors.

(b) *Visit me kažkada.

When requesting a favor at an indefinite time in the future, the speaker must choose kada nors to refer to it. By choosing kažkada, they would withhold important information from the interlocutor, since they would encode the time reference not merely as indefinite, but also as having features of specificity (these would be understood as known to the speaker but concealed from the interlocutor)³⁵. According to M. Haspelmath, the cooperative principle would likewise be violated if indefinite pronouns were chosen in interrogative or conditional sentences, because inserting specific indefinite pronouns in them would also create the conditions for violating the cooperative principle (Haspelmath 1997: 42, 44). Such request situations (expressed by interrogative sentences) and situations of promising or possibility (expressed by conditional sentences)³⁶ could be illustrated by reformulating sentences 15 (a and b) as interrogatives or conditionals, cf.:

16) (a) Will you visit me kada nors?

(b) *Will you visit me kažkada?

17) (a) I would show you that book if you visited me kada nors.

(b) *I would show you that book if you visited me kažkada.

³⁴ M. Haspelmath cites the sentence variants on the basis of Alfonso Pilka’s study (Pilka 1984: 56).

³⁵ Platesnį aiškinimą ir nuorodas į literatūrą žr. Haspelmath 1997: 42. Apie bendradarbiavimo principą bei konvencinę ir nekonvencinę implikatūras dar žr. Satkauskaitė 2011: 29–42.

³⁶ For the use of the subjunctive mood in conditional sentences and the meaning of possibility, see Holvoet, Judžentis 2004: 99ff.

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According to M. Haspelmath, the speaker’s knowledge is the semantic factor that determines whether the referent denoted by an indefinite pronoun is identified or not (Haspelmath 1997: 45). Factuality is related to the uniqueness and knowledge of an action/object. Lithuanian kažkada (like other kaž- subtype markers of indefiniteness) is etymologically derived from constructions that raise a question about knowledge: kaž- (< kažin < kas žino³⁷) kada (cf. Haspelmath 1997: 275). In descriptions of irrealis situations, actions/objects are associated with a potentially past, present, or future uniqueness that has not yet been confirmed or realized (while an object is not yet perceived as existing, it is not unique, and its properties are therefore nonspecific), and with the possibility of choice, which in Lithuanian is expressed by markers of indefiniteness originating in phrases with non-finite forms of the verb norėti ‘to want’³⁸ (cf. Haspelmath 1997: 71, 159).

The multifunctionality characteristic of indefinite pronouns in some cases also results in polysemy: the same functions (reference to a specific known, specific unknown, nonspecific (irrealis) action or object, and so on) may be realized in different languages—each language’s model of usage possibilities is unique—by indefinite pronouns of one or more subtypes (cf. Haspelmath 1997: 59, 76).

Usage patterns for markers of indefiniteness in certain foreign languages, especially those whose use—that is, learning and proficiency—is encouraged at the state level and/or becomes prestigious, are sometimes perceived as a model. This may encourage the retention of existing patterns for using markers of indefiniteness in the native language (when the functional means of expressing indefiniteness in languages in closer contact coincide) or their gradual change (if the means of expressing indefiniteness differ). Assessing trends in the use of (broadly defined) indefinite pronouns with kaž- in Standard Lithuanian, one may argue that Russian

37

For variants of the reduction of the phrase kas žino in Samogitian and Aukštaitian dialects, or for the origin of the phrase *kas žina + indefinite pronoun, see Rosinas (1981: 25–26; 1988: 220–223; 253). For the dual origin of indefinite pronouns, from INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS or from NOUNS DENOTING A GENERAL ONTOLOGICAL CATEGORY, see Haspelmath 1997: 26ff.

³⁸ For phrases that began to develop “in the pre-Lithuanian period from indefinite pronouns and the usually postpositive active participle *narins,” bearing the feature “indefinite,” as a positional variant of phrases meaning “someone,” see Rosinas 1988: 223–224.

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the system of markers of indefiniteness in the language³⁹ at a particular period⁴⁰ helped preserve the traditional use of these markers of indefiniteness, associated with expressing reference to specific ignorance. The implicational universals maps compiled by M. Haspelmath show that the usage domains of the Russian marker of indefiniteness -to and the Lithuanian marker of indefiniteness kaž- overlap, since these markers of indefiniteness perform the same functions in both languages (cf. Haspelmath 1997: 71, 273, 275–276). The changed priorities and aspirations concerning foreign languages, and the increasing attainment (and reality) of proficiency in English, may, it is plausible, encourage certain changes in the use of markers of indefiniteness (including temporal indefiniteness) to some extent. It is likely that English some-type markers of indefiniteness, used to indicate both specific unknown and nonspecific unknown indefiniteness, may⁴¹ somewhat encourage the expansion of the domain of use of Lithuanian kaž- series markers of indefiniteness from expressing specific unknown indefiniteness toward expressing nonspecific unknown indefiniteness (for the possibility that markers of indefiniteness occupying adjacent positions on an implicational universals map may transfer meanings in a particular direction, see Haspelmath 1997: 63). The use of Kažkada instead of the usual kada nors may be encouraged not only by English but also by the example of other languages—Polish, German, and Latvian. But, of course, this topic requires a separate study.

³⁹ M. Haspelmath emphasizes that the Russian system of indefinite pronouns is quantitatively and qualitatively richer than the English system (Haspelmath 1997: 64–65)

⁴⁰ For bilingualism in Soviet Lithuania and possible reasons for resistance to it, cf. Toyota 2010: 132–133.

⁴¹ For the influence of English on the conflation of the semantic domains of the indefinite pronouns kažkas and kas nors, see Rosinas 1996: 116.

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3. USAGE OF KAŽKADA, KAŽIN KADA IN CORPORA

3.1. The DLKT records not only kažkada, kada nors, but also instances of the synonymous kažin kada, kuomet nors⁴² (the latter two temporal indefiniteness markers do not occur in the corpus sections representing spoken language—Spoken Language and Administrative Literature⁴³); see Table 2.

TABLE 2. Frequency of use in the DLKT of adverbs expressing temporal indefiniteness kažkada, kada nors, kažin kada, kuomet nors

kažkada | kažin kada | kada nors | kuomet norsDLKT sections | Journalism | 3,001 (61.1%) | 29 (53.7%) | 3,478 (53.25%) | 7 (63.6%) | Fiction | 1,394 (28.4%) | 21 (38.9%) | 1,957 (29.96%) | 1 (9.1%) | Nonfiction | 320 (6.5%) | 4 (7.4%) | 955 (14.62%) | 3 (27.3%) | Administrative Literature | 108 (2.2%) | – | 113 (1.73%) | – | Spoken Language | 91 (1.8%) | – | 29 (0.44%) | – | 4,914 (100%) | 54 (100%) | 6,532 (100%) | 11 (100%)

As the data presented in Table 3 show, kažkada is not among the most frequently selected forms in the DLKT for expressing the lexical concept UNKNOWN TIME IN THE FUTURE: such instances account for only ~3.05% of all occurrences.

⁴² The adverbs kažkuomet, kaži(n) kuomet are not attested in the DLKT.

⁴³ The main source of the occurrences of kažkada and kada nors in this DLKT section is the transcripts of the sessions of the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania.

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TABLE 3. Overall relative frequency of use of kažkada in the DLKT

kažkada indicates the time of an unspecified action that occurred in the past | indicates the time of an unspecified action that may have occurred in the past | indicates the time of an unspecified action that may occur in the future | (in contexts of obligation and condition) | (future tense expressing desire or ability) | total number of occurrences in the DLKT and its relative proportion | DLKT sections | Journalism | 2,904 (~59.1%) | 10 (~0.2%) | 19 (~0.39%) | 68 (~1.38%) | 3,001 (~61.1%) | Fiction | 1,376 (~28%) | 2 (~0.04%) | 5 (~0.1%) | 11 (~0.22%) | 1,394 (~28.37%) | Nonfiction | 314 (~6.4%) | 3 (~0.06%) | 1 (~0.02%) | 2 (~0.04%) | 320 (~6.51%) | Administrative Literature | 81 (~1.65%) | – | 15 (~0.3%) | 12 (~0.24%) | 108 (~2.2%) | Spoken Language | 74 (~0.08%) | – | 5 (~0.1%) | 12 (~0.24%) | 91 (~1.85%) | Entire corpus | 4,749 (~96.64%) | 15 (~0.3%) | 45 (~0.92%) | 105 (~2.14%) | 4,914 (100%) | 4,764 (~96.95%) | 150 (~3.05%)

Comparing the relative frequency of the two cases of use of sometime in different corpus sections shows that, in written language, sometime is used much less frequently to describe non-specific situations related to future events than in the sections of DLKT representing spoken language (see Tables 4 and 5). In written-language texts, out of 4,715 instances (which constitute 95.95% of the entire sometime sample in DLKT), 106 instances describe future situations (~2.25%): 87 instances (~2.9%) are found in journalism, 16 instances (~1.1%) in the sections of DLKT representing fiction, and 3 instances (~0.9%) in those representing non-fiction. In the sections of DLKT containing spoken-language texts, out of 199 instances (which constitute 4.05% of the entire sometime sample in DLKT), 44 instances (~22.11%) sometime are used to describe future situations: 27 instances (25%) are found in the DLKT section Administrative Literature and 17 instances (~18.7%) in the section Spoken Language.

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TABLE 4. Distribution of uses of the adverb kažkada in the sections of DLKT representing spoken and written language

kažkada

indicates an indefinite time of an action in the past

indicates an indefinite time of an action that may take place in the future

total number of occurrences in DLKT and its relative proportion

DLKT sections

Journalism

Fiction

Non-fiction

4 609 (97,75%)

106 (~2,25%)

4 715 (100%)

Administrative literature

155 (77,89%)

44 (~22,11%)

199 (100%)

Spoken language

Throughout the corpus

4,764 (~96.95%)

150 (~3.05%)

4,914 (100%)

TABLE 5. Relative frequency of the usage patterns of the adverb kažkada in the sections of DLKT

kažkada

indicates an indefinite time of an action in the past

indicates an indefinite time of an action that may take place in the future

total number of occurrences in DLKT and its relative proportion

DLKT sections

Journalism

2 914 (~97,1%)

87 (~2,9%)

3 001 (100%)

Fiction

1 378 (~98,9%)

16 (~1,1%)

1 394 (100%)

Non-fiction

317 (~99,1%)

3 (~0,9%)

320 (100%)

Administrative texts

81 (~75%)

27 (~25%)

108 (100%)

Spoken language

74 (~81,3%)

17 (~18,7%)

91 (100%)

The entire corpus

4,764 (~96.95%)

150 (~3.05%)

4,914 (100%)

SLKT⁴⁴ contains few instances of the adverb kažkada (kažin kada, kažkuomet are not attested), and it is also used infrequently in future-tense contexts—3 instances (7.3%) out of

⁴⁴ The research source is the morphologically annotated SLKT (sakytinistekstas.vdu.lt), compiled at Vytautas Magnus University. The development of the corpus was supported by the Lithuanian State Science and Studies Foundation (2006–2008), the Lithuanian

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41 (see Table 6). Attention should be drawn to the situational context of these cases: they involve communication in the media—1 sentence by a television program participant (2.4%)—and spontaneous institutional speech—2 sentences uttered by bank employees (4.9%).

TABLE 6. Relative frequency of usage patterns of the adverb kažkada in the SLKT

kažkada

indicates the indefinite time of an action that took place in the past

indicates the indefinite time of an action that may take place in the future (expression of future tense)

number of occurrences

share of the SLKT

Academic communication (total number of words: 50,714)

4 (9,8%)

–

4 (9,8%)

Communication in the media (total number of words: 68,493)

2 (4,9%)

1 (2,4%)

3 (7,3%)

Theological communication (total number of words: 2,100)

–

–

–

Spontaneous private speech (total number of words: 121,788)

27 (65,9%)

–

27 (65,9%)

Spontaneous institutional speech (total number of words: 40,478)

5 (12,2%)

2 (4,9%)

7 (17,1%)

Throughout the entire corpus (total number of words: 297,798)

38 (92.7%)

3 (7.3%)

41 (100%)

Thus, the DLKT sections Administrative Literature and Spoken Language show that kažkada is chosen far more often as a reference to the lexical concept UNKNOWN TIME IN THE FUTURE than

by the Research Council under the National Program for the Development of Lithuanian Studies for 2009–2015 (LIT-9-11) and under the State Program for Lithuanian Studies and Dissemination for 2016–2024 (LIP-085/2016).

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in writing: such cases account for 25% in public speech and 18.7% in private communication (see Table 5). SLKT records the use of kažkada in future-tense contexts only in public settings—7.3% (see Table 6).

3.2. A review of DLKT usage patterns for the adverbs kažkada, kada nors, kažin kada, kuomet nors allows us to formulate another hypothesis: the convergence in meaning of kažkada and kada nors may also be encouraged by the alignment of kažkada with the less grammaticalized multiword adverb kažin kada, which is suitable for specifying the time of an action occurring both in the past (factual) and in the future (irrealis)⁴⁵. The multiword adverb kažin kada is relatively infrequent in the DLKT (54 tokens). It is found only in sections of the corpus representing written language (21 tokens in fiction, 4 in nonfiction, and 29 in journalistic texts)⁴⁶. In 44 cases (81.5%), it expresses uncertainty about the time of an action that has occurred (specific), and in 10 cases (18.5%), uncertainty about the time of a possible (nonspecific) future action (see the DLKT data in Table 7). In contexts involving factual actions, the meaning ‘long ago’ of kažin kada may be emphasized by the emphatic particle jau, while the meaning ‘who knows when’ may be reinforced by phrases with various kaž-type markers (see sentences 20–21). In future (irrealis) action contexts, kažin kada still retains its etymological interrogative meaning ‘who knows when’, which is also suitable for expressing the lexical concept UNKNOWN TIME IN THE FUTURE (see sentences 22–23), cf.:

18) Povilas had already kažin kada not seen it in his son’s eyes. DLKT

19) Why, you haven’t seen Kazys kažin kada in ages. DLKT

20) One salon was adorned with a Turkish tent, kažin kada brought from who knows where. DLKT

21) Father had kažin kada said who knows what <...>. DLKT

22) his turn is just around the corner, but the pine tree’s is who knows when. DLKT

23) She is unwilling to be content with promises—she wants help now, but not kažin kada. DLKT

Thus, although kažin kada is used 91 times less often than kažkada in the DLKT (cf. 4914: 54), usage contexts show that the less grammaticalized kažin kada is much more frequent (~18.5%)

⁴⁵Examples given in LKG illustrate this usage pattern as well, cf.: I had met him in town sometime; We shall see the Aniolus (=angels) sometime <...> (Ulvy das 1971: 454).

⁴⁶The DLKT contains 55 occurrences of kažin kada, but in one instance the phrase occurs in a direct question, cf.: Ma’am, I wonder when I’ll be able to bring that television home? An interrogative phrase formed by the adjacent elements kažin kada is more often associated with future-tense contexts (as the quoted example shows), but it can also be used to inquire about the time of an action already completed, cf. the following sentence: I wonder when this backpack appeared here? For the differences and similarities in the use of interrogative and indefinite pronouns, see Bhat 2007: 231–232.

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than kažkada (~3.05%) is selected to describe contexts associated with future situations (an unreal action).

TABLE 7. Semantic patterns of the adverb kažin kada in DLKT

kažin kada

indicates the unknown time of an action that took place in the past

indicates the unknown time of an action that may take place in the future

Total

Text corpus section

Publicistic writing

21 (38,9%)

8 (14,8%)

29 (53.7%)

Fiction

19 (35,2%)

2 (3,7%)

21 (38.9%)

Nonfiction

4 (7,4%)

–

4 (7.4%)

Administrative literature

–

–

–

Spoken language

–

–

–

Throughout the corpus

44 (81.5%)

10 (18.5%)

54 (100%)

CONCLUSIONS

A comparison of the descriptions of the adverbs kažkada and kada nors in the main Lithuanian dictionaries shows that the range of meanings of these indefinite temporal markers is presented most comprehensively in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian: its examples show that the use of kažkada is associated only with real (factual) past situations, whereas kada nors is associated not only with the time of an action occurring in the future, but also with the time of an action that may have occurred at some point in a given interval.

In linguistic studies, these markers of temporal indefiniteness are assigned to three different grammatical categories: adverbs, adverbials, or indefinite pronouns (in the broad sense). Differences in classification are due solely to differences in the scope of the material being grouped. The meanings of these words are also described inconsistently. There are also misleading descriptions of the meanings of kažkada and kada nors—descriptions that contradict the semantics of the example sentences—when they are classified as adverbs denoting “the present or general notions of time” (Ulvy das 1971: 454), and descriptions based solely on the factuality of their use in DLKT (without discussing the relative frequency of this usage pattern) such

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descriptions of the meaning of kažkada, which allow this word to be classified as a polyfunctional adverbial, i.e., one denoting both past and future situations (cf. Makauskaitė 2019: 82). The typological study of implicational universals of indefinite pronouns, including adverbs of pronominal origin, conducted by M. Haspelmath (1997) helps clarify the usage pattern associated with the semantics of the indefinite temporal adverbs kažkada and kada nors. On this basis, only the use of kažkada to express temporal indefiniteness in factual situations (characterized by specificity) can be considered appropriate. If kažkada were also chosen to describe the time of a real (non-specific) action, this would violate the principle of cooperation with the interlocutor.

A study of the frequency of different grammatical-semantic uses of kažkada in the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language shows that kažkada, indicating an indefinite time for a possible future action, accounts for ~3.05% (the total sample of usage instances is 4,914). A comparison of the frequency of such instances in different parts of the corpus shows that kažkada is used much more often to describe the time of an unreal (non-specific) action in spoken-language texts (~22.11%) than in written language (~2.25%). An analysis of the data provided by the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian (the total sample of usage instances is only 41) shows that kažkada was selected to describe the time of an unreal (non-specific) action when speaking not in private, but in the public sphere: sparse use was recorded in the corpus sections Media Communication (2.4%) and Spontaneous Institutional Speech (4.9%).

The reasons prompting speakers to choose kažkada rather than kada nors to denote the time of an unreal (non-specific) action may vary: they may include usage patterns of indefinite pronouns in some foreign languages, the system of Lithuanian markers of indefiniteness, or general developmental trends in the use of markers of indefiniteness. Further research is needed to clarify these factors.

ŠALTINIAI

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BENDRINĖ KALBA 94 (2021) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204

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Gauta 2021 02 24

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BENDRINĖ KALBA 94 (2021)

http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba

ISSN 2351–7204

JŪRATĖ PAJĖDIENĖ. Neapibrėžiamieji laiko prieveiksmiai kažkada ir kada nors:

reikšmės santykis ir vartosena | 25

doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2021.94.01

INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERBS KAŽKADA AND KADA NORS: RELATIONSHIP OF MEANING AND USAGE

Summary

The article discusses the shift in the usage of kažkada ‘sometime’ from the traditional model under which the time of the specific (real) action, which took place at an indefinite moment in the past, is described towards a less usual model where kažkada is used to describe the time of the non-specific (irreal) action, which may potentially occur in the future and which is traditionally expressed by the adverb kada nors ‘sometime’. Referring to Martin Haspelmath’s (1997) typological research addressing the implicational universals of indefinite pronouns, which also include pronominal adverbs, the article attempts to explain this shift and anticipates the further shift in the usage of kažkada. The analysis of kažkada usage patterns is based on the data provided by two text corpuses – the Corpus of the Modern Lithuanian Language and the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian.

KEYWORDS: indefinite temporal adverbs, pronominal adverbs or pronoun as pro-forma, adverbials, indefiniteness marker.

JŪRATĖ PAJĖDIENĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

Petro Vileišio g. 5, 10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

BENDRINĖ KALBA 94 (2021)

http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba

ISSN 2351-7204