Li huanian Linguis ic Ac
This Regula ion shall en e in o o ce on he wen ie h day ollowing ha o i s publica ion in he O icial Jou nal o he Eu opean Union.
Con en s linked o Tu in e e ence
ISSN 2669-218X (online o elec onically)
This Decision shall en e in o o ce on he day ollowing ha o i s publica ion in he O icial Jou nal o he
Eu opean Union. Published by he Ins i u e o he Li huanian Language. This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed
unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which allows un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed. Published by he Li huanian
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A ibu ion-Sha eAlike License ha allows unlimi ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion o he con en on any medium, including au ho s and sou ce.
Recei ed by Gau a on 28 No embe 2024. Accep ed: Accep ed: 2025-01-21. This Regula ion shall en e in o o ce on he wen ie h day ollowing ha o i s publica ion in he O icial Jou nal.
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This Decision shall en e in o o ce on he day ollowing ha o i s publica ion.
This Regula ion shall en e in o o ce on he wen ie h day
ollowing ha o i s publica ion in he O icial Jou nal o
he Eu opean Union. 1 DALIS Vilnius: Ins i u e o Li huanian Language, 2023, 259 p.
This Regula ion shall en e in o o ce on he day ollowing ha o i s publica ion in he O icial Jou nal o he Eu opean Union.
This Regula ion shall en e in o o ce on he wen ie h day ollowing ha o i s publica ion in he O icial Jou nal o he Eu opean Union.
I'm no su e ha 's a good idea.
The Commission shall be empowe ed o adop delega ed ac s in acco dance wi h A icle 26 o supplemen his Regula ion by laying down de ailed ules o he applica ion o his Regula ion.
The ORCID ID is: –
Resea ch a eas: dialec ology, lexicog aphy and lexicology o Li huanian dialec s, analysis o
dialec al exp essions in w i en sou ces, sociolinguis ics.
This Regula ion shall en e in o o ce on he wen ie h day ollowing ha o i s publica ion in he O icial Jou nal o he Eu opean Union.
The book on he iden i y o people who speak se e al languages, Vingius, a language and iden i y
s udy by Nijolė Tuomienė, is abou how he implan ed an i- e bal a i ude o language shapes a
ulne able pe sonali y. how ha inju ed pe son, li ing quie ly in his illage, is i ually "li ed"
om he s a e o he s a e, i.e. epea edly occupied in his own coun y, how gene a ions eel
ha he is expe iencing hose des uc i e ac ions; exis en ial ime, as ha ing one's own
eposi o y […] language, he cu ia des oys he sel -wo h o he speake ; how a language
e en ually becomes auma ized and ma ginalized, how i ine i ably akes he place o ano he
language, o e en a ew o he languages.
The au ho 's a en ion, as indica ed in he i le o he book, is ocused on he second hal o he 20 h
cen u y […] he beginning o he 21s cen u y. The main p oblems o he s udy o he wo k o Nioli a
Tuomienė a e mos closely ela ed o he wo k o Halina Tu sko a (1995 [1939] and Vale ija Čekmona
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(2017) Concep , many o which can be seen in compa ison wi h he wo k o Pe o Gaucho, Václa Milyas,
Aloysius Vidugo yi, Tama os Sudnik, Kazimie z Ga šo , Laima G umadinė, I ena Adoma ičiū ė and o he
Sla ic and Whi e Pa isian esea che s. In o he wo ds, Nijolė Tuomienė is undoub edly assigned o he
di ec ion o he de elope s o he concep o Halinos Tu skos. The monog aph e eals he complex
cu en linguis ic si ua ion in he sou h-eas e n ou ski s o Li huania and no h-wes e n Bela us
(Va anasi). I is he his o y o he la e e i o y mo e han any o he ha e eals he abili y o
Li huanians, who ha e been occupied se e al imes in hei li es and su ounded by o he popula ions,
o adap in o de o su i e. The imp in o ha expe ience has been passed down om gene a ion o
gene a ion un il now. The e o e, I hink ha Tuomienė's scien i ic wo k would be sui ed o he
monog aph "Likimų monog aph", which appea ed in he summe a e isi ing mos ly only he o me
Li huanian islands o Bela us and he adjacen sou he n Li huanian ansi poin s, eco ding and
ca e ully lis ening o mo e han 160 hou s o audio eco dings, a e amilia izing wi h he
socioling is ic ques ionnai es o he esponden s and e iewing a ious scien i ic li e a u e. The
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esea ch ma e ial, compiled om 21 poin s o he Li huanian language a las (LKA), co e s a pe iod o 70
yea s ( he second hal o he 20 h cen u y o he second decade o he 21s cen u y), bu he main
a en ion is ocused on ou days o almos ou days. His o ically in he 20 h cen u y, Li huania was a
s a e wi h ou lined bo de s: pa o i s e i o y belonged o Bela us, i wen h ough se e al
occupa ions (1920-1939 yea s o he Poles, a e Wo ld Wa II o he So ie s). Wi h he long-es ablished
ideology o he " o me a he land o he Polish coun yside", which has become openly Polish in he
las hi y yea s, he inhabi an s o he sou h-eas e n coun yside o Li huania ha e been isola ed
om he Li huanian socie y (p. The Li huanian-speaking islands o Bela us had o swi ch om
Li huanian dialec s and Bela usian dialec s (p ope ly) o he s a e-speaking Russian language. As he
local Li huanian snacks, which we e g adually and g adually elimina ed om he sou he n and eas e n
ele a ions in he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, we e a ibu ed o he local Li huanian snacks in
eas e n Li huania ( he cu en municipali y o he Ša čininkų dis ic ) and no hwes e n Bela us ( he
cu en Va anė o dis ic ), he au ho p o ides de ails and insigh s in he monog aph. The me hod o
linguis ic geog aphy applied o he linguis ic plo s s udied un il he 21s cen u y o sol e he p oblems
aised by he au ho was only pa ial: he ac s we e eco ded, bu his me hod did no explain he
easons o he change in language. The e o e, by applying he old me hod, he ea lie Li huanian
linguis s we e o ced o ea he obse ed de ia ions as a coincidence, as de ia ions om he
cou se o he logical p ocess, so ha he e was no only a emp a ion, bu simply a necessi y o
elimina e hem om he s udy. The i s o desc ibe he changing language si ua ion ou side
Li huania's e i o y was Edua d
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Edwa d Vol ai e and Ola B och. Resea che s o he nine een h cen u y ound ha nex
o each o he in he neighbo hoods o Pa ibio […] Va anã o and Ša čininkų […]
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Desc ip ions a e gi en on pages 223-259 and he 256 h li e a u e posi ion is gi en on pages 151-169.
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The me hod o linguis ic geog aphy was applied by he i s esea che s o his egion: Kazys Mo kūnas, Zigmas
Zinke ičius, Jad yga Ka dely ė, e c., and Aloyzas Vidugi is, Laima G umadienė, Kazimie as Ga š a, Vy au as
Ka delis, e c. w o e abou he obse ed changes in he g amma .
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Li huanian slang is no longe used in e e yday li e. In he absence o a na u al con inui y, he LKA
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c ossing poin s c ea e he condi ions o he acquisi ion o he common Li huanian language (bk) in
he absence o a na u al con inui y. The main obs acle o i s use only in he sou h-eas e n pa o
Li huania and on he bo de wi h Bela us is ha he Li huanian language, ha ing los i s main
unc ions, is g adually being pushed ou o ac i e use and eplaced by ano he language (o o he
languages) (12). The e o e, o he 17 LKA poin s in he e i o y o Li huania, only 7 a e li ely, 2 […]
li ely, mixed and 8 […] dying. The emaining 4 LKA poin s on he e i o y o Bela us a e sunny,
excep o he s ill exis ing Peles poin . The au ho based his esea ch on he sociolinguis ic and
linguis ic ma e ial o he wo men ioned linguis ic a eas: no only Li huanian, bu also local Bal ic
languages and local Polish languages, as well as he ma e ial o he a ian s o he Bal ic and
Russian li e a y languages used he e, collec ed om
F om 1964
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o 2017.
The monog aph is aluable o he cle e applica ion o he quali a i e esea ch me hod o wo
di e en and a he same ime simila linguis ic plo s o he pe iphe y and he pe iphe y.
Va ious sociolinguis ic su ey me hods ha e been used o e eal bo h he beha iou o he
esponden and he linguis ic p ocesses aking place, de e mined by economic, social, poli ical and
o he ac o s. The a ge in o ma ion o moni o ing he e hnolinguis ic si ua ion is con eyed
h ough a g oup con e sa ion, an in-dep h and semi-s uc u ed in e iew. I is necessa y o
s udy he linguis ic, cul u al and men al a i udes o he esponden s, i.e. o apply he
e hnolinguis ic da a analysis me hod. Examples o he esponden s' mul i-language s a emen s
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a e ansc ibed. The objec o s udy also inspi ed he o ma ion o a ocabula y o commonly
used e ms, acili a ing he unde s anding o he monog aph ex . The pe cep ion o he
ep esen a i es o Li huanian language dialec s as o wha is local and wha is no local di e s
om he analogous pa ibio-zab abio e ms. In he sou h-eas o Li huania, he local non-local has
a di e en meaning [ he e, u he in Li huania, his is ou […]localism[…] misunde s ood[…] (p.
109)]. He e, as a componen o e hnic iden i y, he language has changed mo e han h ee imes in
a cen u y: om 1920 i was o ced o equi e Polish (in addi ion o Li huanian and Bulga ian); since
1945 […] Russian (g e a lenkų, bal a usių i lie u ių), since 1988 he Li huanian language has been
es o ed (g e a usų, lenkų i bal a usių). As a esul , he linguis ic si ua ion is being in es iga ed bo h ca e ully and judiciously. 20 h cen u y languages
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F om 1972 o he p esen day, he bilingualism and mul ilingualism o he Pa isian popula ion has been
emphasized in he publica ions o esea che s o Li huanian and Sla ic languages o dialec s.
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The du a ion o he audio eco dings is […] 166 hou s, sociolinguis ic da a […] comple ed popula ion su eys
(ques ionnai es). 89 mul ilingual esponden s om he olde , middle and younge gene a ions we e in e iewed and
(o ) eco ded. The eco dings we e collec ed om all 17 LKA poin s in he Pie yčių Lie u os pa ibas ( o al o 70
hou s). The eco dings we e made in wo dis inc pe iods: 1964-1990 and 1994-1994 wi h he use o he soundscape o
he sou he n and eas e n highlands o Vilnius. 2011[…]2013 […] 36 hou s o sound eco dings om Šalčininkų . poin s (31
hou s in local Sla ic languages, only 5 hou s in Li huanian ansla ion and non-language e sion o Li huanian
language). In he con inua ion o he Sou h Highlands Add ess in Bela us, he da a o he li ing language we e
collec ed in se e al s ages (ou o a o al o 96 hou s o eco dings): om 1995 o 2007, 58 hou s o Li huanian
language ex s we e eco ded, and in 2017, 34 hou s o ex s (9 hou s in Li huanian and 25 hou s in local Bulga ian and Polish, only in Bulga ian and 4 hou s in s anda d Bulga ian).
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Examples o eas e n and sou he n highland dialec s a e gi en in he Copenhagen phone ic ansc ip ion. The
simpli ied ansc ip ion used in he scien i ic publica ions o he Sla s and o he speake s o he Bal ic languages
and local Polish examples. The examples ci ed a e also ansc ibed as bk, wi h he meaning o he di e en wo ds indica ed in b acke s.
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The ideas o Vale ijus Čekmon, he ounde o he di ec ion o con ac linguis ics, ha
sou heas e n Li huania needs "an analysis o he his o y o Li huanian Poles, i s knowledge and
p ope ea men " and ha he esul s o he p ocess o language con ac s depend on " he
simila i y o languages and hei social p es ige" (p. Un il he 21s cen u y, he e has been no
subs an ial change in sel -awa eness. K is ina Ru ko ska, who s udied Li huanian dialec s, ound
ha he e a e no monolingual egions in he egion, and a mixed-language en i onmen p e ails. In
he sou he n pa o Li huania, he e a e 9 (o 17) LKA poin s in he mani es a ions o Li huanian
language dialec s in he Amžių sandy. They ha e bo h be e and less p ese ed cha ac e is ics
o sou he n highlands (dzūkuojama; na owed ą, ę; heal hy p ese ed double an, am). The o he
eigh LKA poin s in he a ea ha e become Sla ic, he inhabi an s unde s and Li huanian, bu can
no longe speak i . Un il he end o he 20 h cen u y, he si ua ion was di e en : in he
sou h-eas e n pa o Li huania and Bela us, he in o ma ion o he olde and pa ly middle
gene a ions was spoken in ansla ion, only he you h had aken o e he Sla ic languages.
S udies o Li huanian mul ilingualism in he sou h-eas o Li huania in ecen yea s show ha he
use o Li huanian, Russian, Polish o Bela usian is si ua ional. This mul ilingualism o he egion is
alued anew by speake s o di e en gene a ions his is an ad an age. And his iew, applied o
he geog aphical con ex o he Li huanian-speaking people o p esen -day sou heas e n
Li huania, appea s o ha e emained unchanged o a cen u y: […]al hough he Li huanian
language is he s a e language and i is compulso y in s a e ins i u ions, p e ailing in daily
communica ion, he egional language is s ill Polish[…] (p. 42). In he sou h-eas o Li huania, he e
is a endency o he common language o he Li huanians o be eplaced by he common language
o no only Li huanians, bu also o he Bal ic peoples (p. 43). So ie -e a Russi ica ion, which
educa ed he middle and younge gene a ions o he Russian language, as well as changing hei
a i ude o he Russian language, no longe main ains p es ige. This would pa e he way o he
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s a e Li huanian language, bu i is s ill a his o ical mix: […][T]en was Li huania, and he e is Poland. The Poles li e he e. My g and a he old me ha om ancien imes e e yone he e spoke Polish, no one spoke Li huanian (p. 80).
His o ically, sou heas e n Li huania and he Li huanian islands in Bela us belong o bo h he
LDK, he People's Republic o Poland, he Russian Empi e, and he So ie Union. In he local sense,
all he lands a e he Li huanian indigenous people who li ed in hem, and in he poli ical sense, he
inhabi an s o he egion a eled om s a e o s a e (p. 66). Responden s a e old: […][T]he
a he says, we need o un, we won' li e, well, we need o go somewhe e. And so we s ayed and
we li ed, we g ew and now we li e, we p ay, we p ay, we p ay.
(in Bulga ian) we speak […] (p. 66).
Since he e we e no bo de s be ween coun ies ha o med he na ional basis a e Wo ld
Wa I, hen he joy did no wan o ecognize i s belonging o one o he o he na ion, o ming
he e m u eišis ( u eišiškumas) […] a man who speaks a ious languages, bu emphasizes only
he place o esidence, i.e. he connec ion wi h geog aphy: […]P ie lenkų likom be sa o kalbos, be
lie u iškų mišių. I emembe my a he didn' go o a Polish mass. The Polish school did, well, hen
he Russian school. We didn' ead o w i e in Li huanian. How I g ew up. Ve y ew people spoke.
Then he language was changed, and e e yone had lea ned (in Bela usian). The people a e he same. Fa he
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I will come om Tu geli, Šalčininkų dis ic municipali y.
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Li huanian language, and his son is al eady Polish […] (p. 70). Tu eism is seen as a ac ic o cul u al
esis ance and o he local popula ion i is associa ed wi h sel -su iciency, adap ing o
inc easingly new social and poli ical ci cums ances: […][S] e imi came and w o e down all he Polish
(pase)[…], […][V]isoki languages we e lea ned, bu he Polish and he Russian did no […] (p. 71[…]72).
The monog aph emphasizes ha he adi ional basis o he o ma ion o na ionalism (poli ical
e i o y, na i e language, ecognized eligion) was supp essed: […][T]he iden i y, cus oms, as well
as he igh o choose all his, h oughou he egion o en belonged o o he […] o eign
a i als[…] (p. 73). The local inhabi an s o he se lemen s we e cons an ly humilia ed and
punished, e.g. Li huanians who wo ked in he kolkhoz did no ea n money, hey we e all pe secu ed
[[…]Sako, we a e you pee s (pe auklėsim) […] (p. 77)]; "I wen o wo k e e y day, and he didn' w i e.
[…]...[…] He answe ed me ang ily: shou loudly, Li huanian, i wasn' gi en o you. […] (p. 78)".
Li huanians li ing on bo h sides o he bo de needed o ob ain "local esidence s a us", al hough,
as he esponden bo n in Bela us and li ing in Šačininka said, "I would be Polish i I did no speak
Polish". I 's a mixed language. And my child en a e al eady speaking Russian, my g andchild en […]
Li huanian[…] (p. 77). In he con essional sense, he inhabi an s o he islands o sou heas e n
Li huania and Bela us a e endogamous, bu hey p ay in Polish e en when he mass is o e ed in
Li huanian, i.e. he con essional c i e ion de ines he ules o language use. The au ho men ions
ha he local Li huanians in Ramashkonys (Bal a usija) a e each occupa ion sough o egain
he igh s o he Li huanian language p ima ily in he chu ch and school, bu i is claimed ha
Polish and Ca holic a e synonymous, and […]lenkiškumas […]owne ship[…] a ises om being a
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Ca holic[…] (p. 88). The only eligious communi y du ing all he yea s o he occupa ion ha did no
espond o polonocen ism (in e up ion o Polish his o iog aphical in e p e a ion emains).
Con essional a ilia ion, as a c i e ion o communi y iden i ica ion, is s ill ele an oday (in
Li huania, masses a e held in Polish and Li huanian, and in Bela us in Polish and Bulga ian). The
younge gene a ion does no ye ha e a eligious-e hnic model. Un il now, he p o ision inhe i ed
om he pos -wa pe iod due o he weak na ional iden i y o he popula ion has c ea ed he
condi ions " o iden i y indi idually wi h any na ionali y and o be mo i a ed o ac on he side o
any coun y" (p. Does he au ho call his pe iod a limi ed o ma ion o non- o ma ion o na ional
iden i y? he p ocess.
Di e en ac o s ha de e mine he communica ion and code damage o he inhabi an s o
he pe iphe y ( he abili y o pa icipa e in a con e sa ion o o consciously seek sepa a ion
by using a supe io language) we e one o he condi ions o bilingualism and mul ilingualism o
occu . Di e en gene a ions o amilies in eas e n Li huania speak di e en ly: husband and
wi e […] in Russian, a he and child en […] in Russian and plain, mo he […] in Polish and plain,
child en in e ac ing […] in Li huanian. Simila ly, on he islands o Bela us, only child en and
iends speak plain and Russian. The olde gene a ion emembe s ha […][N]ea ly
con e sa ions we e in e up ed by ensions a ising om in ole ance o he Li huanian language o he Li huanian people[…] (p. 95).
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This s e eo ype e lec s he p o isions o he ideology o he noble (LKD a is oc acy) based on an i-Ch is ian
paganism.

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Localism is also cha ac e is ic o he e hnic pa o Bela us wi h which people a e s ill
connec ed? and language, and close kinship. The linguis ic si ua ion o he emaining Li huanian
islands, which a e classi ied as pe iphe al languages, is no en iable: "being isola ed, Sla ic
languages, which a e pa icula ly easily in luenced, ha e los no only he ocabula y o he
languages, bu also he p es ige o he Li huanian language" (p. 44). Resea che s o he Join
Sla ic and Li huanian Complex Expedi ions (which ook place in 1974, 1976, and 1986 yea s) ha e come
o he conclusion ha he Li huanian language, which was once he mos impo an language o
he inhabi an s o his egion, has g adually become he language o he household and he amily,
and in some places has no been used a all. Bal a 's language simply g adually expelled he
Li huanian language om he amily. (p. 45) The olde esiden s o Pa ibas, who call hemsel es
locals, Chionyks is, Tu eis, can' ell who hey a e. Only geog aphically iden i ied esponden s who
8
speak a mix u e o Polish, Russian, Bulga ian and Li huanian do no ha e a clea ly de ined na ional
iden i y. The Pelesos poin in Bela us, whe e he Li huanian language is spoken in he public
en i onmen and in he chu ch, and young people a e augh Li huanian in he school (closed in
2023), is loca ed in he posi ion o he nyks an poin . Local esiden s a e o ced o adap o he
language. Li ing in small u al communi ies (Nočià, Pelesà, Ramaškónys, Ródūnia) in Bela us,
Li huanians did no wi hs and he p essu e o a la ge and long-las ing Sla ic-speaking majo i y.
The p onuncia ion o he language is ela ed o he s a us o he language: in he e hnic
e i o ies o Li huania, he Li huanian language has ne e been an o icial o public language and
i has no been handled by any o icial w i ing. The monog aph desc ibes he ela ionship be ween
he a e o he language and he cul u al assimila ion o he communi y. As a esul , he
cha ac e is ics a e g adually los and eplaced by he mo e "p es ige", "highe le el", "cul u al"
adi ions. Consciously o unconsciously, people adap o new cus oms and new languages by
becoming bilingual. La e , when he second language, he lea ned language, en e s e e yday li e,
people mo e om bilingualism o monolingualism.
The au ho o he book analyzes how cul u al assimila ion was ca ied ou " om abo e", i.e.
h ough he p essu e o he local adminis a ion, educa ion and he chu ch, in he a eas unde
in es iga ion, especially in he Li huanian islands in Bela us. Fo example, du ing he So ie e a, he
Li huanians o he sou heas e n pa o Li huania and i s e hnic e i o ies could no allow hei
child en o go o Li huanian schools because he e we e no such schools (o hey we e oo a om
se lemen s). My pa en s, who wen o Polish and Russian schools, did no y o each Li huanian o
hei child en. Thus, his language has become an unhea d-o "li ing language" o he pas , which
does no mee he daily needs o young people (p. 60). In he dis ic s o Šačinkai and Va anas,
Li huanians became an e hnic mino i y and his s a us has no changed un il now [he is a Ca holic he
is also Polish (p. 61) gene ally denied he p esence o Li huanians in he dis ic s unde in es iga ion].
As he e hnic iden i y was " o med" by he uni s o he A my o K ajina, pe secu ing Li huanians,
he esponden om Ramashka ells: "He had signed a con ac . […] Polish, bu speaks Li huanian. They hough he was a ake Pole. Nex ime we'll come, he says, we'll help.
8
The claim ha he Polish e hnic and na ional iden i y is exp essed mo e s ongly and ac i ely in Vilnius and i s
su oundings han in he ci y and dis ic o Šalčinki is ques ionable, as o he s a is ical da a show. Acco ding o
he 2021 and 2022 Li huanian census, only 79.5 pe cen o he popula ion in Šalčininkų dis ic was w i en o w i en by Polish.
7
I wan you on his bench. And, you know, he me al ba says, "I we cu you, you'll know wha you' e
made o ". Conscious and consis en popula ion celeb a ion was ca ied ou on a s a e scale: i he
pa en s' na ionali y was no eco ded in he bi h ce i ica e, hose ci izens we e w i en as
Polish na ionali ies. Tuomienė conside s he code o be no only a linguis ic, bu also a social,
psychological, e en p ac ical phenomenon, obse ed a he le el o bo h phone ics, lexicon, and
ph ase o sen ence, discou se. Swi ching codes is ei he ela ed o he desi e o solida ize wi h a
social g oup, o o b eak away om i (emphasizing social s a us, eli ism), o […] ano he de ia ion
om he opic o con e sa ion. Theo e ical s a emen s o code changes a e con incingly
illus a ed by bilingual and mul ilingual examples. In he s udy o code change and language use in
gene al in a ious ields, he mos sui able o s udy a e he six code change unc ions iden i ied
by he esea che s Renee Appel and Pe e Muisken (Appel and Muisken, 2005: 118). In he s udied
mul ilingual communi ies o sou h-eas e n Li huania and no h-wes e n Bela us, he au ho
eco ds he ha m o ou languages […] ou codes […]. I has been s udied ha he code change in
he language o he h ee gene a ions o he inhabi an s he elde , he middle and he younge
se an s pe o ms i e unc ions: e e ence, con ol, iden i y, me apho and me allinguis ic. The
9
au ho es ablished a connec ion be ween he use o sepa a e codes and he na ional and ci ic
iden i y o he local popula ion. In he case o all-speake code changes, i was mos o en inse ed
by swi ching o a single language […] he common language o he Bal a s. Acco ding o he
esea che s, he equency o ansi ions o his language may ha e been in luenced by he
en i onmen (neighbo hood wi h Bela us), he age o he inhabi an s, and less o en by educa ion.
The au ho desc ibes in de ail each o he unc ions o he change o he codes being analyzed: he
e e ence is used in o de o e i y he exp ession o he hough s o he co espondence o he
wo d being con eyed. The unc ion o changing go e nmen codes is ecognized by he speake 's
adap a ion o he language spoken by he speake in o de o include him in communica ion ( his is
mo e common in con e sa ions be ween ep esen a i es o he middle and younge gene a ions
han he olde ones, because he la e a e no always inclined o change he code). The
con e sa ions ha ake place in wo al e na ing languages - Li huanian and Bulga ian - a e simply a
sign o he au ho ship o he book as a mani es a ion o he iden i y unc ion, i.e. o he iden i y.
The use o one o mo e wo ds om ano he language in he main language o a dialogue is in ended
o emphasize, highligh he essence o a s a emen o o gi e i an addi ional seman ic conno a ion
(me apho ical unc ion). The au ho no es examples o unc ional changes in me allinguis ic codes
in he con e sa ions o inhabi an s when hey discuss he speci ics o he languages o hei egion, he unc ions o he languages spoken in hei na i e a eas, names he meanings o indi idual wo ds, and is in e es ed in he simila i ies and di e ences o hose meanings.
The monog aph desc ibes he s udy o code change unc ions as a o wa d-looking and
con empo a y way o e ealing he ole o language o languages in oday's mul icul u al and
mul ilingual socie y, which could be applied mo e b oadly o linguis ic wo ks. Thus, i can be
a gued ha he esul s o his ype o s udy seek o eplace he p e iously dominan
nega i e assessmen o language change in linguis ics. I is clea ha communica ing in a
mul ilingual en i onmen equi es communica ion pa icipan s o use languages p ac ically and
skill ully and o use a ious language esou ces c ea i ely and eely. I hink ha u he esea ch in Tuomienė science is ela ed o
9
The unc ion o changing poe ic codes is no examined in he wo k due o he lack o examples.
8
The change in he codes o he younge gene a ion in he egions o Li huania and he linguis ic
beha iou in a mul ilingual en i onmen would be e y p omising.
The au ho s o he books emphasize he di e en linguis ic si ua ions ha ook place in he
con lic o he cen u ies, since he 20 h cen u y (6-8 decades) in non-public communica ion he
dominan Li huanian and Bulga ian languages, he 21s cen u y (1-2 decades) a e changed only o
Sla ic languages. Why did his happen, he esponden s explain: […]...> i was he Russian
go e nmen , la e he Li huanian go e nmen , hen he Polish go e nmen . The wa s a ed
and he So ie s came. Then he Li huanians again. So wha kind o coun y a e we li ing in? I a
hund ed yea s ago i was Li huania, Poland, he So ie Union and Bela us, now i is Li huania
again. In my a he 's li e ime, o example, powe changed six imes. And e e y ime a new
go e nmen asks people, "Who a e you?" Who he hell a e you? People ealized ha he bes
hing o do was o say ha I was a local. And ha s i . I'm a local, by he way. Acco ding o he
au ho , he language si ua ion on he islands o Bela us is di e en : […][L]ie u iškai he e he e
is li le alk. No, we ha e no one o alk o. Young people do no lea n, hey s udy (in Bela usian
language), only Bela usian, Russian. They don' need Li huanian. (p. 118) Since he eigh h decade o he wen ie h cen u y, he younge gene a ion no longe speaks Li huanian.
The desc ip ion o he dea h o he language is gi en h ough he sequen ial analysis o he code
change o he Ramaškoni mic o-a ea (Bal a usija). The au ho 's dis inc i e assimila ion s ages
( he p essu e on he communi y o speak he dominan language, he bilingualism o he
popula ion and he iden i ica ion o he younge gene a ion wi h he o he language) slowly
pushed he Li huanian language ou o i s in ancy. A he beginning o he 20 h cen u y,
Li huanian was s ill spoken by he olde gene a ion, bu i was no passed on o he middle and
younge gene a ions. The Li huanian language has been pushed ou o he p i a e home
en i onmen in wo ways: he pa en s spoke Li huanian o each o he , and he child en spoke
Li huanian o each o he . They say all so s o hings, and we kids don' unde s and wha hey' e saying anymo e. We kids don' unde s and any hing, we' e al eady been spoken o plainly.
The s a us o he languages changed: he Polish language g ew s onge un il he second decade o
he 20 h cen u y, and om 1920 o 1939, when Poland occupied he Vilnius egion and pa o
no hwes e n Bela us, he Polish language ook o e . And he unc ions o he Li huanian language
we e aken o e by he Polish language, which was ac i a ed by he chu ch, he opening o Polish
p ima y schools, he in oduc ion o compulso y p ima y educa ion and a go e nmen egula ion
( he language was a means o communica ing wi h he go e nmen ), e.g. […][D]ie es does no each
o he wise, only Polish[…]; [P]e wen y yea s, he Polish people hough ha he Li huanian language
was no cul u ed, i was an a heis ic language. God will no lis en o Li huanian p aye s (p. 137-138).
When schools open, we ga he , we s op, we make ou ally and speak Li huanian. This is indica ed by
o he inge s, hese a e Li huanians, hei dog blood. The common Bulga ian and Polish languages
we e consciously conside ed as wo a ian s o he same language. Since he middle o he 20 h
cen u y, he pe cep ion o Li huanian na ional iden i y has been s eng hened: i was desi able o
lea n he common Li huanian language, bu he e hnic sel -de e mina ion o he inhabi an s o he
Ramaškoni mic o-a ea has always been dependen on he au ho i ies, o ming he opinion ha
Li huanian language is a "no mal u al language"; "We don' speak Li huanian e y well". inju ed in
Li huanian language; "Ou language is ugly, as i i we e made o s aw". […]hideous language[…]; The
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Commission conside s ha he aid is compa ible wi h he in e nal ma ke wi hin he meaning o
A icle 107 (3) (c) TFEU. I 's no app ecia ed, and i 's jus : […]lie. People don' wan o be spoken o in
a simple language in chu ch, o be add essed o a p ies as i he we e a cow. The loss o p es ige o
he Li huanian language was caused by ela ions no only wi h he common Bal ic language, bu also wi h he Polish language: bo h hese languages - bo h Li huanian and Bulga ian - we e di ec ed agains he "highe cul u e", he mo e p es igious (in he ecen pas ) Polish language (p.
The inhabi an s o he no hwes e n pa ish o Sou heas e n Li huania and Bela us emained
he same, bu hey became bilingual o mul ilingual (due o he cul u al assimila ion o he local
popula ion h ough adminis a ion, educa ion, chu ch). The iden i y o he Pa isian popula ion
a ies om an unde ined e hnic basis o iden i ica ion wi h se e al e hnic g oups a once.
Tu eiškumas (locali y) was a way o esis poli ical, social p essu e and o he linguis ic iden i y
sys ems. Al hough he you h o 21s -cen u y eas e n Li huania unde s ands he impo ance
o educa ion, is in e es ed in issues o na ionali y, e hnici y, would like o link hei u u e wi h
Li huania, abandon he model o locali y, bu hei s is no ye es ablished [[…]My na ionali y is
in e na ional[…] (p. 81)]. In Bela us, he Li huanian language is dead, he s a e language is he
Russian language. The Polish language has a con essional unc ion.
Summing up he i s pa o he monog aph Language and Iden i y o Pie y s in Li huanian and
Bela usian Pa ibas (second hal o he 20 h cen u y - beginning o he 21s cen u y), i can be said
ha he wo k ca ied ou by Nijolė Tuomienė is impo an and ele an because o wo main
hings. Fi s ly, he book summa izes and c i ically e iews he au ho 's esea ch wo ks and
esea ch a eas, e alua es hei me hodology. Secondly, a new sociolinguis ic model o he s udy
o he ange and in ensi y o language con ac s has been p oposed. The alue o his scien i ic
monog aph is also inc eased by he ac ha i is no jus a linguis ic o sociolinguis ic […] i is an
in e disciplina y wo k. The au ho 's esea ch is based no only on he wo k o linguis s o
sociolinguis s, bu also on he wo k o sociologis s, cul u al scien is s, his o ians, because i
examines no only linguis ic o sociolinguis ic ac s, bu also his o ical, cul u al, sociocul u al and
poli ical con ex s. I is impo an ha he wo a eas unde in es iga ion a e iewed " om bo h
sides", i.e. he a ea o he Li huanian language ha was once one, a i icially no di iding i in o
Li huania and Bela us. The no el y, ele ance and o iginali y o he monog aph is u he
enhanced by he ac ha he au ho elies on mul ilingual au hen ic audio eco dings, composed
in o he s udy om sociolinguis ic su eys o he local popula ion. I is wo h men ioning ha
he au ho o he book he sel comes om he Li huanian-speaking island o Bela us, so she unde s ands and can e alua e he in es iga i e si ua ion no only om he collec ed ma e ial, bu also based on au hen ic expe ience.
A e closing he book, i can be boldly said ha he aim o he monog aph is o e eal, on he
basis o empi ical da a, he ajec o y o he mig a ion o he Li huanian language om he
sou h-eas e n pa o Li huania o he e hnic Li huanian islands in Bela us, o iden i y he
causes o he sociolinguis ic and e hnolinguis ic language changes and o in es iga e he new
ypes and unc ions o he codes used by people li ing in he a eas o mig a ion. Today's
si ua ion o he Li huanian language in he sou h-eas e n pa o Li huania, un o una ely, does
no inspi e much op imism: in he es o ed S a e o Li huania, which has su i ed o mo e han
hi y yea s, "cus omism" exis s. Un il now, we obse e he "g ea es wa s" s ill aging in he
hea s o he people. I 's gonna be a long ime be o e i 's ealized ha e e yone's been h ough
wha a man's been h ough.