GRAMATINĖS KATEGORIJOS IR JŲ RAIDA

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XVIII (1978)

A. RUŽĖ

TEMPORAL CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE GENITIVE AND PREPOSITIONS IN CONTEMPORARY STANDARD LITHUANIAN

0. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

0.1. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, temporal constructions¹ whose main constituent is a verb form and whose dependent constituent is the genitive of a noun or a word used nominally with a preposition are quite productive, widely used, and exhibit considerable diversity of meaning. In general, the genitive without prepositions is used very sparingly to form temporal constructions—only with verbs bearing the negative prefix ne-, e.g.: He cannot sit for an hour without work (Grl). In such cases, the noun functioning as the dependent constituent is usually further emphasized by the negative particles nė, nei, e.g.: I didn’t last even a month—I spat and left (BilR₁ I 79); Just take the chest too; I don’t want to keep it in my house for even an hour! BalčAP 163.

The main constituent of temporal constructions with the genitive and prepositions is lexically unrestricted: it may be a verb of any kind of meaning. As we shall see below, the dependent constituent may consist not only of the genitive of nouns, but also of nominal pronouns and, in certain cases, numerals, together with prepositions.

One of the most important structural elements of temporal constructions with the genitive and prepositions is the preposition. It is therefore useful first to briefly clarify the grammatical and lexical role that the preposition plays in the construction as a whole.

0.2. There is no consensus in the linguistic literature concerning the grammatical and lexical properties of prepositions. To be sure, prepositions in analytic languages have some specific characteristics, while those in synthetic languages have others, but in both cases prepositions also share many features. One such fundamental feature of prepositions is that, like other function words, they are not independent syntactic units within a construction (cf. И. И. Мещанинов 1945: 295), but perform only a syntactic function, expressing a particular syntactic relation between words (see A. Daużat 1947: 343; В. Н. Ярцева 1955: 440; Е. Т. Черкасова 1967: 11; В. Г. Адмони 1973: 6). In Lithuanian (see Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, 1965: 38; 1971: 577), as in other languages (cf. В. В. Виноградов 1972: 531; Грамматика современного русского литературного языка 1970: 311; Mūsdienu latviešu literārās valodas gramatika 1959: 720; Сучасна українська літературна мова 1969: 474; S. Szober 1966: 104; Die deutsche Sprache 1970: 904–905), prepositions indicate the syntactic relations of a noun or a word used nominally to other

¹Here, temporal constructions, or simply constructions, refers to word combinations expressing temporal relations.

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with independent words. In temporal constructions, prepositions mark the syntactic relation of a noun, a pronoun used as a noun, and sometimes a numeral to a verb, e.g.: saw ← after lunch, I will come ← before you, it grew dark ← after seven.

0.3. And what is the relationship of a preposition to the case of a noun or a word used as a noun?

Linguistic literature very often emphasizes the identity of the syntactic functions of prepositions and cases (cf. А. М. Пешковский 1956: 40; W. Schmidt 1967: 125; Ch. J. Fillmore 1968: 15; T. A. Репина 1968: 92); the preposition is regarded as a formant (И. И. Мещанинов 1945: 296), a kind of morpheme equivalent to a case ending (J. Kurylowicz 1960: 132, 134–135, 143; J. Kilius 1974: 52). V. Vinogradov, discussing prepositions in Russian, notes that the meaning of prepositions becomes more abstract and comes to resemble the meaning of case prefixes (1972: 546), and that the burden of grammatical expression shifts from the case form to the preposition (1972: 140). More than one linguist points out that a preposition supplements and clarifies the meaning of a case (see А. А. Шахматов 1941: 275–276; R. Jakobson 1936: 246; A. Dauzat 1947: 343; В. В. Виноградов 1972: 531; В. М. Никитевич 1963: 78–79). On the other hand, an independent case meaning cannot be discerned in a prepositional construction, and case forms cannot be considered separately from the preposition (cf. А. В. Исаченко 1954: 132–134). For example, in the prepositional construction came after lunch, the preposition after with the genitive forms a syntactic unit expressing time, whereas in the case construction came for lunch the genitive marks purpose. This article adopts the view that a preposition, in its syntactic function, is similar to a case ending, and that it forms with the case a syntactic whole equivalent in function and meaning to an independent case, cf.: spoke during the meeting and spoke at the meeting, it rained at midday and it rained at noon.

0.4. Although, from the perspective of syntactic function, a preposition is essentially no different from a case ending, it is not a morpheme but a separate word—indeed, not an independent word, but a function word. So does a preposition have lexical meaning? Should it be considered an independent lexical element of the construction?

Two views prevail in the literature regarding the lexical meaning of prepositions. Some linguists recognize only the syntactic function of the preposition (Ф. Ф. Фортунатов 1956: 169–170; А. А. Шахматов 1941: 281; А. М. Пешковский 1956: 39–40; Л. В. Щерба 1974: 82; И. И. Мещанинов 1945: 295; J. Kurylowicz 1960: 132, 134–135, 143), while others note that, besides grammatical meaning, the preposition also has a stronger or weaker lexical meaning (В. В. Виноградов 1972: 531; В. Н. Ярцева 1955: 440; А. И. Смирницкий 1957: 88; Е. Т. Черкасова 1967: 11–15; В. М. Жирмунский 1961: 4; Г. В. Царева 1969: 38). The academic grammar states that prepositions have no independent lexical meaning (Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 577). Their lexical meaning, like that of function words generally, coincides with their grammatical meaning (Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1965: 32) and is revealed in the word combinations in which the prepositions are used (Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 577). In this study, prepositions likewise are not considered independent lexical units of temporal constructions, and they are disregarded when describing the lexical composition of prepositional temporal constructions: temporal constructions in which the case forms of the same nouns coincide and differ only in their prepositions, e.g. I will come in an hour, I will come after an hour, have different grammatical structures but the same lexical composition.

0.5. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, the following prepositions are used with the genitive to form temporal constructions: arti, be, gale, iki, iš, iš po, lig(i), netoli, nuo, nuo – iki, nuo – lig(i), pabaigoj(e), pirm(a), po, pradžioj(e), prie, pusėj(e), pusia, tarp, už, vidur(y), viduryj(e).

Next, we will review the grammatical structure, lexical composition, syntactic meanings, and usage tendencies of temporal constructions with these prepositions².

^² Since temporal constructions with the prepositions arti, netoli and pirm(a) have already been discussed (see A. Ružė 1971: 10–12; 1972: 41–46), they are not considered further in this article.

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1. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITION be

1.1. Constructions with the preposition be and the genitive express an action and the time of its realization. The temporal meaning almost always has a pronounced nuance of condition or concession. These constructions are quite rare in literary language.

Their main constituent most often consists of forms of the future tense of the indicative and the imperative mood. Constructions with verbs bearing the negative prefix ne- predominate.

The dependent constituent is more often a noun denoting a temporal concept; nouns naming parts of the day, seasons, and units of time are used most frequently.

However you mend it, you won't leave before evening. Jab|BRR I 649. I won't finish harvesting before autumn. ŽingždLKG II 34. They won't finish the rye before Saturday. Ut. He got up while it was still dark (before daylight). LKŽ I 702.

Constructions with names of units of time have a somewhat different nuance of meaning: they express an action and a quantity of time, after which that action may be realized.

Don't drink before half an hour has passed. Dov. They won't finish threshing before a couple of hours have passed. Grl.

2. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITIONS gale, pabaigoj(e), pradžioj(e), pusėj(e), pusiau, vidur(y), viduryj(e)

2.1. Among clear prepositions, only pusiau and vidur(y), viduryj(e) are generally classified as such (J. Endzelīns 1971: 500; J. Jablonskis 1957: 664, 667; P. Būtenas 1930: 138–139; Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 605–606). Gale, pabaigoj(e), pradžioj(e) and pusėj(e) are not listed separately as prepositions. However, the academic grammar notes that words of this kind “approach prepositions in their function” (Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 581). In fact, neither in usage nor in meaning do they differ in any way from vidur(y), viduryj(e). Therefore, in cases where they are used before a noun in the genitive, this article treats them as prepositions, just like pusiau, vidur(y), viduryj(e).

2.2. Constructions with these prepositions express an action and its period (a) or the moment of its occurrence (b), depending on whether the verb is imperfective or perfective.

The dependent constituent is a noun denoting a temporal concept or a process.

The prepositions under discussion still retain a clear lexical meaning, and thus precisely indicate which segment of the time span denoted by the noun is when the action takes place or occurs.

a) At the beginning and end of the school year [...] retreats lasted 3–5 days. Myk-PutR III 12. They would run out of the church in the middle of Mass. SimonR I 117. In the middle of the day, don't pay attention to nonsense. BorBM 92.

b) Kazys buried his father at the end of that very week. VaižgRR I 225. Būkontas burned down at the end of the year. Viekš. The road does not suddenly begin at the start of winter. KatkR 245. Halfway through breakfast, the stork, having returned from the marshes, absolutely refused to land in the nest. Vienas 31. And now, in the middle of summer, he left us without a shepherd. KrėvŠP 235. I will get my hard tasks done in the middle of broad daylight. JD₁ 32.

Constructions with numerals also occur; in such cases, the numerals usually refer to hours.

The last steamer departs at half past seven. VenclGD₁ 542. We will begin at half past nine. BalkS 204.

2.3. The preposition pusiau is also used with the accusative to form temporal constructions.

At half past six they would ring the bells for Mass. Myk-PutAŠ 8.

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3. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITIONS iki, lig(i)

3.0. In contemporary literary language, these prepositions in temporal constructions are used only with the genitive (see Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 592). In older writings and dialects, they are also used with other cases—most often with the dative and instrumental (cf. A. Bezzenberger 1877: 244; E. Fraenkel 1929: 241; P. Būtenas 1930: 76—77; Z. Zinkevičius 1966: 419—420; J. Palionis 1967: 176—177).

In constructions expressing time, the genitive with the prepositions iki, lig(i), like the genitive in constructions with various prepositions expressing other meanings, “shows no tendency to become fixed or adverbialized” (K. Ulvydas 1964: 24).

According to their meaning, temporal constructions with the prepositions iki, lig(i) are divided here into two main groups: 1) constructions denoting an action and its final temporal boundary, and 2) constructions denoting an action and its approximate duration.

3.1 Constructions denoting an action and its final temporal boundary

3.1.1. Constructions of this meaning with the prepositions iki, lig(i) and the genitive are syntactic antonyms of the corresponding constructions with the preposition nuo and the genitive, as well as constructions with the preposition iš and the genitive, which denote an action and its initial temporal boundary. They are formed with verbs of both aspects. Constructions with imperfective verbs predominate.

Nouns with a fairly wide range of lexical meanings may serve as the dependent constituent, as may pronouns used substantivally and, in certain cases, numerals.

3.1.2. Most nouns denoting temporal concepts are used without modifiers to form constructions with the meaning in question (except for the cases specified in 3.1.7 and 3.2.1). The most productive constructions are those with names of parts of the day, seasons, mealtimes, holidays, days of the week, months, and the like.

But still I will wait for you until morning. BinkRn 41. He catches crayfish until midnight. KrėvRg 163. The light flickered almost until dawn. LzPR II 52. So I kept on cutting until spring. Pkl. By winter, the young birds manage to grow their wings. IvanaŽP 224. Thus they fought until lunchtime. BorJPK 100. Do not put away your fur coat until Pentecost. Sk. There are few children until Shrovetide. KatkR 247—248. Povili, I have done everything and put it in order so that your mill will be ready to grind by Sunday. JankKK 126. Will you want to thresh until October, while the work is still unfinished? Gud-GuzR V 21. There was only enough bread until February. RdN. Unhappy is the one who takes the road of poverty: he starts out as a little boy and walks it every day until old age. JanR I 251. There was enough of it (sap) until the rye harvest. Myk-PutR VII 296. The ceilings will remain unwhitewashed until the holidays. VaižgRR II 445. For me, it is only a matter of holding out until market day... Until the Neolithic, people made tools by chipping and retouching stone. LAB 54.

3.1.3. In addition to names of temporal concepts, nouns with other lexical meanings are also used to form these constructions—most often those denoting processes, actions, and persons.

Until flowering, the plant remains submerged in water. F II 112. There will also be enough bread until the new threshing. LKŽ VI 824. She lives with him in a dormitory until the wedding. DovŽE 358. Until the frosts […] he lives on the shore. MarukŽSG 19. But the old nickname stuck and stayed with him until his death. KrėvRg 7. Until Galileo’s time […] the Earth nevertheless differed from the other planets. SlavėnSS 91. Until Puzo, the Jankai lived here. Grl. In spring they would always go begging for bread, borrowing from the wealthy until the new harvest. CvR IV 329. And few goslings remained by the time of the stubble fields. KatkR 78. Until university, I studied at the Marijampolė Gymnasium (tsp.).

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3.1.4. Constructions in which the verb denotes or implies movement and the dependent constituent is a place or object name are transitional: they have a temporal-locative meaning.

All right, I’ll wait until the next spring. _BalcGP₁ 29. Barbora [the gander], rejoicing, escorted him to the porch door. KatKR 114–115. And as they parted, the old man accompanied the teacher to the gate. BaltrPS 69. We won’t ride as far as the Dubysa without passing a single homestead. VienR IV 9. They walked home in silence. Myk-PutR VII 122.

3.1.5. Constructions with nominal, usually personal, pronouns are formed relatively infrequently.

Until our time, Lord Siesicki had used these pastures near Bergi. VienR V 24. Nature persistently moved toward humanity and did not cross all that it had created before him. MarcinkPKJ 108.

3.1.6. Both in spoken and written language, constructions occur in which the dependent constituent is an ordinal numeral, while the noun is unexpressed but understood from the context or speech situation. The nouns day, hour, year are usually omitted.

It should be gravelled, completed by the fifteenth. CvR VIII 125. Until twelve they will be bustling about, and then they turn into young men. SajJPK 166. You spoke differently until the forties. V kš.

A single cardinal numeral is sometimes also used to indicate a specific hour, especially in spoken language.

We need to leave by seven. Jnš.

3.1.7. Nouns denoting units of time measurement, an indefinite amount of time, or general concepts of time, as well as the words end, finish, beginning, half, middle form the dependent constituent of constructions denoting an action and its final temporal boundary when accompanied by necessary modifiers.

It will stand until August. Žg. Until 1939 this was a little-known enchantment. SruogR V 19. The nest was being built from morning until 11–12 o’clock. IvanLP III 78. It (the castle) was also Gothic and remained so until the 16th century. LI I 249. In silence, Gruodis stood firm until the final moment. GudzR V 359. They do not abandon their children until the very last moment. IvanAŽP 243. Relatively few bronze objects and raw bronze reached Lithuania before our era. LAB 105. Until that deadline, the estate laborers and peasants remain under the lords’ authority. Myk-PutR VI 18. I had never seen him before that time. MarukŽSG 9. In Kuršėnai and Viekšniai, entire families practiced pottery until recent times. LEB 164. We hoped to finish it by the end of the month. Kv. Pigs lay most intensively from mid-May until mid-June. IvanLP II 21. We had enough potatoes until midsummer. Jnš.

The noun day, too, usually takes a necessary modifier.

As late as August 7, this pair of ravens was still rearing its young. IvanLP III 179. Until yesterday, no larger troop of soldiers had ever visited us. PetkKMD 111.

In the constructions under discussion, a noun phrase with a modifier is quite often already fixed and has acquired a meaning close to that of the adverbs until now, up to now, cf.:

To this very day Mataušas wonders how he survived. BilR I 169. There has never been a warmer and milder climate than the Atlantic’s up to the present day. LI I 6.

The modifier of the noun in all the constructions discussed above may be a word from any part of speech, except cardinal numerals or words denoting them. An exception is made for cases where a person’s age is expressed by a noun together with a cardinal numeral (cf. 3.2.1.).

The child grew until the age of three and died. LzPR VII 141. I served until I was eighteen. Mžk. He lived until three weeks of age. Grl.

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3.2. Constructions denoting an action and its approximate duration

3.2.1. In constructions with the prepositions iki, lig(i), the meaning of approximate duration is closely related to the meaning of a final temporal boundary. Compared with other prepositions (apie, arti, netoli), the nuance of approximation conveyed by the prepositions iki, lig(i) is relatively weak. Consequently, constructions are possible and do occur that include even words denoting an indefinite quantity.

In general, constructions with this meaning are quite rare in contemporary language and are usually formed with names of units of time, which may occur either alone (a) or with a word denoting quantity (usually a cardinal numeral or a numeral pronoun) (b).

a) Medicines had to be taken for up to a month. Šts. At this temperature, bacteria can survive for up to a day (trš.). Here, chicks are raised for up to a month (tsp).

b) Some ducks, submerged in water, can remain there for as long as 15 minutes. MastTZ 479. Medicines are taken this way for up to several months, until the wound has completely healed (trš.). Offenders may be punished by imprisonment for up to several days (tsp). In this condition, they can remain for up to 21 days. IvanPP 172. Our most common species, the tawny owl, incubates for up to 30 days. IvanAŽP 288.

Constructions with the prepositions iki, lig(i) and the genitive expressing this meaning are synonymous with corresponding constructions using the preposition apie and the accusative, as well as constructions with the prepositions arti, netoli and the genitive (see A. Ruzė 1971: 10—12).

4. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITION iš

4.0. The preposition iš with the genitive in a temporal sense has been used in our written sources since ancient times. In contemporary literary language, temporal constructions with this preposition are not very productive and are formed exclusively with nouns denoting temporal concepts (cf. M. Čaikauskas 1959: 40). Often, in these constructions the preposition iš with a noun in the genitive is already very close to an adverb or has entirely shifted into the category of adverbs (see P. Būtėnas 1930: 78; K. Ulvydas 1964: 15—16; Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 464—466).

By meaning, constructions with the preposition iš fall into two main groups: 1) constructions denoting an action and its initial temporal boundary; 2) constructions denoting an action and its period or moment of occurrence. However, there are no very clear formal boundaries between the meanings of these constructions.

The context in which these constructions are used (see 4.2.1.) may also have a considerable influence on their meaning, especially when their dependent constituent is a name of a part of the day or a season.

4.1. Constructions denoting an action and its initial temporal boundary

4.1.1. Constructions denoting an action and its initial temporal boundary with the preposition iš and the genitive are syntactic antonyms of the corresponding constructions with the prepositions iki, lig(i) and the genitive. Their main constituent most often consists of forms of imperfective verbs, especially present-tense forms, whereas perfective verbs occur only in compound forms and participles. Constructions with simple finite forms of perfective verbs more often denote an action and the moment at which it occurs (see 4.2.1.).

In a sentence, the particle pat strengthens the meaning of an initial temporal boundary in constructions with the preposition iš; in these cases it is used quite often after the preposition (see Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 594).

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Discussing the use of the preposition iš with a temporal meaning, P. Būtenas notes that “the starting moment of an action is in the middle of the time span denoted by the genitive” (1930: 78). This requires clarification. The initial moment of an action falls within the bounds of the time span expressed by the noun, but not necessarily in its middle: it may be at the beginning, in the middle, at the end, or at any other point in the time span expressed by the noun—the preposition and the noun do not indicate which, cf.:

We scrubbed and tidied up starting early in the evening. CvR₁ II 274. He has been so feeble ever since childhood. Grl.

4.1.2. The constructions with this meaning are most often formed using the names of parts of the day (morning, day, night, evening), seasons (summer, winter, autumn, spring), and periods of human life.

I’ve been full since the daytime—I don’t want dinner. Šts. My head has been aching since the night. Als. It froze beautifully overnight. SruoGR V 112. Whose winters have not been ploughed since autumn? Jurkūno! GričŽ 40. The roads have been rutted since winter. There was hardly any road since winter. LastUD 6. Stk. She has had two skirts since girlhood. Skdv. Stories about that rascal have survived since ancient times. MačAD 76.

Constructions of this meaning with names of units of time are quite rare. In this case, the noun always has a structurally required modifier.

These memories go back to when I was 13–16 years old. Myk-PutR VII 258. The castle ruins have survived since the sixteenth century (trans.).

Constructions with the noun laikas ‘time’ are used somewhat more frequently; this noun, too, always occurs with a modifier, together with which it forms a fixed expression.

The sturdy stone walls have stood since Swedish times. SimonAŠL 89.

4.1.3. Constructions with the preposition iš denoting an action and its initial temporal boundary are always synonymous with constructions of the same lexical composition using the preposition nuo (see 6.1.). Constructions with the preposition iš are used when it is intended to emphasize clearly that the action necessarily begins within the time span expressed by the noun. The meaning of constructions with the preposition nuo is more general: the action may begin either within the time span expressed by the noun or after that period has ended, cf.:

Ever since my youth, I have had considerable wealth left to me by my parents. BalčTVN₁ 123. From early morning, the little town is already teeming. Since autumn, he hasn’t had a scrap in his mouth. BaltPV II 346. I have been watching you from the very first day. Myk-PutR III 46. The poor brothers have been groaning since long ago. MairPB₁ 21.

4.2. Constructions expressing an action and its period or the time of its occurrence

4.2.1. The main component of constructions expressing an action and the time of its occurrence is most often a finite form of a telic verb. Constructions whose main component consists of the infinitive of an atelic verb combined with forms of verbs of physical action (baigti, nustoti and so on) have the same meaning (e.g.: it stopped raining toward evening, he finished shaving in the spring). Less frequent constructions expressing an action and its period are formed with atelic verbs. Constructions with this latter meaning are never formed with present-tense verb forms.

The dependent component of constructions expressing an action and its period (a) or the time of its occurrence (b) consists of names of parts of the day (usually morning, evening, night) and seasons.

a) Do not praise the day in the morning, nor a girl before she marries. In the spring, he loved Baltažiedė, who was much older than he. PP 215. VienR I 365.

b) In the morning he threshed two stacks of rye. Toward evening he soaked the reins. The horses were poor, and it rained during the night. The vegetable gardens dried out in the spring. The stacks by the threshing floors, piled up in the autumn, crumbled. Msk. BaltPV I 88. Myk-PutAŠ₁ II 152. Vrš. Vkš. BaltPV II 359.

10. Gramatinės kategorijos ir jų raida

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The genitive with the preposition iš has the clearest meaning of an action’s period (a) or the time of its occurrence (b) in sentences which, in addition to the genitive with the preposition iš, also contain other cases or adverbs with the same meaning, associated with the same verb or with another verb used in a coordinated construction.

a) Toward evening and in the morning, as she was already accompanying him to the station, she kept begging him to stay. ŽemR IV 221. Vincas was completely bent out of shape: since autumn his legs had been aching and aching, and now his arms were too. Srv.

b) If only I had that, I would plow in the autumn and go over it with a harrow in the spring… BaltR I 11.

In constructions expressing the meanings under discussion, the genitive of a noun with the preposition iš has come closest to functioning as an adverb (cf. K. Ulvydas 1964: 15–18).

4.2.2. Constructions with the preposition iš and the genitive expressing an action and the time of its occurrence are synonymous with much less frequently used constructions of the same meaning with the preposition nuo and the genitive (for examples, see 6.2.1.). (Constructions with the preposition nuo and the genitive expressing an action and its period are not formed at all.)

Moreover, constructions with the preposition iš and the genitive expressing an action and its period (a) or the time of its occurrence (b) are always synonymous with the corresponding constructions with the accusative and with the locative. Their meaning of period or time of occurrence is always clear and unambiguous.

In contemporary literary language, the most numerous are synonymous constructions formed with the accusative of the nouns under discussion (only with the noun vakaras ‘evening’, when used without a modifier, is the locative used more often than the accusative).

a) Who are you whispering with over the fence by the house in the morning? SruogR III 10. All the farmers compete with one another nowadays when hiring in the spring. PetkKMD 472–473.

b) Domininkėlis gets up in the morning from his little bed. CvMS 64. [The fox] came to the farmer’s house in the evening (=master of the house). Lt III 62. A shower of rain passed during the night. ŽemRII 238. In the spring they sent me to Babrė to herd pigs. ŽemR II 174. In the autumn all the sheep became scabby. Jnš.

Synonymous constructions with the locative of season names and the word naktis ‘night’, expressing an action and its period (a) or the time of its occurrence (b), are more characteristic of dialects and folklore. When used in works of fiction, they always have an archaic or dialectal coloring. Such coloring is not characteristic of constructions with the words rytas, vakaras ‘morning, evening’.

a) In the morning she would run to the store. MarkPRL 133. And our heavy steamroller rumbled through the night. One needn’t sow before the others in the spring. Ds. I see her, slender and tall, digging beds in the garden in the spring. VenclPU 289.

b) I went out in the morning to shake them down. Dglš. They say they would come out in the evening or in the morning. SimonOBT 96. In spring, if a horse breaks out of the stable, it goes off at a gallop, tossing its legs high. Rod (LKŽ VIII 106). In autumn people began threshing. SlančSA 291.

5. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITION iš po

5.1. Constructions with the preposition iš po and the genitive denote an action and a time whose end marks the realization of that action. They are almost absent from contemporary standard language; for this purpose, synonymous constructions with the preposition po and the genitive are used (see 8.1.). These constructions are highly unproductive: they occur somewhat more often with the words night, winter, and occasionally with one or another noun denoting a process.

In the tree, after the night, they would find a red flag. CvR IV 289. After the thaw following winter, a fly persistently crawled across the windowpane. BaltrTK I 109. After a harsh and severe winter, spring dawned very rapidly. ŽemR I 194. The child recovered after the illness. Grk. We recovered after the journey. ŽemR IV 218.

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6. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITION nuo

6.0. The temporal meaning of the preposition nuo is mentioned, or an occasional example of this meaning is given, in various grammatical works (see A. Schleicher 1856: 288; J. Jablonskis 1957: 655–656; P. Būtenas 1930: 94; Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 598). E. Frenkelis (1929: 116–117) discusses the temporal meaning of the preposition nuo in greater detail.

Temporal constructions with the preposition nuo and the genitive are highly productive and widely used in both spoken and written language. They denote: 1) an action and its initial temporal boundary, 2) an action and the moment at which it occurs.

6.1. Constructions denoting an action and its initial temporal boundary

6.1.1. Constructions with the preposition nuo and the genitive, denoting an action and its initial temporal boundary, are syntactic antonyms of constructions with the prepositions iki, lig(i) and the genitive, which denote an action and its final temporal boundary.

The action expressed by their verb may begin either within the time boundary indicated by the noun or after the time indicated by the noun has ended³, cf.:

My mother had known her since youth. ČiuIRR 244. The windows had remained boarded up since winter. SimonOBT 42. She had not come since the threshing. Ér. There had been no serious rain since Pentecost. CvR VIII 101. He had already been fidgeting with his coat-tails since breakfast. PaukštPM 56.

In constructions with the preposition nuo denoting an action and its initial temporal boundary, the main constituent is formed by verbs of either aspect. Constructions with imperfective verbs predominate.

The dependent constituent most often consists of nouns denoting temporal concepts, and less often of nouns with other lexical meanings.

Most nouns denoting temporal concepts can occur without modifiers (except in the cases specified in 6.1.6–6.1.8).

The constructions under discussion with the preposition nuo also have a quantitative nuance.

6.1.2. The most frequently used constructions are those with names for parts of the day (usually morning), seasons, holidays, mealtimes, periods of a person's age, times for work, rest, rituals, and the like.

Well, we have been walking around museums with that historian since morning. VienR VII 138. Father has been ploughing since dawn. Ds. Since cockcrow he has threshed out two barns’ worth. Dkš. I have had no straw left since spring. Dov. Norbert worked in Vilnius from midsummer. Gud-GuzKIT I 175. Various bits of rubbish had still been lying around here since last autumn and winter. Myk-PutR VI 169. The barn opens on St George’s Day. Lt V 379. Only from the spring festivals did they hire a girl.VienIMA 7. Since Christmas we have been chopping fodder for the cows. LKŽ VI 450–451. The cow has not been moved since noon. Ds. The two of them had both been singing from lunchtime onward.VaižgRR I 451. From earliest childhood he began an independent life. MarcBR 36. That son had a little bullock he had been raising since youth. LTR 232. No one has gone to bed since the rye harvest. He has not spoken to me since last Sunday. I have been working at the tile works since April, but it is the same there, too. Vks. Our little sisters have worn colourful clothes since ancient times. Our Baltic Sea has been washing the sand since time immemorial. SNėrP₁ 241.

³K. Musteikis’s claim that in Lithuanian time constructions with the preposition nuo the verbal action does not extend to the time expressed by the noun is too categorical (1972: 257). According to such a claim, the statement nuo 1955 metų gyvena Vilniuje would mean that he did not yet live in Vilnius in 1955, but began living there only in 1956; the statement nuo pirmadienio lyja would mean that it did not rain on Monday, but began raining only on Tuesday, and so on.

10*

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6.1.3. Constructions with nouns denoting processes are not lexically restricted, but nevertheless occur somewhat less frequently than constructions containing names of temporal concepts.

A thing unseen in prison since the uprising of ’24. Gud-GuzR V 243. The open struggle for the press began after the performance in Palanga and the failure in Mintauja the following summer. PetK 684. We had not seen each other for quite a long time: since my arrest. Gud-GuzR V 94. He had never seen such trees since birth. Lknv. Since Petras left, her heart had ached unbearably. BilR₁ I 231.

Constructions with nouns of other lexical meanings used metonymically in a temporal sense are also quite rare.

This tradition has been alive since Jablonskis (dialectal). It did not rain once the snow came. Skr.

6.1.4. Constructions formed with nouns denoting places or things are used abundantly. They are transitional and have a spatial-temporal meaning.

Since Dinbarkas, his head, no longer under control, had been lolling to one side. VaižgRR II 72. It began to grow light around half-past one. Vks. The old lyrical song is repeated from the tenth quatrain onward. LKŽ V 653.

6.1.5. In colloquial speech, constructions occur whose dependent component consists of a single genitive numeral with the preposition nuo. Which noun the numeral stands for in such cases is clear from the context or the speech situation.

Yesterday I went to bed at five. Jnšk. I’m going on vacation from the fifteenth. Vks.

6.1.6. Nouns denoting units of time measurement and an indefinite amount of time, as well as the words diena, naktis ‘day, night’, are used in constructions expressing an action and its initial temporal boundary with structurally necessary modifiers.

From the 16th century, the mercenaries’ army was commanded by the hetman of the court, or field. LI I 166. He ruled a small tract of land from ’63. LZPR II 13. It has still not been returned since those years. Brt. This lasted approximately from November through the whole winter. IvanAŽP 113. From this hour on, our door is closed to you. Vks. Many things had bound the two together since the moment they met in the Merkinė detention centre two and a half years earlier. BaltrTK I 309. For Greitė has had no peace since her wedding day. Simon R V 13. Since the first day, they have been following one another with angry looks. ČiulRR II 243. I haven’t slept a wink since Monday night. Grl.

In such constructions, the noun serving as the dependent constituent together with its modifier often denotes a date or another specific time, especially when the modifier is an ordinal numeral. However, as the examples show, the noun together with its modifier can also form a frozen phrase close in meaning to the adverbs nuo šiol, nuo tada. This is especially true of nouns denoting an indefinite amount of time and of the word diena ‘day’. In this case, the noun together with its modifier denotes not a specific time, but a certain generalized period.

6.1.7. Constructions whose dependent constituent is a noun denoting a general concept of time together with a structurally necessary modifier are fairly common. In this case, the noun with its modifier usually forms a frozen phrase close in meaning to the adverb nuo tada.

But since that time I have touched neither a grasshopper nor a little bird. SajK 32. Since then he has been even more cunning in avoiding the eyes of the tsar’s men. CvMS 129–130. From that time on, the descendants of the defeated old princely dynasties made no further claims. LI I 84. Since Galileo’s time, the design of binoculars has undergone many changes. SlavėnSS 90. And yet, from that time onward, conditions in the camp began gradually to improve. SruogR V 26.

6.1.8. Constructions with the nouns galas, pabaiga, pradžia, pusė, vidurys, ‘end, finish, beginning, half, middle’, used with necessary modifiers, denote an action and a specific part of a time interval from which that action begins.

From the end of the nineteenth century, revolutionary sentiments began to emerge in every corner of the country (tsp.). Electrometallurgy began to develop only from the nineteenth century

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onward. NovodvMT 41. Our students have had no money to pay their rent since the beginning of May. Myk-PutR I 655. Fruit softening accelerates from mid-August. LKŽ VIII 227.

6.1.9. Constructions expressing an action and its initial temporal boundary, formed with the preposition nuo and a genitive noun denoting a person’s age, parts of the day, seasons, or general notions of time, are synonymous with constructions using the preposition iš and the corresponding noun in the genitive (for nuances in the meanings of these constructions, see 4.1.), cf.:

The dream dreamed since infancy came true. SimonR V 300. I have been able to think only slowly ever since childhood. SimonNTP 371. From early morning he wanders along the farmyards. GričŽ 60. We had clothes left over from summer. ŠRagSD1 71. Many fields in our region remained unsown from autumn. PetkKMD 463. Our people in Lithuania have thought that way since ancient times. BinkRn 107. And from the very first day that witch began to hate those two children. BsRP 144. He had known him since those days, when he too lived in Šelikinai village. VienR V 33.

6.2. Constructions expressing an action and the moment at which it occurs

6.2.1. In constructions with the preposition nuo and the genitive, the meaning of the moment at which an action occurs is not clearly separated from the meaning of the action’s initial temporal boundary and crystallized into a fully independent meaning. One can speak only of the beginnings of such a meaning, since almost always these constructions allow a dual interpretation. Therefore, in grammatical works the meaning of the preposition nuo used in such constructions is often not even addressed separately (cf. P. Būtėnas 1930: 94; J. Kruopas 1953: 26; Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 598). Only E. Frenkelis (1929: 116–117) distinguishes the preposition nuo used to express the moment at which an action occurs and provides examples.

Constructions with the meaning under discussion are formed in literary language with perfective verbs denoting a single action. Constructions with the nouns morning, evening, spring, and autumn most clearly express the moment at which an action occurs.

Kedulis went to the forge again from early morning. Myk-PutR VI 219. Jurgaitis went to bed perfectly healthy in the evening. LKŽ. I’ll let Mykoliukas out to graze from spring onward. VienIMA 72. Other farmers plow all their fields in autumn. Vvr.

For synonyms of these constructions, see 4.2.2.

With nouns of other meanings, such constructions are occasional.

From the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Vilnius and Trakai voivodeships were established in Lithuania. LI I 166. Thus, serfdom was abolished from the middle of the nineteenth century. KatkR 10.

In such cases, synonymous constructions with the locative are generally used in literary language. Their meaning of the moment at which an action occurs is completely clear and unambiguous; cf.:

In the second half of the fifteenth century, especially many peasants were distributed among the nobles. LI I 155.

7. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS from – to, from – until

7.1. In the present literary language, time constructions whose dependent constituent consists of two prepositions with cases are quite common: the preposition from with the genitive and the preposition to or until with the genitive (I run around from morning till evening; punishable by three to five years). Such constructions express an action and its temporal limits. As with constructions with the preposition between (cf. 10), their dependent constituent specifies the initial and final temporal limits between which the action takes place or is completed. Unlike constructions with the preposition between, the constructions under discussion

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have a very pronounced nuance of duration. On the other hand, if one of the elements of the dependent constituent in these constructions is omitted (the genitive with the preposition from or the genitive with the prepositions to, until), constructions with the remaining element alone are often possible; however, such constructions will have the same meaning as constructions with the preposition from or constructions with the prepositions to, until.

7.2. The main constituent of these constructions can be a verb of either aspect, but constructions with imperfective verbs predominate.

In essence, these constructions are formed with nouns having the same meanings as those in constructions with the prepositions from, to, until.

Constructions with nouns denoting periods of time are used most often, and those with nouns denoting processes less often.

The anvil rang from early morning until evening. KrėvRg 185. Kazimieras would now be out in the fields from morning till evening. BaltPV I 254. From autumn until spring I used to wear wooden clogs. VenclPU 46. And from Christmas until New Year’s, Barbė certainly did not laugh. SimonR V 104. From noon until supper he mowed the whole meadow. Gll. The moon shone from sunset until sunrise. BalcAP 275.

When the initial and final time limits are denoted by the same noun, the genitive of that noun in the dependent constituent may be expressed with only one preposition, while the other may take the genitive of a pronoun that replaces it.

From one Sunday to the next, with Mrs. Tamošienė’s help, she sewed and altered her mother’s old clothes. LzPR II 379.

7.3. Nouns denoting units of time measurement and general concepts of time, as well as the words end, conclusion, beginning, half, and middle, always occur with necessary modifiers. Together with the nouns, these modifiers very often form expressions denoting particular dates.

From September 1942 to August 1943 [...] the Nazis destroyed more than 500 thousand prisoners here. T 1970 297. Such burial grounds in the coastal region survived from the first centuries of our era until the sixth century. LI I 29. From time immemorial to the present day our earth has trembled. LzPR VII 287. Hunting is permitted from July 20 to February 1. MastTZ 507. They can be seen from early April until October. IvanAŽP 220. In Lithuania, freshly laid eggs are found (=eggs laid are found) from mid-April to early May. IvanLP III 86.

7.4. Constructions whose dependent constituent includes cardinal numerals or words from other parts of speech that replace them have a particularly clear meaning of an action and its duration.

This process lasts from 15 to 30 hours. NovodvMT 51. One such pulsation lasts from several hours to several dozen days. MG1969 6 4.

7.5. Constructions sometimes occur whose dependent constituent consists not of nouns but of numerals. Such numerals most often specify the time of day or days of the month.

We sat by that wretched drawer from three until half past eight. PetkK 704. From eight in the morning until ten at night I used to bustle around the Latin kitchen like a top. VienlMA 197. Applications are accepted every month from the sixteenth to the twentieth. (cf.).

8. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITION po

8.0. Constructions with the preposition po and the genitive, except for fossilized constructions expressing manner, generally denote time (cf. Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 649—650).

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Constructions with the preposition po and the genitive are syntactic antonyms of constructions with the preposition prieš and the accusative, and of constructions with the preposition pirm(a) and the genitive.

In older writings, the preposition po was also used to express time with the dative and instrumental (see E. Fraenkel 1929: 154–157; J. Otrębsky 1956: 332–334; J. Palionis 1967: 182–183). In dialects, the preposition po is still used with these cases to express time (see Z. Zinkevičius 1966: 423). Occasional temporal constructions with the preposition po and the dative occur in works of fiction, for example:

And after the pork, after the sausages, the [beer] itself slides down the throat. VaižgR VIII 77. And after the uprising began, it really began. Gud-GuzR I 14.

Temporal constructions with the preposition po and the dative or instrumental are entirely uncharacteristic of contemporary standard language. Constructions with the preposition po and the accusative used in standard language will not be discussed here, since they do not belong to the topic under consideration.

Constructions with the preposition po and the genitive denote: 1) an event and the time at the end of which that event is realized; 2) an event and a duration of time separating that event from an earlier time.

8.1. Constructions denoting an event and the time at the end of which that event is realized

8.1.1. The time denoted by a construction with the preposition po and an inflected word is merely a point of reference on the timeline, relative to which the verb’s action occurs later. In other words, the action is realized not within the time span denoted by the inflected word, but beyond its final boundary. However, the components of these constructions do not indicate whether the action follows immediately after the final boundary of the time span mentioned, or is separated from it; cf.:

After lunch we drive on. VencIJA 427. The mouse returned home only after midday. VienR II 276.

When it is necessary to emphasize how much time separates the verb’s action from the earlier time denoted by the noun, the construction is expanded with another case of the inflected word, or with a case used with a preposition; cf.:

Exactly a week after the wedding, the old man suddenly died. ŽemR IV 420. I came into the world a few weeks after the abolition of serfdom. PetkK 326. Four days after calving, the cow feels quite well (tsp.).

8.1.2. The most common constructions are those whose dependent component is a noun denoting a part of the day, a season, a day of the week, a holiday, mealtime, a period of work or rest, a religious service, or a historical period.

Only after nightfall does the morning star rise for us. Myk-PutBV 138. After the service, shouting and shooting could be heard. LKŽ VI 87. After winter, grandmother also recovered. Alk. And summer, too, comes only after spring. Vdk. We will cut the wheat after Sunday. T 1967 111. That year, it froze only after Christmas. AvyžISK 29. They left immediately after breakfast. PaukštK 143. After the rye harvest, the wheat will be brought in. BaltPV II 282. After the manure-spreading, efforts were made to plough the fields at once. LEB 67. After the break, he moves on to another class. PaukštPM 150. After returning to Kaunas from vacation, I edited the journal again. VencIJA 215. After Advent, the wedding was arranged as well. GricŽ 302. Only after the Polish uprising were the doors of this gymnasium opened to the “klopų” children as well. BsRR I. After the Twelfth Day, it disappears again. Lt IV 642.

8.1.3. Another highly productive group consists of constructions with nouns denoting processes and states.

He recovered after the illness. Lp. After a week-long siege they […] captured Pskov. LI I 71. Again, after long arguments and discussions, after the cackling and bellowing

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and, amid cries, gave the piglet to the cat to raise. CvR VII 314. After the auction, Jurgis Kilpa began to grow delirious. LKŽ VI 1032. After pollination, the ear of pistillate flowers grows considerably. F II 20. Martelė, as if she had done something wrong, does not show herself at all after bathing. CvMS 201. After this quarrel, Domantienė thought for several days about what she should do next. GruŠK 53. After the feast we go to breakfast. BaltPV II 347. After his friend's operations, Krizas suffers a little less. CvMS 305. After the storms, the sun will shine. JanR I 189.

8.1.4. Constructions with nouns of other lexical meanings have a less pronounced temporal meaning: those with names of persons, animals, places, foods, objects, historical documents, and so forth.

After Bagdonas, it was his turn too. Vkš. After provincial Kaunas, J. Tysliava found himself in a completely different environment. TyslNR 8. After the cabbage, they brought roast pork. KatkR 183. After calving, the cow gave a full bucket of colostrum. Grš. After tea, as every evening, the wife laid out a game of solitaire. VienR II 222. After the meal and drinks, the master's house empties. CvMS 183. After the tears, she'll have a little laugh, and all will be well. Vj. After the Third Statute of Lithuania, no significant changes were made to beekeeping law. LEB 147. Bare fallow is usually maintained after spring crops. MonstP 161.

8.1.5. Constructions formed with substantival (usually personal) pronouns have the same meaning.

Someone else will come after me. JablRR I 660. He increasingly begins to think about those who will have to live after him... VencLGD 79. There will be none of us after us. Klvr. The tenant, from then on, lived with his hands hanging down; things grew worse as the end drew nearer; as if deliberately, so that no one else would live there after him. VaižgRR I 272. It was only after everything that the militiamen arrived. Vkš.

8.1.6. Constructions are also formed with numerals used to denote hours, days of the month, or years. Such constructions are more characteristic of colloquial speech.

Another nurse came after nine. SirGirŠV 16. After the forties, the situation of Lithuanian peasants changed fundamentally (dial.). They promised to repay the debt after the fifteenth. Grl. After seven, I can’t anymore. Iš.

8.1.7. Nouns denoting general time concepts and duration always have a structurally necessary modifier in constructions with this meaning. Constructions of this lexical composition are very rare.

After the glacial period, the climate warmed again. IvanAŽP 53. After the swimming season, the beach falls quiet (dial.). After eight o’clock, it is dangerous to walk here (dial.).

8.2. Constructions expressing an action and a length of time separating that action from an earlier time

8.2.1. Verbs of both aspects serve as the main component of the constructions. The dependent component usually consists of nouns denoting concepts of time, either alone or accompanied by words indicating quantity. Nouns denoting processes are used very rarely to form such constructions, and always with a word indicating quantity; cf.:

After a couple of trips, you won’t lure such a “fisherman” back to sea even with gold (tsp.).

8.2.2. The length of time separating an action from an earlier time may be definite (a) or indefinite (b).

a) A definite length of time is expressed by nouns denoting units of time measurement, which may occur either alone or with cardinal numerals. In this case, nouns denoting other concepts of time are always used with cardinal numerals. Constructions with the latter lexical composition are unproductive.

We’ll start digging the potatoes in a month. Rk. Half an hour later she appeared again at Šariukai’s. PaukštK 187. A week later Jadvyga returned from Vilnius. Myk-PutR

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VII 108. Six months later he remembered his father. BalčTVN 76. For the first time in four days, the fighters eat with relish. MarcBR 224. The young storks begin to stand for a little while only after two weeks. IvanAPŽ 246. Come visit us in a couple of days. Als. I left school after two winters. Grl.

b) An indefinite length of time is expressed either by nouns that themselves denote an indefinite length of time or by nouns denoting other concepts of time, accompanied by words indicating an indefinite quantity.

Suddenly something rustled in the distance, and a moment later thunder rumbles right overhead.

MarkPRL 48. Misiulis went out and, after a little minute, returned with the money. KrėvRg 227. A few weeks later, only Cinokas was summoned to court. ŽemR II 105. A few years later the old man died. Myk-PutR VI 265. A dozen or so minutes later, Povilas was holding two lovely, sturdy little slips of paper, each marked with the number one hundred. MarcBR 79. And then, many days later, there was a funeral. After several sleepless nights and days [...] Stenia finished the work. SimonOBT 31. LzPR 394.

An indefinite length of time is also indicated by the noun laikas ‘time’ with a quantity word, with which it forms a fixed expression.

After quite a long time, the teacher returned. VenclR II 45. After some time, footsteps were heard on the other side of the gate. KrėvRg 262. After a while he came to, as if waking from sleep, and realized that he had no money left. Lnkv.

§.2.3. Constructions with the preposition po and the genitive, expressing an action and a definite (a) or indefinite (b) length of time separating that action from an earlier time, are synonymous with constructions using the preposition už and the genitive (see 11), cf.:

a) He repaid the debt after a month. Ant. We’ll go to your parents’ in a year. BsRP 235. Why, Mom won’t be back for another week. He died three days later. People will start gathering in half an hour. LzPK 41. Lt IV 481. LzPR VII 168.

b) I’ll be back in a little while. Pn. A few minutes later he let the object drop from his beak. IvanLP III 27. My train to Klaipėda via Tilžė leaves in a few hours. SimonNTP 154.

9. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITION prie

9.1. In older writings, the preposition prie was used with a temporal meaning not only with the genitive but also with the dative (E. Fraenkel 1929: 35; J. Palionis 1967: 184–185). In the modern literary language, this preposition is always used with the genitive (J. Būtenas 1930: 116–118; J. Kruopas 1953: 27; M. Čaikauskas 1963: 11–13; Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1971: 604–605).

Temporal constructions with the preposition prie are not particularly characteristic of the literary language (J. Kruopas 1953: 27) and are lexically restricted. They express an action and the time at which it is carried out.

9.2. The constructions whose dependent constituent consists of nouns denoting persons, processes, certain phenomena, and time have a more pronounced temporal meaning.

The chronicle was written during the episcopate of Povilas Alšėniškis, Bishop of Vilnius. JučLM 185–186. But to speak like that in the presence of a young girl. In the maid’s presence, Count Marijonas and the guest, too, refrained from showing their artificial sympathy. SruogR III 231. VienR II 51. She died during her daughter-in-law’s lifetime. At lunch, another group of spirits served and waited on the guests. Over coffee, he skimmed the morning newspaper. Get up, you’ll loosen up once you get to work. By the fire, they remember their wives. Toward evening, it begins to cloud over again. Skr. BalčGK 20. VencIGD₁ 175. Šts. MarukŽSG. Všt.

In place of nouns, substantival pronouns are sometimes also used with a temporal meaning.

With him, it will be better for us to live, too. LKRŽ 93. They did not dare speak Lithuanian in their presence. LKŽ.

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9.3. A considerable number of constructions with other meanings (for example, manner, condition, place, etc.) involving the preposition prie also frequently acquire temporal nuances in a sentence⁴. In dialects, in addition to those mentioned above, other constructions with temporal meanings are also used, but they are not characteristic of the literary language. Other temporal constructions are used in their place (see J. Kruopas 1953: 27).

10. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITION between

10.1. Temporal constructions with the preposition between and the genitive express an action and its temporal limits. They are not very common in contemporary standard language. Verbs of both aspectual types serve as the main constituent. The dependent constituent may consist of nouns denoting time concepts or processes.

10.2. Constructions of this type with a single noun are rare. In such cases, the noun always takes the plural genitive form.

We worked quite hard between the holidays. BalkS 204. Between sessions, the radiation increased several dozen times over. T 1970 290.

Constructions whose dependent constituent consists of two nouns joined by the conjunction and, and sometimes by as well, are more common.

And even now he was waiting for the next servant to arrive, between eleven and half past twelve. BalčAŽ 11. Manure was usually carted to the fields between spring sowing and haymaking. MLTE II 565. It burned down between breakfast and lunch. BūtPM 132. The Twelve Days fall between Christmas and Epiphany. KG 401.

10.3. Nouns denoting units of time in such constructions always have structurally necessary modifiers. In such cases, the noun is most often (but not always) expressed only in the second part of the dependent constituent, which follows the conjunction, while the first part contains only a word serving as a modifier.

Between 400 and 800 AD, major new changes took place in the territory of Lithuania. LI I 32. Between 15,000–14,000 BC and 8000 BC there were three cold and wet periods. RimPLG 12. The young animals molted […] between August and October. IvanLP II 126. Nine passenger pigeons were hunted between November 25 and February 15. IvanLP II 68. Surely this must happen between eleven and twelve o’clock at night. SimonVK II 110.

11. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PREPOSITION už

11.1. Temporal constructions with the preposition už and the genitive express an action and an interval of time separating that action from an earlier time. They are syntactic antonyms of corresponding constructions with the preposition prieš and the accusative, and constructions with the preposition pirm(a) and the genitive, which express an action and an interval of time separating that action from a later time.

J. Jablonskis replaced the preposition už in such constructions with the preposition po both in “Cases and Prepositions” and in his articles (see 1957: 667; 1959: 188, 231, 297). He seems never to have explicitly formulated the reasons for these corrections, but his scattered remarks indicate that he considered the use of the preposition už with a temporal meaning incorrect and alien to the Lithuanian language (1959: 187–188, 229).

However, the preposition už has had this meaning in Lithuanian since ancient times. Examples of it occur in written monuments (see A. Bezzenberger 1877: 246; E. Fraenkel 1929: 178). As the materials of the “Atlas of the Lithuanian Language” and the card index of the academic “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” show, temporal constructions with the preposition už are alive in many Lithuanian

⁴ Šitokių konstrukcijų pavyzdžių yra M. Čaikausko straipsnyje (1963: 11 – 13), ypač c poskyryje. Straipsnio autorius jas skiria prie laiko reikšmės, bet taip pat pažymi, kad tokios konstrukcijos turi ir kitų reikšmių atspalvių.

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language dialects⁵. They are also familiar from folklore. These constructions abound in the translations by Academician J. Balčikonis. Their use in the literary language is now sanctioned (see B. Vosylité 1951: 31; J. Kruopas 1953: 28; Lithuanian Grammar 1971: 645 – 646; Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian 1972: 878). Consequently, there can be no doubt about the acceptability in the contemporary literary language of temporal constructions with the preposition už and the genitive.

11.2. The interval of time expressed by the dependent constituent of constructions with the preposition už, separating an action from an earlier time, may be definite (a) or indefinite (b).

a) A definite interval of time is expressed by nouns denoting units of time, with or without cardinal numerals.

The son will return in a month. Krsn. A year later God gives them a son. Lt IV 98. About six months later, Tamulis’s cousin came to see me. SimonNTP 389. Let your cousin come in half an hour. BalčHP 259. In a week the haymaking will begin too. Vnd. The train will arrive in five minutes. Šk. After two days the fermented liquid is already in use. KatkR 243. Another two weeks later, the other milkers arrived. LnkV. It took him just two weeks to recover from the impressions of the war. PetkKMD 175. Half an hour later, the whole office already knew. KrèvLŽ 183. They always return from the mill two days later. Šd.

b) An indefinite interval of time is expressed by nouns denoting an indefinite period of time, or by nouns denoting units of time used with words indicating an indefinite quantity.

A moment later, a single shot rang out (trš.). A little while later, smoke appeared on the Kaunas side. Grl. A few minutes later, he was already trudging along the seaside sands toward Riga. VaižgR. II 62. Who knows how many years later. Šd. A few days later, they brought a prescription from the German doctor in Joniškėlis. PetkKMD 620–621.

11.3. All constructions with the preposition už and the genitive, expressing an action and a definite (a) or indefinite (b) interval of time separating that action from an earlier time, are synonymous with the corresponding constructions with the preposition po and the genitive (see 8.2.). Their meanings are completely identical, without any differences in nuance; constructions with the preposition už are simply somewhat less frequent in the contemporary literary language than constructions with the preposition po (see P. Būtėnas 1930: 135; Lithuanian Grammar 1971: 646). Compare:

a) He returned to Baghdad about a month later. BalčTVN₁ 146. A year later he left the army and worked in the editorial offices of various newspapers. TysINR 5. We certainly won’t find Sikorskis’s flax after a week. AvyžISK 79. Eight days later they seated us in a clean third-class carriage—and took us away from Tilžė. SruogR V 39. The train arrived only after half an hour. Jnš.

b) Motejus disappeared and returned a little while later. Myk-PutR VI 153. Petras left a few minutes later. VenclGD₁ 33. A few hours later he was already in town. LankNR 101. Only a few days later did Pranas Strimas return. VenclGD₁ 240.

Additional abbreviations

BsRR – Basanavičius J. Rinktiniai raštai. V., 1970.

JučLM – Jučas M. Lietuvos metraščiai. V., 1968.

LAB – Kulikauskas P., Kulikauskienė R., Tautavičius A. Lietuvos archeologijos bruožai. V., 1961.

LastUD – Lastauskienė M. Upės dovana. K., 1946.

MačAD – Mačiulis J. Augo diemedis. V., 1961.

MarkPRL – Markevicius A. Plakatas restorano lange. V., 1967.

MarukŽSG – Marukas S. Žaliakalny šluoja gatves. V., 1962.

MastTZ – Mastaušas S. Taikomoji zoologija. K., 1947.

⁵ In some dialects, temporal constructions are formed with the preposition už and the dative (see Z. Zinkevičius 1966: 429). Such constructions are not used in the contemporary literary language.

155

MG — Science and Life. Journal of the “Žūrijos” Society of the Lithuanian SSR. MLTE — Small Lithuanian Soviet Encyclopedia. Vols. I–III. V., 1966–1971. MonstP — Monstvila itė J. Weeds. V., 1967. RimPLG — Rimantienė R. The First Inhabitants of Lithuania. V., 1972. SirGirŠV — Sirijos Gira V. And That Is All. V., 1963. SlanŠA — Slančiauskas M. Tales and Anecdotes of Northern Lithuania. V., 1975. ŠRagSD₁ — Satirios Ragana. At the Old Manor. V., 1969. TysINR — Tysliava J. In the Arms of the Nemunas. V., 1967. ŽiugždLKG — Žiugžda J. Lithuanian Grammar. Part II. Syntax. K., 1957.

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А. РУЖЕ

ВРЕМЕННЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖНЫЕ КОНСТРУКЦИИ С РОДИТЕЛЬНЫМ ПАДЕЖОМ В СОВРЕМЕННОМ ЛИТОВСКОМ ЛИТЕРАТУРНОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

Резюме

В статье анализируются временные конструкции¹, в роли основного компонента которых выступает глагол, в роли зависимого компонента — родительный падеж имени существительного или местоимения с предлогами, а в некоторых случаях и имени числительного с предлогами. Освещается роль предлогов в структуре конструкции, лексический состав описываемых конструкций, их продуктивность, тенденции употребления, выявлены их значения и синтаксические синонимы.

В роли зависимого компонента изучаемых конструкций выступают имена существительные, обозначающие время, процессы, а иногда и конкретные объекты, как с обязательными определениями, так и без них.

Самыми продуктивными и наиболее часто употребляемыми являются конструкции с предлогами iki, lig(i), nuo, ро и už.

Конструкции с предлогами iki, lig(i) выражают: 1) действие и его конечный предел во времени (kūlį iki nakties „молотят до ночи“, ėjo ligi pietų „шел до обеда“), 2) действие и его приблизительную продолжительность (perį lig(i) (iki) dviejų savaičių „высиживает около двух недель“). Конструкции с предлогами iki, lig(i), выражающие действие и его приблизительную продолжительность, синонимичны аналогичным конструкциям с предлогами apie (с винительным падежом), arti, netoli (perį apie dvi savaites, perį arti (netoli) dviejų savaičių „высиживает около двух недель“).

Конструкции с предлогом nuo чаще всего выражают действие и его начальный предел во времени (dirba nuo jaunystės „работает с юности“). Этим конструкциям синонимичны конструкции с предлогом iš (dirba iš jaunystės „работает с юности“), но последние довольно ограничены лексически. Изредка встречаются конструкции с предлогом nuo, которые выражают действие и момент его совершения (nuo ryto susirgo „утром заболел“). В этом случае они синонимичны аналогичным конструкциям с предлогом iš, а также конструкциям с винительным или с местным падежом (iš ryto susirgo, rytą susirgo, ryte susirgo „утром заболел“).

Конструкции с предлогом ро выражают: 1) действие и время, по истечении которого это действие реализуется (ро rusyčių pradėjo kasti „после завтрака начали копать“, ро susirinkimo susipyko „после собрания поссорились“), или 2) действие и количество времени, которое отделяет это действие от предшествующего времени (ро mėnesio grįžo „через месяц возвратился“). Конструкции с предлогом ро, выражающие действие и количество времени, отделяющее это действие от предшествующего времени, всегда синонимичны аналогичным конструкциям с предлогом už (už mėnesio grįžo „через месяц возвратился“), но последние в литературном языке встречаются реже, чем конструкции с предлогом ро.

Конструкции с предлогами nuo – iki (nuo ryto iki vakaro verkia „с утра до вечера плачет“), nuo – lig(i) (nuo pietų lig(i) vakarienės ilsisi „с обеда до ужина отдыхает“), а также с tarp (ateik tarp dešimtos ir dvyliktos valandos „приходи между десятью и двенадцатью часами“) выражают действие и пределы во времени, между которыми это действие реализуется.

Конструкции с предлогами gale, pabaigoj(e), pradžioj(e), pusėj(e), pusiau, vidury, viduryj(e) выражают действие и его период (miega vidury dienos „спят в середине дня“) или момент его совершения (pradžioj metų mirė „в начале года скончался“, gale vasaros atšilo „в конце лета потеплело“).

Временные конструкции с предлогами be, iš ро и prie в современном литературном языке непродуктивны, встречаются довольно редко.

¹ Временными конструкциями или конструкциями здесь называются словосочетания выражающие временные отношения.

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A. RŪŽĖ

TEMPORAL CONSTRUCTIONS WITH GENITIVE AND PREPOSITIONS IN MODERN STANDARD LITHUANIAN

Summary

The paper discusses temporal constructions the principal component of which is a verb and the subordinate component is a noun, pronoun and in special cases a numeral in the genitive case with prepositions. The role of prepositions in the constructions, their different meanings, lexical structure, the productivity, the usage and their syntactical synonyms are also considered in the paper.

The subordinate component of the constructions in question is expressed by nouns denoting time, processes and in certain cases objects with or without attributes.

The most productive and frequently used are temporal constructions with the prepositions iki, lig(i), nuo, po and už.

Constructions with the prepositions iki, lig(i) express 1) action and its time limit (kulia iki nakties “he threshes till the night“, ėjo lig(i) pietų “he was walking till the afternoon“); 2) action and its approximate continuation (per(i) lig(i) (iki) dviejų savaičių “they hatch about two weeks“). Constructions with the prepositions iki, lig(i) expressing action and its approximate continuation are synonymous to the corresponding constructions with the prepositions apie, arti, netoli (per(i) apie dvi savaitės, peri arti (netoli) dviejų savaičių “they hatch about two weeks“).

Constructions with the preposition nuo mostly express action and its initial limit (dirba nuo jaunystės “they work from youth“). These constructions are synonymous to the constructions with the preposition iš (dirba iš jaunystės “they work from youth“) which are rather limited lexically. Constructions with the preposition nuo rarely express action and the moment it took place (nuo ryto susirgo “he fell ill in the morning“). In this case they are synonymous to the corresponding constructions with the preposition iš, accusative or locative (iš ryto susirgo, rytą susirgo, rytè susirgo “he fell ill in the morning“).

Constructions with the preposition po express 1) action and the time after the expiration of which the action is realized (po pusryčių pradėjo kasti “they began digging after breakfast“, po susirinkimo susipyko “they quarrelled after the meeting“) or 2) action and the period separating it from the previous time (po mėnesio grįžo “he returned after a month“). Constructions with the preposition po expressing action and the period separating it from the previous time are always synonymous to the constructions with the preposition už which are not so frequently used in standard Lithuanian (už mėnesio grįžo “he returned after a month“).

Constructions with the prepositions nuo – iki (nuo ryto iki vakaro verkia “she cries from morning till night“), nuo – lig(i) (nuo pietų lig(i) vakarinės ilsisi “she rests from dinner till supper“) and with tarp (ateik tarp dešimtos ir dvyliktos valandos “come between ten and twelve“) express action and time limits within which it is realized.

Constructions with prepositions gale, pabaigoj(e), pradžioj(e), pusėj(e), pusiau, vidury, viduryj(e) express action and its period (miega vidury dienos “she sleeps in the middle of the day“) or the moment it took place (pradžioj metų mirė “she died at the beginning of the year“, gale vasaros atšilo “it got warmer at the end of the summer“).

Temporal constructions with the prepositions be, iš po and prie are not productive and are very rarely used in modern standard Lithuanian.