LEKSIKOS TYRINĖJIMAI

LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

FEATURES OF SUFFIXAL NOMINAL DERIVATION IN THE KAPSAS–ZANAVYKAI DIALECTS

J. SENKUS

A. INTRODUCTORY NOTES

The study of word formation is quite complex and broad. Its methods can also vary.

Previously, the study of Lithuanian word formation was known mainly for examining suffixal word formation according to the alphabetical order of suffixes. The works of A. Leskien, P. Skardžius, and others rely chiefly on this method¹. In Baltic studies, this method was established by J. Endzelin². The Soviet study of language, too, does not dispense with this method³.

Linguists following this method examine the so-called consonantal suffixes and the word formation involving them, as already mentioned, according to the alphabetical order of the consonant in the suffix. (It should be noted that this order is relative in some cases.) This may be called the traditional way of examining suffixal word formation. It is convenient not only for the author in organizing extensive material, but also for the reader who needs to find a desired item quickly. These features of suffixal nominal formation in the Kapsas–Zanavykai dialects rely mainly on this method as well. See section B, “Suffixes by Their Consonant.”

Another way of examining suffixal nominal formation is to classify nouns and their suffixes by meaning or other criteria. Although this approach has not been widely used in the study of word formation to date, it has quite a few advantages. However, this method is used only in part in this work: at the end, in one place, a brief overview is provided of the meanings of the individual parts of speech and of the nouns associated with them (and, moreover, of nouns specifically in a separate section). See section C, “A Summary Overview of Nominal Formation.” The desire to use both methods inevitably led to some topics or material being repeated. Repeated points have been kept very brief.

In reviewing suffixal nominal formation using either the first or the second method, various aspects of word formation must be touched upon to a greater or lesser extent, including, as far as possible, how and from what suffixal nouns are formed, and so on. We must admit that this work has not undertaken, or has not succeeded in, carrying out these tasks consistently and fully. It attempts to do so mostly only where essential and feasible. The main aim of this work is to present the material itself in a more or less systematic way.

¹ Cf. Bildung der Nomina im Litauischen by August Leskien, Leipzig 1891; P. Skardžius, Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, Vilnius, 1941.

² Plg. Lettische Grammatik von J. Endzelin, Riga, 1922, ir kitus jo veikalus.

³ Plg. Mūsdienu latviešu literaras valodas gramatika, I, Rīgā, 1959.

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This paper attempts to survey only the suffixal formation of nominal words, namely their consonantal suffixes. The so-called vocalic suffixes and the formation of nominal words with them are not addressed, since suffixes are not understood broadly here: in the usual sense, only suffixes containing consonants are considered suffixes. Some matters concerning the so-called vocalic suffixes are touched upon in the inflection chapter of the monograph on the Kapsai-Zanavykai dialects. (Moreover, the formation of compounds, verbs, or other parts of speech, as well as reduplicated derivatives, in the dialects described is not yet examined specifically.)

As the title itself indicates, this paper deals only with the suffixal formation of nominal words (primarily nouns and adjectives). Other parts of speech are mentioned only in more exceptional cases, when they are particularly closely related to the suffixal formation of nominal words; compare, for example, the suffixes -tas (passive participles are also mentioned), -opas (adverbs are also mentioned).

In the course of this work, it was necessary to address the concept of a suffix. Here, suffix is understood from the perspective of contemporary Lithuanian, not historically, although in some cases the latter perspective also had to be adopted; cf. suffixes with the consonant j. In addition, uncertainties arose regarding the interpretation of certain individual suffixes; for example, compare the suffixes -ena and -mena.

The so-called compound suffixes often occur alongside the so-called continuous suffixes; cf. -ėlis and -umėlis, -utėlis: baltumėlis, baltutėlis. In addition, there are also so-called extended suffixes: for example, alongside -klis there is also -iklis (jauniklis). Both compound and extended suffixes are generally grouped together with continuous and simple suffixes. An attempt is also made to group suffixes that are closer in certain other respects (cf. -ynas, -ynė), but strict uniformity could not be achieved here.

Some suffixes that differ alphabetically are related to one another in one way or another, to a greater or lesser extent. At times, such suffixes are cross-referenced to one another for comparison and the like.

Many of the suffixes mentioned here are familiar throughout the area covered by the dialects described and differ little, or not at all, from standard Lithuanian usage. However, some suffixes are used only in particular dialects, subdialects, or local varieties described here, and differ to a greater or lesser extent from standard Lithuanian. As far as possible, greater attention has been given to such suffixes and they have been highlighted more prominently.

The question is whether all the nominal suffixes of the dialects described, and all cases of word formation using them, are covered here. The answer is that an effort was made to provide as much material as possible, but, of course, the aim was not to cover everything exhaustively (as the title itself indicates); moreover, that would have been more difficult to do. Some suffixes—for example, less familiar non-Lithuanian ones—have also been deliberately omitted.

Suffixes are given here with their endings and, in most cases, in both genders, where applicable. The feminine is listed alongside the masculine, as is customary, but the method of presentation is not uniform, depending on the material itself or similar considerations. Common, familiar, and self-evident feminine counterparts—especially in examples of adjectives—are sometimes not mentioned at all; however, an effort is always made to indicate in one way or another the variant feminine forms found particularly among nouns -uvienė, -ienė or -ė (driskiuvienė, purvė, Balanienė || Balāniuvienė).

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To illustrate suffixes, examples of one kind or another are usually given; both individual-word examples and examples of word combinations and phraseological expressions are taken mainly from the Pazanavykys Kapsai dialect, especially from the northern part of Vilkaviškis district. Examples of various unproductive suffixes are also taken mostly from there. The precise location of the individual-word or word-combination examples taken from there is often not indicated at all, or is indicated only in particularly noteworthy cases. The precise location of phraseological examples is always indicated by abbreviations, most of which are the same as those in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language.” The abbreviation kpI means “Kapsai I” (northwestern), and kpII means “Kapsai II” (southeastern). Phraseological examples are usually given either where they are more necessary to illustrate the meaning of an individual-word example, or where they are available, and so on.

The meaning of the examples is explained wherever the author considered it more necessary.

Individual-word examples are usually always marked for stress. In addition, they are marked for stress in phraseological sentences or word combinations as well. The other words in phraseological examples are marked for stress only in particularly noteworthy cases. Notes on the stress of words with these or other suffixes are likewise provided only when necessary. Here, too, it proved impossible to adhere to a clearer and stricter system.

Examples are written using the orthography of the standard language; as far as possible, at least the most salient features of the dialects described, whether phonetic or similar, are recorded; for example, compare the spellings vėjė, merškė, gaditojas, etc.

B. SUFFIXES ACCORDING TO THEIR CONSONANT

I. Suffixes with -b-

1. -yba. In the dialects, the singular of nouns formed with this suffix has not been productive for a long time; it occurs more often in newer words, e.g.: gynyba kpI|| gynýba, sargýba, tikýba, žvejýba. Of the older formations, only a few are better known in the language, e.g., sodýba: ‘Long ago, the others moved to the village, but my grandparents stayed in the sodýba to live’ Gs.

Words usually used in the plural are more customary in the dialects, e.g.: derýbos: ‘They are holding negotiations’ (‘they are bargaining, consulting’) Vlkv., laižýbos || laižýbos: ‘Let’s go to the licking match—we’ll see who wins’ Gs., piršlýbos, radýbos: ‘If you give something for the radýbos, I’ll hand it over’ Pjv., šėrýbos: ‘We used to give the sheep away for the šėrýbos’ Gs., ženýbos: ‘She’s young, yet already has a ukvātą for the ženýbos’ Vlkv.

Derivatives of this suffix are usually of verbal origin and are stressed according to accent paradigm I.

2. -ybas, -a. The suffix -ýbas, feminine -ýba || -ýba, is used in adjectives in place of the standard-language suffix -yvas, -a. Only the words ankstýbas, vėlýbas are known with this suffix: ‘This year spring was late, winter early’ Gs. In the southern Dzūkija Kapsai speech, words with both suffixes are used: ankstývas, senývas || ankstýbas, senýbas Klvr. Cf. XV 8b.

The suffix -ybas has a falling pitch accent. The feminine gender only occasionally retains the old fixed stress.

3. -ybė, -enybė. The suffix -ybė is quite productive. Words formed with it are usually stressed on the suffix and, unlike in the standard language, have a circumflex pitch accent, especially in the Kapsai dialect, and belong to accent paradigm II, except for the following observed acute-accented forms—

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examples of the second and first accent paradigms: galýbė, gérýbė, grožýbė and sometimes lýgybė. The accentuation lygýbė is more common—this is the usual accentuation not only among the Kapsai but also among the Zanavykai.

The suffix -ybė is used predominantly to form adjectival nouns, e.g.: aukštybė, baisýbė “1. awfulness, monster; 2. a great multitude,” bjaurybė, brangýbė, gilybė, kantrybė, lygýbė, piktybė, puikybė, sunkýbė, tuštybė.

There are few formations with -ybė derived from nouns; the better-known ones are: niekšybė “a scoundrelly deed,” ponýbė “a great many lords”: The whole crowd of lords gathered, Gs., šunýbė “a bad, harmful deed”: They get up to mischief, Vlkv.

Now and then, a word formed from an adverb or by another pattern with the suffix -ybė also occurs, e.g.: daugybė, galýbė.

In some words of adjectival formation, the suffix -ybė can have various meanings, but most often it denotes adjectival abstractions; its meaning is partly synonymous with that of the suffix -umas, and the two can sometimes be used in parallel, e.g.: tamsýbė || tamsumas, kartýbė || kartumas. Bjaurybė can also have a concrete meaning: Oh, you monster! Grš.

Instead of, or sometimes alongside, the suffix -ybė, especially in denominal formations, the suffix -ystė is used, e.g.: brolystė || brolybė, draugystė, giminystė, kiaulystė, kvailybė || kvailybė. Cf. XIV 20.

A few nouns of adjectival origin occur with the compound suffix -enybė.

The suffix -enybė is less common than -ybė. In individual examples, it sometimes corresponds in meaning to -ybė and sometimes has a certain concrete meaning; words formed with it are used more often in the singular, while words with a concrete meaning are more common in the plural, e.g.: brangenybė, sūnkenybė: That’s an awful expense—you can’t afford it, Gs. Pris bought all sorts of valuables, “expensive things,” Gs. That child is a real burden to me, “trouble,” Plv. Words with the suffix -enybė can be stressed on the root or on the suffix.

II. Suffixes with -č-

1. -inyčia. Used generally in hybrids. It most often denotes a place where something is kept. E.g.: druskinyčia “salt cellar,” kiaúlinyčia “pigsty” || kiaulinyčia “a place of dirt and disorder,” sūrinýčia “cheese room,” sviestinyčia “butter room,” vilkinýčia “a very cold hut”: To vilkinyčio gali viskas suragoti “freeze solid” Plv.

Words of foreign origin with this suffix have also survived, e.g.: abrūšinyčia || abrūšinyčia “abrūšinė, a device for hanging an abrūšas (towel),” cigárnyčia (cigarinýčia?) “mouthpiece.”

2. -inčius, -inčiu vienė. Only a few words occur with the suffix -inčius, e.g.: galinčius “one who can do much, is capable,” išminčius “one of great wisdom and learning.”

The feminine counterparts of derivatives with the suffix -inčius are words with the suffix -inčiu vienė: galinčiu vienė, išminčiu vienė. Where did you get to be such a wise woman? Grš.

3. -o čius, -o čiu vienė. The suffix -o čius denotes a person with certain characteristics, e.g.: barzdačius “a man with a large beard”: In earlier times we saw barz- only in photographs

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dočius Plv., galvočius “a clever, intelligent person,” pilvočius “one with a large belly,” ūsųčius “a man with a large moustache.”

Alongside some masculine words with the suffix -očius, corresponding feminine forms with the suffix -očiu vienė have the same meaning, e.g.: galvočiu vienė, pilvočiu vienė. That pilvočiuvienė is really ugly Gs.

4. -uočius, -uočiu vienė. This suffix is rare. Its meaning is partly similar to that of the suffix -očius. E.g.: garbiniu očius “one with curly hair, a curly-haired person”: Mūs vaiḱs garbiniuočius — gražus Gs. Iš maženc jau bo garbiniuočius Plv., guzikuočius “a person with many or large buttons on their clothes,” pinig uočius “one who has a lot of money.”

The feminine form is sometimes used too: garbiniu očiu vienė || garbiniu otė, guzi-kuočiu vienė, piniguočiu vienė.

5. Other suffixes with -č-. a) -yčia: telyčia: The girl is already like a heifer Alk., Kiaulyčia, -õs (3ᵇ) || Kiául yčia (1) “the left tributary of the Bambena” Dkš.

b) -enyčia: Raudenýčia upl. Klvr.

c) -učė: mergučė “little girl”: Tos mergučės ka duoda drėlą (išdykauja), tai net grindys pyška Br. Su tom mergučėm neprasidėk Būbl. The suffix -učė occurs more often in the Zanavykai dialect—Kapsai scarcely know it.

III. Suffixes with -d-

1. -da. Before the suffixal d, there is usually also some group of sounds, il, in, el, an… For example: kibilda ir klibinda “a lame person, one who walks crookedly”: Eina kap klibinda Žal., švebėlda “someone who speaks indistinctly, mumbling; a person with a lisp”, balánda “bot. Chenopodium”, pabálda “someone who makes a racket, a restless person”.

2. -das. Here we have words of various origins and formations, such as, for example: klõdas “row, layer”, paklõdai “straw laid on the ground in a threshing barn when piling grain”.

3. -odas, -a. With this suffix there is only vienóds, -a: Brolei, o nevienódo būdo VIkv. Compare the forms in other dialects kitódas, -a, and Latvian vienāds, citāds.

4. -ėzdas; -ozdas. Words worth mentioning with these suffixes are: gremėzdas “someone clumsy”: Ale i gremėzdas — kur eina, tę i griūva Gs., gramózdas “1. an old object”: Pilni kampai visokių gramózdų Plv. “2. someone clumsy, a lumbering person”.

IV. Suffixes with -g-

1. -ga. A few words formed with the root -ei- and some prefix are worth mentioning here, for example: išeiga “departure, leaving”, péreiga “1. duty, 2. wanderer”: Sugau-dysi tą svieto péreiga Plv., prieiga || pryéiga Gs. “approach, preparation”, sueiga “coming together, gathering”; in addition, words that have newly arisen in the dialect: ãpeigos “ceremonies”, pareigà “obligation”.

2. -gas. With this suffix there is only the word padárgas “tool, creature, implement”: Pilni kampai visokių padárgų Plv. Perhaps žiõgas should also be included here: Strāksi kab žiõgas VIkv.

3. -gys, -ė. There are two words with this suffix, used when speaking about an animal’s age: dveigys, -ė “two years old”, treigys, -ė “three years old”: Šokinėja, laksto, kap dveigė a treigė kumelaitė Gs. Pasiliko sau tik vieną dveigį Alk.

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4. -ingas, -a. This is an adjective suffix widely used in dialects. Most are denominal adjectives that indicate possession of the qualities of the thing named by the noun from which they are formed, e.g.: dékingas, feminine dékinga, džiaukšmingas, gailestingas, kaulingas “with many large bones,” kantringas “patient”: Kantryngas žmogus Dkš., lašiningas “fat, with good lard”: Lašininga kiaulė — bus ko valgyt Nm., lýingas || lytingas kpl || lietingas⁴ kplI: Lỹtinga diena VIkv., mìltingas: Mìltingos bulvės “good, tasty, and crumbly” Gs., piningingas “having a lot of money,” smalìngas: Ot, smalìngos malkos tai gerai dega Plv., vė́jingas “windy”: Vėjinga diena — gerai džiovina VIkv.

Adjectives with similar meanings also include teisingas, tvarkingas.

In addition to the aforementioned basic meaning, derivatives of this type can also express more specific qualities, e.g.: iškalbingas “eloquent,” melagingas “false, deceitful”: Melagingos šnekos greit paplinta VIkv., nagìngas “able to do anything, skilled at manual work”: Nagingą vyrą gáu Gs., petìngas “broad-shouldered”: Petingas vyras, tai i drúc Nm. Pakeleivingas žmogus apsinakvó KzR., širdìngas “kind-hearted, sincere”: Oi, kokia ji má širdinga — negaliu acdžiaukt Žal.

Some adjectives with this suffix can be formed not only from nouns but also from adjectives, e.g.: garsìngas — gaũsas, garsus: Tai garsingi vyrai — visi juos žino VIkv., meilìngas — meilė, meilus, malonìngas — malonė, malonus.

The only familiar example formed from an adjective is sumanìngas — sumanus, while the one formed from a verb is dėdinga (hen).

With the prefix be-, the only known adjective with the suffix -ingas is bereikalìngas “unnecessary”: Kas iš to — bereikalìngas tik darbas Bgt.

5. Various suffixes with -g-. The narrower-use suffixes worth mentioning here are those that have certain sounds or sound sequences before the suffixal -g-.

For example, the better-known words with the vowel a before the suffixal -g- are: medžiagà “cloth, fabric; the material from which something is made or built,” mandagùs, -i, melãgis, -ė || melãgius, feminine melãgiuvienė: Ką tu klausai tos melãgiuvienės Alk.

With e before -g-, the following may be mentioned: vėdega || vedegà “a certain kind of axe”: Vėdega geriausia tinka loviám iškapot Gs., vuodegà.

Perhaps the following can also be included here, for example: vertélga “trader, speculator”: Menkas darbinykas iš tokio vertélgos Žal.

Only one or two examples are likewise attested among derivatives with certain suffixal sound sequences ng (preceded by a vowel), e.g.: žabángai || žabángos “traps, snares,” burliungis, feminine burliungė “a person with a plump face,” mėšlungis || mėšlungis “a disease involving muscle or tendon spasms”: Kai užeina mėšlungis — negali paeít Gs., riebungė “fat woman” Vink.

V. Suffixes with -j-

1. -ju-. In the dialects described, nominal derivatives formed with the -ju-⁵ suffix, of later origin, are widely used. In meaning, they are close to words with the suffix -inykas || -iminkas

⁴As with this one, so with some other adjectives formed with the suffix -ingas, the stress falls on the root mainly among older people.

⁵Although this suffix is not consonantal from the standpoint of the present-day language, it is included here as an exception because derivatives formed with it are highly characteristic of the dialects described; moreover, this is also intended to indicate their feminine gender.

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to the basic meaning. The feminine suffix of these derivatives, especially those of two syllables, is most often -iuvienė, and sometimes -ė. For example: blýnius, fem. blýniuvienė ‘one who likes pancakes’: All our children are big pancake-eaters Vlkv., bulvius, bulvė ‘potato lover’, blūsius ‘one who has many fleas’: That dog of theirs is a real flea-bag Alvt., drūskius ‘one who likes to eat salty food’, kailius ‘furrier’, kiaūlius ‘dirty, slovenly person, one who scrounges’: Well, you’ll see what that dirty slattern will get for her trouble Gs., kerdžius kpl || skerdžius kpl: The butcher was slaughtering a young pig, having set up a little trough Dkš., pienius ‘milk lover’, pyrāgius ‘cake lover’, puōdžius ‘potter’, pū́rvius ‘dirty, soiled person; field laborer’: You’d have made a fine girl, but you’re such a dirty thing Gs., rāčius ‘wheelwright; carpenter’, seilius ‘one who is drooling’, snārgius ‘1. one with a runny nose, 2. brat’, skarmālius ‘one who is ragged and tattered’: A ragged fellow danced with a ragged woman Plv., skrandžius ‘one dressed in a skranda’, skudū́rlius ‘1. one who is ragged, 2. rag collector’, skūrždžius ‘one who is impoverished, poor, living in poverty’, spirgius ‘1. crackling lover, 2. small person’. Cf. also the riddle: The hemp-seed cakes and the bacon fought and brawled kanapinius su lašiniu (Shrove Tuesday—the beginning of Lent) Gs.

Only a few derivatives of this type are formed from adjectives, for example, nuōgius ‘naked person’. Such derivatives as, for example, sùkčius (cf. suffixes with -č-) can also be formed from passive past-tense participles with the suffix -ta- (suktas). Unusual derivatives are also encountered occasionally, for example, garbinius, -ė ‘one with curly hair’: Do you know that curly-haired person? Alk.

Not many of the derivatives with this suffix are formed from verbs either. It may be assumed that there were more of them in the past. They have several meanings. For example: lakiūs rare ‘swarm’, prietvarius ‘constipation—a disease’, skaitlius || skaičius, skýrius, spiēčius.

Among examples of nomina agentis and words of related meaning, the following may be mentioned: aūšlius ‘chatterbox’: You chatter away—why are you making such a racket? Grš., drisk(i)us ‘ragged person’: It’s embarrassing to go with that ragged woman Gs., driūlius ‘one who is clumsy and falls about’ Grš., knisius ‘one inclined to rummage and dig’, knipčius ‘one inclined to pick at things or who does so’, smīlius ‘1. pointed-nosed person, 2. the finger next to the thumb’, snūdžius ‘sleepyhead, drowsy person’: What will those sleepyheads have? They’re always waiting for things from others Žal.

2. -ėjas, -ėja. The suffix -ėja (fem.) has traditionally been more usual only in certain feminine words, for example: audėja || audėja, melžėja, rovėja (of flax), verpėja. The suffix -ėjas, -a (pjovėjas, siuvėjas, šokėjas, šlavėjas, vedėjas, etc.) is generally more recent, having come from written sources. Today, the suffix -ėjas is more usual in some words, and -ikas in others. In addition, there are examples in which these suffixes differ in meaning, for example: gynėjas ‘defender’—in court, gynikas ‘fighter’—in infantry, in brawls Ūt., kūrėjas ‘creator’—of the world, kūr ikas ‘stove stoker’ Ūt.

Derivatives with the suffix -ėjas, -a are generally nomina agentis and are formed from the past frequentative stems of verbs. One or another example, especially a more recent one, may also occur formed from the present-tense stem, e.g. ginėjas: Defender of the homeland Gs. The word ravėja, rare, Gs., Vlk., may be an analogical form modeled on ravėtoja.

3. -ija. This suffix is used primarily to form nouns with collective or similar meanings, for example: kareivija ‘soldiers, army’ Gs., Brt., KzR., ponija ‘many lords, the gentry’: In the old days the whole gentry would devour it Alk., šunija ‘1. many dogs, 2. bad company’, velnija ‘devilish business’, vergija ‘slavery’, vyrija ‘group of men’.

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A word or two also occurs with other meanings, e.g.: perkūnija, (v)uošvija “the father-in-law’s life”: Buvau (v)uošvijoj, tai primylėjo (privaišino) Šn., žarija, Orija “Gazda’s left tributary” Klvr.

Following these common nouns and names of peoples and countries (Baltarusija, Gudija || Gūdija, Lenkija || Lenkija, Rūsija, Vokietija), the suffix -ija is most often newly used to designate individual parts of the Lithuanian SSR as well, e.g.: Aukštaitija, Dzūkija, Kaunija, Vilnija, Zanavykija, Žemaitija.

4. -ijas. This suffix is not popular in the dialects under study. Only these words with it are well known: galvijas and trainijas || trainija “part of a cart, wagon shaft.”

5. -tojas, -a. Agent nouns are formed with the suffix -tojas, feminine -toja. When added to the stem of primary verbs, it forms apparently only a single masculine noun in the dialects under study: artójas: árti. Word formation with this suffix from secondary verbs is quite productive, e.g.: ardýtojas: ardý-ti, gadìtojas, grybáutojas, mokýtojas, prižiūrėtojas, rágitojas, važiuotojas. The feminine gender is also used for the latter derivatives.

Some words, in one or another instance, also have u-stem endings in the singular genitive, e.g., artójaus || artójo, lygítojaus: Mes klausom Blindo Tado, lygitojaus mūsų vado (d., nj.) VIkv.

6. -auja. Two words are known with this suffix: šunaujà “1. a lot of dogs, rare; 2. a few bad people” (cf. šunija): Ne dieve duok gyvet su tokia šunaujà Gž., vilkaujà “1. a place where there are many wolves; 2. a cold place, a cold room, a wolf den; 3. a tributary of the Šeimena near Vilkaviškis.”

7. -ojus. Two words with this suffix are better known: rytójus and vasarójus: Daugiausia sėja rugius, kviečius, vasarójaus — mažai VIkv. The latter word has both a ju-stem and a ja-stem form: vasarójus || vasarójas, vasarójaus || vasarójo, vasarójus rare || vasarójei. The plural dative is only vasarojam(s).

VI. Suffixes with -k-

1. -ka. A widely known derivative of the Lithuanian suffix -ka is oškà. The formation of the word kiškà (e.g., Ilgos kiškos “legs”; Gs. Kėlinų kiškà) is unclear.

The word mergìčkà “adolescent girl” deserves separate mention; its suffix may also be considered -ička: Ištekėjau būdama tik mergička VIkv.

The dialects under study have a dozen or so hybrid derivatives, mostly formed with a compound suffix containing the non-Lithuanian suffix -ka. E.g.: kaimynkà || kaiminkà “female neighbor,” motkà: Tėvą pasodina iš vienos pusės, o motką — iš kitos Ig., bobėlka “old hag, worthless woman,” kumelkà “poor mare,” vagìlka “female thief,” mergélka “young but worthless girl or young woman.” As can be seen, this suffix has a certain pejorative and contemptuous meaning.

2. -kas. This suffix perhaps occurs only in one or another of the better-known nouns, e.g.: sliekas, laiškas “onion leaf” || laiškas “letter.” The rare word žélkas “shoot, sprout” is also formed with the suffix -kas. Ji skabūja bulvių želkus Grl.

Among the more unusual derivatives, mention should be made of: pridėčkas “appendix,” pridurkàs “an added piece at the bottom of a shirt or a skirt”: Jau nemažas, o da vis įsikabinęs į mamos pridurką Gs.

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3. -kis, -ė. The following words (nouns or adjectives) formed with the suffix -kis (more precisely, -škis or -skis, feminine -kė) are characteristic of the dialect: dičkis, -ė, dručkis, -ė “a fat person,” juočkis, -ė “a person with dark or black hair or a dark complexion; a black animal, a black one”: Būt nieko mergina, tik tokia juočkė KzR. Bó mūsų du šunes — vienas margis, kitas toks juočkis Gs. An pieno juočkė gera karvė Iš., raučkis, -ė “someone or something red, ruddy,” riupkis, -ė “a little toad,” sūskis, -ė “a miserable, scrawny person.”

A further word worth mentioning separately is striūpkis (striūbkis) “a round, usually small piece of manure or something else” || striūpkis, -ė “someone short, not tall”: Jų vaikai visi toki striūpkei Gs.

4. -(s)kus, -(s)kuvienė. The suffix -(s)kus, feminine -(s)kuvienė, is fairly characteristic of the dialects described. It conveys a certain inclination toward something or a pejorative meaning. For example: ėskus, feminine ėskuvienė “someone who eats voraciously and constantly, a glutton”: Negali prišert — ale ir ėskuvienė! Gs. plėpkus “a chatterbox,” pirčkus || pirškus “a farter,” šlapkus “a soaked person”: Na, kur tu ir buvai, šlapkau, šlapkau? Plv., tūpkus “someone who keeps squatting.”

Among the formations mentioned, the word meitkus “a medium-sized young boar” stands out; no feminine form is formed from it.

5. -ikas. This is a fairly productive suffix, sometimes used alongside the suffix -ėjas, though the latter is much rarer and occurs more often in newer nomina agentis words.

With the suffix -ikas, nomina agentis formations are mostly derived from primary verbs; their feminine forms take the suffix -ikė. For example: bridikas: Bridikai brėda Snt., ėdikas: Žmonių ėdikas “a denouncer, one who brings about another’s ruin” Gs., čiuožikas, gyrikas: Ji buvo gerų žmonių gyrikė Kps., grėbikas, kasikas, keilikas: Duoda būtėlį tiems keilikams Snt., kulikas || kūlikas, mėžikas, ravikas, skundikas, šokikas. Some of them, for example kirtikas: Rugių kirtikai Gs. Jis jau netoli to kirtiko (kuris medį kirto) nuėjęs VŠR., lipikas ret, “someone who climbs somewhere,” patarikas “an adviser,” plėšikas, hardly has a feminine counterpart. As we can see, most are formed from the past simple tense, though a few are also formed from the present tense: minikas Grl., kulikas Vygr., kurtikas VIkv.

Nevertheless, among words used in parallel with the suffixes -ėjas and -ikas, there is sometimes a certain, harder-to-explain difference in nuance. For example, around Būbleliai, -ėjas denotes someone capable of performing the relevant action or work, whereas -ikas denotes someone doing the work at that moment. For example: Pareina pjovikai — these are the ones who are cutting, but this does not mean that cutting is their sole occupation. Cf. V 2.

Those formed from secondary verbs with the suffix -ikas, feminine -ikė, include: kratikas “someone who shakes”: Acirādo, mat, kratike (mėšlo) Gs., statikas “someone who stacks sheaves of cut rye or wheat,” skalikas “a certain kind of dog, a greyhound” (no feminine form is used). In addition, compare the riddle probably known from written sources: Kat kabikas nekabėtų — ir tupikas netupėtų (the hanging slab of bacon and the cat) VIкv.

6. -ikis, -ikė. Words known with the suffix -ikis include: jaunikis “the bridegroom,” laimikis || laimikis “1. an object won, 2. a victory”; also the surname Eidikis || Eidikys and the occasionally substantivized adjective raudonikis, -ė “a red-faced person.” Words of unclear formation also occur, for example gābikis “the evil one, the devil; a person resembling the devil”: Baisus kaip gābikis Gs. Duok per ragus tam gābikiui Plv. Duok tam gābikiui per guonę, ka nelistu Gs. In the KpIIr dialect the diminutive noun suffix -ikė is widely used, for example: kačikė, lovikė, pelikė, skarikė, suknikė, viščikė; Bobutė iškepa bandži-

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…; she hands that little whip to the mare (ps.) Vv. They put up a small shed in the outskirts of the village Grl. The suffix -ikė also occurs in adjectives or nouns functioning as adjectives, e.g., mažikė, senikė: Mudvi su senikė žmona rovėm Grl. Here this suffix also occurs in girls’ surnames; girls’ surnames with it are formed especially from men’s surnames with the suffixes -ūnas, -ilius, -evyčia, etc., e.g., Brundzikė, Daunorikė, Katilikė, Morkūnikė, Senkevyčikė, Vaitkevyčikė, Varkalikė, Venckūnikė, Žemaitikė⁶ (Brūndza, Daūnora(s), Katilius, Morkūnas, Senkėvyčia, Vaitkėvyčia, Varkalà, Venckūnas, Žemaitis).

7. -okas, -a, -okas, -ė. The suffix -ókas, feminine -óka, is used to form adjectives denoting a certain (comparatively high) degree, e.g.: gerókas, mažókas, laibókas, lėtókas: Gers vaikinc, tik biškį lėtókas Gs. Da geriau, ka lėtóko būdo Gs., senókas, sunkókas. The meaning of this suffix corresponds to that of adjectives with apy- (apvgeris, apvmažis).

With the suffix -ók as, feminine -ókė, pejorative nomina agentis formations occur, e.g.: sapaliókas “one who talks nonsense, rambles,” viliōkas “a seducer.” Occasionally, a few substantiva mobilia formed from nouns or adjectives are also used, e.g.: rupūžiōkas, feminine rupūžiōkė “a worthless child or animal,” stačiōkas, -ė “a person who speaks bluntly and impolitely.”

The suffix -ōkas, -ė is used to indicate a person’s place of residence or origin, e.g.: kauniōkas, -ė V1kv., prieniōkas, -ė Ūt., vištyčiōkas, -ė (: Vištytis) Graž., Vygr. The suffix -okas is used with this meaning in Slavic languages as well; compare Polish warszawiak, krakowiak.

Also worth noting separately are masculine nouns of various formations and meanings: paršiōkas “a medium-sized pig,” dvejōkai “two garments worn together” (e.g., two fur coats), and the surname Naujókas; also compare the common word naujókas, -ė.

As the examples show, the noun suffix -ōkas, -ė has a circumflex accent, whereas the adjective suffix -ōkas, -a has an acute accent.

8. -ukas, -ukė; -uka. The suffix -ukas is very widely used. By far the most numerous formations with it are common nouns with affectionate and diminutive meanings. The consonant before suffixal u may be soft or hard—there is no clear pattern here. The consonant t is softened and becomes č. E.g.: antūkas || ančiūkas, arkliūkas, aržuolūkas || aržuoliūkas: Aržuoliūkas, grižuoliūkas, devynšakis, baltalapis, viršuj menuo teka (linas žydi) Vv., garniūkas, kačiūkas || katūkas, kumeliūkas || kumelūkas Būbl., lapūkas “1. diminutive of lapas, 2. a fox cub”: Pilvą perėžia lapės i randa lapukūs (ps.) Vv., namūkas, paršiūkas, paukščiūkas || paukštūkas, peilūkas || peilūkas, staliūkas || stalūkas, viščiūkas || vištūkas, žąsiūkas || žąsūkas, žvirbliūkas || žvirblūkas.

Around Naujoji Ūta, Jiestrakis, and Pašlavantys (Prienai District), the same word was heard with a soft consonant and, less often, with a hard consonant, or sometimes only in one form, e.g.: arkliūkas || arkliūkas, kačiūkas || katūkas, kumeliūkas || kumelūkas, staliūkas, paršiūkas, žąsiūkas, žvirbliūkas. The Zanavykai more often pronounce it with a soft consonant, but forms with a hard consonant are also used, especially when speaking to children, e.g.: katūkas Grš., kumelūkas Būbl., paukštūkas Grš. Almost exclusively with a hard consonant (arkliūkas, lašūkas, peilūkas, paršiūkas, viščiūkas) it is pronounced in the southernmost corner of the Kapsai area (Kalvarija, Liubavas, Vygreliai…).

⁶ Cf. M. Sapijanskaitė, Garliavos tarmė (diploma thesis, manuscript), Vilnius State V. Kapsukas University, Faculty of History and Philology, Department of Lithuanian Language, 1951.

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The feminine suffix (simple or in compound suffixes) -ukė is somewhat less frequent than the masculine suffix -ukas. Softening of the consonant preceding the suffix is inconsistent here too, e.g.: avūkė Vlkv., ančiūkė Gs., Vlkv., dalūkė AžB., garbiniūkė: In former times, garbiniūkės (small curly rue plants) were tucked into one’s hair Gs., kumeliūkė Grl., kvestūkė: Women used to wear kerchiefs on their heads, tied at the back; the kvestūkės hang over their shoulders Klvr., mokytojūkė Grl., netyčiūkė: Their eldest daughter was an unplanned one: she was born either after the wedding or before it Būbl., prielaidinūkė: He lived for a while longer with such a close prielaidinukė (concubine) Grl., pušiūkė: Pušiūkės, so tiny Ūt., skiedriūkė KzR., spyniūkė Nm., viščiūkė Vlkv. || vištūkė Grl., || žąsiūkė || žąsukė rare Gs., Plv. Some of these formations differ to a greater or lesser extent in meaning and sometimes in formation (cf. garbiniūkė, kvestūkė, netyčiūkė, prielaidinūkė).

The suffix -ukas is also widely used in the surnames of sons and children and, familiarly, of unmarried men, when the consonants g, k do not occur before this suffix, e.g.: Abraitiūkas Plv., Brundžiūkas Grl., Bulotiūkas Dkš., Daugeliūkas Grl., Garboriūkas Būbl., Giedraičiūkas Dkš., Klimiūkas Grl., Vlkv., Kuraitūks Grš., Luisūkas Gs., Žal., Rimošaitūks Grš., Varkaliūkas Grl., Vosiliūkas Brt., Žieviūks Būbl. Cf. the surnames: Abráitis, Brúndza, Búlotą(s), Daugėla, Garbórius, etc. Occasionally, irregular forms also occur, e.g. — Jablonečkiūks Plb.; however, as a rule, when the consonant k occurs in the root or at the end of the stem of the father’s surname, the sons’ surnames are formed with the suffix -utis, e.g.: Bartkūtis Būbl.; Butkūtis ib., Kamickūtis Vlkv., Senkūtis Gs., Šilingūtis Būbl., Šniečkūtis Nm. Cf.: Bartkus, Būt kus, Kaminckas, etc.

Zanavykai and kpllr use the suffix -ukė in girls’ surnames, e.g.: Bernotūkė Grš., Braziūkė ib., Deltuvūkė Pašl., Gelčiūkė Ūt., Kuraitūkė Grš., Būbl., Matulaitūkė Ūt., Rimošaitūkė Grš., Vaišn orūkė Būbl. Cf. the surnames: Bernota(s), Bražys, Deltuva, Gelčys (Gelčius), Kuraitis, etc. In the kpllr dialect this suffix for girls is used especially when the male surname ends in -a, preceded by the consonants -mp-, e.g.: Šliumpūkė: Šliumpa, Trumpūkė: Trūmpa⁷. Around Gris-kabūdis and elsewhere, the suffix -ukė is most often used when referring to little girls, though it is also said of adult girls.

In addition, the diminutive suffix -ukas is also attached to another diminutive suffix, e.g., -elis, yielding the compound suffix -eliukas, e.g.: aukseliūkas Grl., grybeliūkas KzR.

Adjectives with the suffix -ukas, feminine -ukė, are generally formed only from a-stem adjectives, e.g.: juodiūkas || juodžiūkas, mažiūkas, ploniūkas, siauriūkas, trumpūkas. In addition, they are also formed, especially in kpllr, from diminutive adjectives with the suffix -utis (from its stem), yielding compound suffixes, e.g.: baltučiūkas, geruč-iūkas, gražuč iūkas Grl., mažučiūkas KzR.

Adjectives converted into nouns with the suffix -ukas also occur, e.g., greitūkas ‘1. express train’: The express train does not stop everywhere Vlkv. I travelled by express train Kps., ‘2. fast child’: What a fast little one you are, child Ig.

The suffix -ukas is also used to form deverbal nouns, e.g.: giržduk as ‘creaking, a creak’: A girždukas has come into my hand Žvr., plepikas, -ė ‘chatterbox’, švilpukas ‘whistle’, žindūkas, -ė ‘1. a suckling child or young animal, 2. a teat’: He’s big, yet still has a pacifier in his mouth Gs.

⁷ M. S a p i j a n s k a i t ė, Garliavos tarmė, 39–40.

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In addition, words of various formations or meanings with the suffix -ukas occur, for example, brūzguliukai: Here are (loom) brūzguliukai, which the heddles would walk around KzR., guobinūkas ‘a vessel hollowed out of wood, reinforced underneath with an iron hoop (for flour, groats, etc.)’ Grl., jaunūkas, -ė ‘young person’: The old folks will work, while you young ones will lie about? (iron.) Gs., mergautinūkas, -ė ‘girl-child’, pagramdūkas ‘1. a small loaf of bread baked from the scraps, 2. the youngest child in a family’, skurdžiūkas, -ė ‘a small stunted animal or child’, tėvūkas ‘father’s father, grandfather’: Grandfather is old, his jacket is short; when he bends over, it pulls tight (d.) Gs.

A diminutive suffix -uka (-ukė) also sometimes occurs in girls’ names, e.g.: Mariukà, Mariùkė Grš., Onukà: Mariukà and Jonukas make one smoke together (wedding toast) Ūt. She married their Onukà Gs.

9. -tukas. This suffix is rather rare. Worth mentioning are several nouns formed from verbs, mostly denoting tools: grieptūkas ‘a sickle-shaped iron hoop used for gathering grain (taking it from a swath)’: Some of the women reapers are still gathering rye with griebtukai Brt., kauptūkas ‘dial. a hoe’, kirstūkas ‘1. a quick-jumping, striking adolescent child’: He hasn’t even had time to grow up, and already he’s a kirstūkas himself Gs. ‘2. a small animal resembling a mouse’ Alk., peštūkas ‘1. a tool for plucking a pig’s bristles, 2. a person who likes to tussle’, plaktūkas ‘a small hammer’. The latter word may be formed not only from the verb plakti, but also from the noun plàktas; cf. also graustūkas and graūštas.

10. -įnykas || -ininkas. -inykas || -ininkas is a very productive noun suffix. In the dialects described, -inykas⁸ is pronounced more widely.

In the dialects described, derivatives of this suffix are formed mostly from nouns and denote people (fem. -inykė) who engage in, attend to, or are skilled or inclined toward something on a regular or long-term basis. For example: bitinykas, daininykas, darbinykas, daržinykas, kampinykas ‘tenant’ Plut., kraininykas ‘one who carries the dowry’: They dress the dowry-carriers—tie a towel across their shoulders Ig., mėsinykas, pačtinykas, pagelbinykas, raštinykas, talkinykas Ūt. || talkinykas.

A few derivatives of this kind occur that denote people living in a particular place, e.g.: girinykas, -ė ‘one living among forests’, laukininykas, -ė ‘a resident where there are no forests—a field-dweller’: Around Kazlūs (Kazlų Rūda) they are forest-dwellers, but around Pilviškiai they are already field-dwellers Alk.

Words formed with this suffix from nouns also occur, denoting a place where something (livestock, birds) is kept, e.g.: kiaūlinykas ‘pigsty’, žąsinýkas ‘goose shed’.

In addition, among the noun formations, less familiar words worth mentioning are: piršinykai ‘a part of the horse harness that passes across the horse’s chest at the breast straps’ Gs., kaklininykas (cf. kaklinis) ‘the part of the harness along the neck’ Būbl.

There are relatively few nouns formed with the suffix -inykas || -ininkas from adjectives or certain other parts of speech; examples worth mentioning include: aūtrinykas archaic Gs. We were sort of aūtrinininkai Būbl., branginykas, -ė ‘one who charges a high price for what is sold’, pėkštinykas ‘a foot soldier’, raitinykas, pirmìnykas, smarkinykas ‘a forceful person’: Don’t be such a smarkinỹks, or you’ll get it yourself Žal.

⁸ The Kapsai most commonly use only -inykas (-ininkas is newer here), whereas the Zanavykai, alongside the more frequent -ininkas, also used -inykas (darbinyks, šeiminýks, ūkinyks). Near Naujoji Ūta, -inikas (pulkinikas) has also been heard.

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Proper names occur as village names (usually in the plural) and surnames, e.g.: Navinykai || Naujin ykai Vlkv., Būdinykas Gs.

It is noteworthy that in formations with the suffix -inykas || -ininkas, the sound i or the entire syllable ni is omitted, e.g.: girnykai “inhabitants of forests,” kepūrnykas “hat maker and seller,” old, liežuvnykas “chatterbox, liar, gossip,” malūnykas || malūninkas Būbl., vargōnykas, vestūnykas Gs. || vestūvininkas: Vestūvininkai have returned Grš., trāktornykas, trobēlnykas old, “smallholder, an inhabitant owning just one little hut.” Cf. also baudžiāunykas < baudžiauvinykas.

As is apparent from all the examples given, words with the suffix -inykas, with a few exceptions, are stressed according to the familiar stress rule of the standard language⁹.

11. -iškas, -a. This is an adjectival suffix¹⁰. Most words formed with this suffix are adjectives derived from nouns. These formations most often indicate some kind of affiliation or a certain similarity. E.g.: bōbiškas “such as women’s”: Ką tu klausai tų bobīškų šnekų Gs., čigōniškas žmogus “cunning, shrewd,” kiaūliškas apsėdimas “impolite, improper behavior,” mēsiškas valgis “made of meat or with meat,” pāsakiškas “like a fairy tale.” We used to hear all kinds of fairy-tale-like happenings Vlkv., senōviškos mados, šūniškas gyvenimas “bad, wretched,” žiēmiška kepurė “warm, worn in winter.” Here one might perhaps include the example: “Sodžius”—i žemaitiško and iš giōgiško¹¹ Klvr.

The meaning of affiliation is especially evident in examples such as: angliška medžiaga, vōkiška mada.

A few words formed from adjectives or certain other parts of speech with the suffix -iškas also occur, e.g.: vidutiniškas vyrukas, visiškas ligonis, pasiūtiškas šaltis, kazdiēniškas acitikimas, savōtiškas žmogus.

12. -iškis, -ė. In common nouns, the suffix -iškis, feminine -iškė, is used, for example, in formations such as: alytiškis “a person from or near Alytus,” jūsiškis “someone who lives with you, someone who belongs to you,” mūsiškis, namiškis “a member of that household.” – How are the other members of your household? Vlkv. The suffix -iškis, -ė is used alongside -ietis, -ė, especially in kpII: birštoniškis, kauniškis Pašl., prieniškis, sasnaviškis Jiestr., simniškis Dkš., vilniškis, virbališkis Vygr. Speakers of the Daukšiai dialect feel that there is some difference between the suffixes -iškis and -ietis, but what that difference is could not be determined. The Zanavykai say: Parvažiavo šakiškei “those who had been in Šakiai have returned” Būbl.

The word vyriškis “man” deserves separate mention. Bō dvi moterys i vienc vyriškis Gs. A word formed in the same way as vyriškis, with the suffix -iškė, is moteriškė “woman.” Vis po biskį, vis po biskį pasidarė moteriškė (dainuška) Plv.

In the dialects described, the word tēviškė occurs with the suffix -iškė, meaning “1. native place—the parents’ place; 2. rare, old: serfdom,” e.g.: Buvo tokios kumpanijos, ėjo žmonės i giedojo: Pone, per tavo malonę sugrąžik mums tēviškę Būbl.

Proper names—settlement names with the suffix -iškis, -iškė (in the singular or plural)—occur more often than common nouns. E.g.: Ałdriškei village Žal., Būdžiškei village Alvt., Juozūniškė village Plv., Moziūriškės village KzR., Pilviškėi town, Plū-

⁹ Plg. A. Laigonaitė, Literatūrinės lietuvių kalbos kirčiavimas, Vilnius, 1959, p. 43–44.

¹⁰ A few nouns with this suffix also occur, though very rarely, e.g.: Neturi jokio nė gyvuliško Grl. Kitašyk mērgiškė nesimokė Būbl.

¹¹ In the Kalvarija area, the inhabitants of the Kapsukas region are called žemaičiais, while the Dzūkians nickname the people of the Kalvarija area giūogais.

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tiškės town, Vilkaviškis; river names: Bagžiškė Dkš., Dūdiškis Kps., Grįžiškis Igl., Kišliškė Šil., Kavoliškė Kps., Rudiškis Kps., Pabališkis Ss. It is noteworthy that the suffix -iškė is more commonly used to mark place names in the singular in the western and northern parts of the dialect area under discussion, whereas -iškės (plural) is used in the eastern and southern parts.

13. Various suffixes containing the consonant -k-. a) -aka: ąšaka: Duonutė bė su ąšakom Gs.

b) -aika: nevaláika “a slovenly person, a dirty person.” Baisus nevaláika tas vaikščias Plv.

c) -auka: staučiáuka “a fence made of upright stakes” Šil.

d) -ečkė: rupėčkė “toad”: Wait, you toad, I’ll show you! (said angrily to a naughty person) Alvt.

e) -ėkas. There are several words of various origins and meanings with this suffix, e.g.: kanabėkas “a tool for dumping manure from a cart,” ponėkas “a petty lord.”

f) -eika: lindėika “someone who sticks their nose in everywhere,” mušėika || mušėikė “a brawler, someone who likes to fight,” Judrėika upl. VŠR., Mažeika surname VIkv.

g) -elka: tupėlka “someone who sits, squats”: Well, you sitting-about one, get spinning, Br.

h) -erka: pliumperka “someone who is fat (said of women)”: Those plump women, she’s goggling, Br.

i) -urkė: čiūčiurkė “a little girl who wets herself,” pečiūrkė “the space beneath the stove.”

j) -uška: dainuškà, peliuškos “poor-quality black peas,” vakaruškos || vakaruškà “evening dances,” voveruškà “a type of mushroom,” surnames: Andriuškà, Baltuškà, Bartuškà.

VII. Suffixes with -l-

1. -(s)la, -(s)las. A dozen or so derivatives of various meanings, mostly deverbal, are formed with the suffix -la, e.g.: šmekla ‘monster’, švarplà ‘a small notch, protrusion, or break; a gap between the teeth’: She split her lip—and a švarplà remained Plv., tešla, vėpla ‘a fool’, žiopla || žioplà ‘a gaping, rather foolish person’, žirglà ‘long-legged’: And there comes that žirglà already Snt. With -sla, only gýsla is known. There are several nouns with the suffix -las, e.g.: aūlas: Black as a shoe lace Gs., driėžlas ‘lizard’, dūmlas, siūlas. Adjectives with the suffix -las, feminine -la, worth mentioning are: dėglas, miklas. Only a few nouns have the suffix -slas, e.g.: krislas < *kritslas, mėšlas < * *mežšlas, mókslas, tikslas, žaislas Būbl. ‘bridle, bit’, žaislas nj. ‘toy’.

2. -(s)lys, -ė. First to be mentioned are these agent nouns with the suffix -lys, feminine -lė; examples: burblys ‘1. one who grumbles constantly, 2. a fat child’, čirkšlys, -ė ‘a squealing—crying—child or girl’, šnypslys ‘one who is bent over and works as if sniffing’: Štaras urges the oxen on, two hawks are carrying [the load], while poor šnypslys trails behind (the ploughman) Alvt., šveplys ‘one who lisps’, pyplýs ‘1. one who whistles or squeaks, 2. one who is thin, insignificant’, veplys ‘one who gapes, a fool’, žioplys ‘one who gapes; an open-mouthed, foolish person’: And would you propose such a foolish girl? Alk.

There are words of various meanings with the suffix -lys, e.g.: baublys ‘zool. Botaurus stellaris’, dieglýs ‘a stabbing pain, such an ailment’: A stabbing pain set in his side Gs., grėblýs, krumplýs ‘1. a finger joint, 2. a projection on a rotating iron wheel, 3. a short, stout person’.

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She’s no girl at all, and yet I got only such a little krumplis Žal., kranklys ‘zool. Corvus corax’, padėlys ‘an egg laid in a nest’, siurblys ‘a tool for pumping water’, svirplys, Krioklys stream Žal.

Nouns with concrete meanings occur with the suffix -lė, e.g.: družėlės ‘shavings, sawdust’, grimzlė (4), usually plural, ‘sediment’: All the sediment gathered at the bottom Gs., rauplės, siūlė, stemplė, žnyplės; Yglė stream Ig., Karklė stream Kbr.

The suffix -slė (after k, -slė) is rare; words to note formed with it include: gyslė || gyslė (4, 1) ‘leaf of wild marjoram, orach’: Put a gyslė leaf on it with sweet cream—it will ease the overgrowth’s stabbing pain Gs. Take the gyslės off my hand Vrb. I’ll put a thought through the belly gyslė; there’s a fair in the belly Gs., kriaukšlė || kriaukšlė ‘bread crust’ Gs., mislė, pūslė, raukšlė.

3. -lius. The better-known formations with this suffix are only: derlius, skaitlius ‘number’: We’ve cut quite a lot of rye by the count, but the harvest is poor (we threshed few grains) Plv.

4. -lus, -li. With this suffix, adjectives of various meanings are formed mostly from verbs and sometimes from nouns, e.g.: bailus, knislius ‘inclined to dig and rummage’ Vlkv., keblus ‘complicated’: It’s complicated here Vlkv., seklus ‘shallow’: This (in the river) is a shallow place—you can wade across Gs., vislus: Their family are all (prolific)—they keep getting bonuses Plv.

5. -ala, -alas. Only one or two derivatives occur with the suffix -ala, e.g.: griaušala ‘good-for-nothing’: What will you do with that good-for-nothing—you’ll have girls who are better than her Alk., sniegala ‘a kind of little bird’ Klvr., švėpala ‘a scatterbrained lad; a fool, a simpleton’: I told you not to get mixed up with that fool. Gs.

With the suffix -alas, deverbal nouns are especially worth noting; most denote concrete things, e.g.: apvalkalas ‘clothing, garment’: I gave Jonukas two sets of clothes VšR, augalas, barškalas ‘rattle’, gėralas ‘a drink, kvass’, lakalas, lėsalas, padažalas ‘sauce’, verpalai ‘yarn, what has been spun’, užvalkalas. A few abstract nouns also occur, e.g.: pliauškalas ‘ugly talk’, tauškalas ‘idle talk; babbling’.

There are also agent nouns, generally pejorative or derogatory in meaning; some (barškalas, tauškalas) and those mentioned above may be included here. E.g.: bambalas ‘one who grumbles’, barškalas ‘a person who talks a lot’, pliūpalas ‘one who chatters—talks like that’, smirdalas ‘one who stinks, a stinker’, tarškalas ‘one who talks rapidly and loudly’.

There are also a few other kinds of derivatives, e.g.: reikalas, riebalai, šapalas ‘1. a splinter, 2. a fish name’, vabalas.

6. -alis, -ė; -alius, -ė, -aliuvienė. With the suffix -alis, feminine -alė, pejorative agent nouns occur, e.g.: miegālis, -ė ‘one who sleeps a lot and for a long time’, nuogālis, -ė ‘a naked person, one who is unclothed’; (nuogālė ‘lack of clothes’: The flax failed to grow, and nuogālė struck Gs.), snaudālis, -ė ‘one who is always dozing’.

Alongside forms with the suffix -alis, the same thing may perhaps be said more often with the suffix -alius, feminine -aliuvienė || -alė, e.g.: bambālius ‘one who grumbles a lot and talks annoyingly’: Be quiet, you grumbler! Alk., bezdālius ‘one who farts’, miegālius, nuogālius, pirdālius, pliauškālius ‘one who chatters and speaks crudely’, snaudālius, spangālius, -ė ‘a squinter, one with poor eyesight’: While she was spinning, chaff will fall into her eyes, and she’ll become spangālė (she won’t be able to see) VšR., staugālius ‘one who howls’, tauškālius: Genė is a chatterbox Br., varvāl ius ‘small child’, derogatory: Be quiet, you little brat, you’re going to be cheeky to me here! Būbl.

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7. -elis, -elė, -intelìs, -ė; -elys. The suffix -elis, feminine -elė, is used mainly to form diminutive and affectionate nouns; the masculine gender (with -elis) is generally formed from non-diminutive masculine disyllabic words, while the feminine gender (with -elė) is formed from feminine words. For example: brolelis, dugnelis, paršelìs, senelis, tėvelis; galvelė, mergelė, pušelė, vyšnelė. The suffix -elis sometimes has a diminutive meaning with a derogatory nuance: ‘It’s beautiful how those Dzūkians speak’ Snt.

Some words with the suffixes -elis, -elė are no longer true diminutives, having acquired a particular, specialized meaning, e.g.: berželis ‘the sixth month of the year, June’; gaidėlis ‘bot. plantain, Plantago media’: ‘Gaidėlei mostly grow in poor meadows’ Gž. ‘Even the livestock won’t eat the Gaidėlių’ Šn.; kūlėlis ‘straw specially tied for thatching a roof’; avėlė, bobėlė ‘a device for peening a scythe’; skarėlė.

Surnames are formed in the same way, e.g.: Medėlis, Stanėlis. They no longer have a diminutive meaning.

There are also non-diminutive words with a derogatory meaning formed with the suffix -elis, e.g.: góvelis ‘goželis, a blockhead’, goželis ‘one who gožinėja; a blockhead’: ‘That goželis is wandering around the fields’ Nm. ‘Where will you put such a goželė?’ Gs.; vaikelis ‘kid, brat’: ‘All sorts of vaikelai gathered for the dance’ Gs.; vėpelis ‘fool, simpleton’: ‘Why are you listening to that vėpelis?’ Plb.; žiopelis ‘blockhead’. The difference between these formations and words with a diminutive suffix is also shown by the position of the stress—it does not fall on the suffix.

The occasional compound suffix -intelìs, -ė seems to indicate a certain degree of adjectives, e.g.: Baltìntėlis ‘very white’ like a little snowball Gs. Still a jaunìntėlė wife Būbl. Vienìntėlis child Nm. Naujìntėlis coat Gs.

The suffix -elys is also occasionally found; for example, alongside vaikelis, vaikelys is used with the same meaning: ‘Don’t mix with those vaikėleis’ Plv.

8. -ėlis, -ėlė; -utėlis, -ė; -umėlis. The suffix -ėlis, feminine -ėlė, like the suffix -elis, -ė, is mainly diminutive and affectionate in meaning; however, it is added to stems of polysyllabic nouns, e.g.: ąžuolėlis, dobilėlis, dolerėlis: ‘He gave a little silver coin of gold, a little hammered dollar’ (d.) Alvt.; piemenėlis, vainikėlis; dukterėlė, lelijėlė, seserėlė.

Adjectives with the compound suffix -utėlis, -ė can be derived from adjectives with the suffix -utis, -ė (baltutis). The suffix -utėlis, -ė is used, chiefly in folklore, in such diminutive and affectionate adjectives as: baltutėlis, -ė, gražutėlis, -ė, lygu-tėlis, -ė Grl., mažutėlis, -ė, naujutėlis, -ė. In addition, forms such as girtutėlis, -ė, greitutėlis, -ė. also occur.

In meaning, adjectives with these suffixes are equivalent to a certain comparative or superlative degree.

Nouns with the compound suffix -umėlis, such as baltumėlis, brangumėlis, gražumėlis, skaistumė-lis, tolūmėlis., also have diminutive and affectionate meanings.

Verbal nouns with the suffix -ėlis, feminine -ėlė, have an entirely different meaning: they denote mainly (usually negatively characterized) persons, e.g.: iždėkelis, nebūvėlis: ‘Where is that guest nebūvėlis from?’ (‘one who has never been here before, or was here long ago’) Gs.; nugaišėlis, padėgėlis, pajuodėlis ‘one with a black face, blackened’; pamišėlis, pavaržėlis ‘poor wretch, beggar’; suplūšėlis, užušėlis ‘half-wit’. As can be seen, these formations have taken on the meaning of the prefixed verb from which they are derived

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and are stressed on the stem. Also worth mentioning here are words formed from reflexive verbs, e.g.: aciskyrėlis, isigimelis, išsišėpelis ‘one who is grinning’: He’s ugly—such a grinny sort Ig. I don’t even want to be friends with such a grinny sort Žvr. Who would take such a grinny woman Ig.; išilupėlis ‘something whose coating has peeled off’: You can put this peeled vessel (one whose glaze has peeled off) on the fire—it isn’t afraid of heat Kps.; isižiojėlis ‘chatterbox; shouter, crybaby; dimwit’: That child of theirs is a terrible chatterbox Kps. What a terrible chatterbox of a girl: she’ll shout and tell someone else Gs.; ištvirkėlis, pasileidėlis, susiraukėlis, usimėrkelis. Their feminine forms are made with the suffix -ėlė.

There are also various feminine-only (with the suffix -ėlė) names for occupations, mostly referring to animals or sometimes plants, e.g.: dilgėlė, kirmėlė, šiurbėlė ‘leech’, skruzdėlė, utėlė, vėgėlė. They also differ from diminutives in the location of the stress.

9. -ėlius, -ėliuvienė, -ėlė. With the suffix -ėlius, feminine -ėliuvienė || -ėlė, there are only a few words with pejorative meaning, e.g.: smirdėlius ‘stinker’, feminine smirdėliuvienė || smirdėlė || smirdėlė; utėlius ‘one who has lice’, feminine utėliuvienė || utėlė.

10. -ila, -yla. The suffix -ila is rather rare—only the following words with it are worth mentioning: barzdilė || barzdylą rare ‘bearded man’, vaidilą, Dabrilą surnames.

With the suffix -yla, one or two common-gender words are worth mentioning, e.g.: pliauškyla ‘chatterbox’, staugylą ‘one who howls, shouts’.

11. -ilas; -ylas, -a. There are several masculine nouns with the suffix -ilas, e.g.: birbilas ‘poor-quality beer’ Plb., brizgilas ‘a bridle with a bit, put on a horse’, dóbilas, eržilas, sprāgilas.

The suffix -ýlas || -ýlas, feminine -ylà, is known only in these adjectives: akýlas || akýlas, -a (alongside akyliūs, -ių) and ausýlas, -à rare.

12. -olius, -oliuvienė; -olė. With the suffix -olius, feminine -oliuvienė, only gurgolius, gurgoliuvienė are known, meaning ‘slovenly person, filthy person, slob’: I’ve never yet seen such a slob as you, Alk. How dare that slob of a woman sit down at the table? Alk.

With -olė, only gurgolė is attested, meaning ‘vodka’: When they get drunk on vodka, then they lie there Gs.

The origin of these words might perhaps be connected with the words gūrgulas, gurgėti and the like.

13. -ula, -ulas. With the suffix -ula, the sole word worth mentioning is viesula || vėsula ‘whirlwind’: It spins around like a whirlwind Žal. A terrible whirlwind arose Gs.

Several nouns of various meanings occur with the suffix -ulas, e.g.: bum-bulas ‘disc, ball (of a tower)’, burbulas: It vanished like a soap bubble Gs., gėdulas || gėdulas dialectal, gniūtulas ‘lump’, gūrgulas || gūrg(u)olas ‘a clotted or tangled piece of material’, viesulas dialectal.

14. -ulis, -ulė; -ulys. With the suffix -ulis, feminine -ulė, a few adjectives with a particular definite meaning are used, e.g.: didžiulis, -ė, gražulis, -ė rare, mažiulis, -ė. Nouns (masculine or feminine) with a somewhat different, namely affectionate, meaning include: dėdulis, dievulis, tėvulis, pačiulė: Where is your shirt, dear wife? Alvt.; svočiulė: The matchmaker cut a rose along the road Plv. Move over, dear matchmaker, the men will sit here Gs.; tetulė.

Other nouns worth mentioning include, for example: brūzgulis ‘a certain kind of stick’, drobūlė ‘a certain kind of tablecloth’: I’ve acquired all sorts of tablecloths Vlkv.

One or two surnames with the suffix -ulis are also known, e.g.: Gražulis, Mičiulis, Vaičiulis.

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With the suffix -ulys, first to be mentioned are nomina actionis derivatives, e.g.: drebulẏs, dusulẏs, godulẏs “greed,” nudulẏs “laziness, drowsiness”: In the afternoon such sleepiness comes over one, Grl., riaugulẏs “belching, retching,” snaudulys “dozing, drowsiness,” troškulys.

Words of various formations with concrete and sometimes abstract meanings occur, e.g.: gyvulys, juodulys “a black stain, a black spot, blackness,” kraustulys “a small movable object,” krušulys: Spoiled milk gets lumpy or turns reddish, Būbl., nuodegulẏs “a charred stick,” skaudulẏs: A sore appeared on his leg, Gs. Unable to bear the sore, Grl., skritulys “a circle,” triuškalys “a crumb,” Grš., užkandulys “a snack”: He wasn’t a drunkard—he always had a snack with him, Būbl.

15. -aila. A rare suffix. It occurs in common-gender nouns and proper names, e.g.: krapāila “one who walks along picking at things”: Apparently drunk—he walks like a krapāila, Gs., sapāila “a speaker of nonsense, a babbler,” Nm., strapāila “one who fusses about, strāpalīs,” Šipāila surname, Grš. This suffix may perhaps have equivalents in Slavic languages as well; cf. Slavic -ailo.

16. -áulė. So far, only one word with this suffix is known from the dialects described: makáulė “head; crown of the head” (pejorative): Your head is too small for those studies, Gs. He struck (hit) her with a stick right on the head, Žal. In other dialects, e.g. Samogitian, and in standard Lithuanian, this word is stressed with a circumflex¹².

17. -uolius, -uolė; -uolys. The suffix -uolis, feminine -uolė, is used mainly in words formed from adjectives, e.g.: drąsuolis, -ė, gudruolis, -ė, pavyd(u)olis, -ė: The miser—the envious one—ate the mouse like a mare (from shepherds’ speech), Gs., stipruolis, -ė, šykštuolis, -ė, skenduolis, -ė, varguolis, -ė “poor person.”

Mention should be made separately of žyžuolis “a beet or another vegetable (onion, sėtinis),” raguolė “a blue-flowering plant that grows among wheat,” spanguolė bot. “Oxycoccus quadripetalus, spalgėna.”

-uolys is not a very productive nominal suffix. Only these words are widely known: branduolys, kamuolys, obuolys.

18. -(y)kla. Of the words formed with the suffix -kla from primary verbs, only sėkla is known.

By adding the suffix -kla to the infinitive of secondary y-stem verbs, the suffix -ykla was formed. Derivatives with this suffix mostly denote the place where something is done. There are not many older words. E.g.: gulykla: Here is a hare’s resting place (a place where it has lain), Gs., knisykla “a dug-up, messed-up, disordered place”: Their bed is like a pigsty, Plv., maudykla “a bathing place.” In both the literary language and the dialects described, the suffix -ykla is now highly productive and alive. Cf.: čiuožykla, kirpykla, mokykla, valgykla. Proper names also occur with the suffix -ykla, e.g., Žaidyklos “such a bog,” KzR.

Mention should be made separately of the common-gender word baidykla, which has a quite different meaning: “scarecrow”: From him, a frightening scarecrow would come, Grš. With that coat, she looks like some kind of scarecrow, AžŽB.

19. -klas. Words with the suffix -klas mostly denote tools and are generally formed from verbs, e.g.: gin klas, pjūklas. Also to be mentioned here are:

¹² Cf. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (ats. red. J. Kruopas), Kaunas, 1954; P. Skardžius, Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, p. 191.

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audeklas, pabūklas: They shoot from all sorts of weapons Vlk., padėklas || padėklas “a certain stick placed underneath something,” vystyk las.

20. -klė, -klis, -klys. The suffix -klė forms nouns with various meanings, e.g.: gerklė, pinklės “trap,” slaklės.

Before the suffix -klė there may be some suffixal sound (a vowel or diphthong); in that case, we have the so-called extended suffixes -yklė, formed in one way or another (words formed with it most often denote tools), -oklė, -uoklė, e.g.: baidyklė “monster,” grumdyklė “wooden or iron device for washing, pounding” Grl., metyklė “a device for throwing something, e.g., pebbles,” laidyk lė, rodyklė (e.g., of a road clock), supyklė “cradle,” šaudyk lė “a device into which the shuttle is inserted while weaving,” medžioklė; girtuoklė “a forest berry resembling a blueberry,” vaiduoklė: I will tell such a vaiduoklė “a tale about ghosts or a ghostly apparition” Ot., žibuoklė “hepatic,” Vlk., Nm.

Before the suffix -klis there may also be some suffixal vowel or diphthong, e.g.: i, o, uo. Thus, there are the suffixes -iklis, -oklis, -uoklis. E.g.: jauniklis, -ė “someone very young,” Kiritiklis nickname, Dkš., klajoklis, -ė, girtuoklis, -ė, pakaruoklis, -ė, vaiduoklis.

With the suffix -klys, only arklys is known.

VIII. Suffixes with -m-

1. -(s)mas. The suffix -mas occurs in a few nouns with concrete meanings, e.g.: jėšmas, kėlmas: Overgrown like a stump Gs.

Noteworthy is the numeral with the suffix -mas, feminine -ma, sėkmas, -a, rare. The numeral ašmas, -a is still familiar to one or another older speaker of the dialects described. Sėkma and ašma were more often heard in use around Naujoji Ūta.

With the suffix -smas there are a dozen or so verbal abstracts and nomina actionis formations, e.g.: thunderous noise: O ka tave griausmas! Gs., feeling, squalling “howling, shrieking,” scream “a cry, shouting,” pain, shouting, banging, noise (after k here -smas > -šmas), weeping.

2. -(s)mė. The suffix -mė is used in words such as: drėgmė, gelmė “depth, deep place”: Don’t go in—it’s deep there, Plv., linkmė “direction”: Well, that’s the direction, Gs., padermė “kin, breed,” tankmė “density.”

The better-known words with the suffix -smė are only: bausmė, drausmė, giesmė, grūsmė “crowding, crush”: So many people came that there was a great crush, Vlk., versmė “eddy, whirlpool.”

3. -imas. The suffix -imas is quite widely used. It is used chiefly to form verbal nouns of abstract meaning from past-tense stems, e.g.: bėgimas, ėjimas, gailojimas: Oh, the weeping, the grieving—my heart grew heavy, Gs., gurgimas “rumbling”: All night the rumbling and driving of cars could be heard, Kt., kirpimas, metimas, siuvimas, stovėjimas: After the wedding they return, and then the standing begins, Ig. The standing is the wedding feast itself, Ig. During the standing they dance the matchmaker beautifully, Ig., užimas.

Some of the formations mentioned have also acquired a concrete meaning, e.g.: arimas usually plural “ploughed field,” klojimas: We have already threshed a couple of threshing floors, Gs., prariekimas “pre-

11. Leksikos tyrinėjimai

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“a slice cut from a loaf of bread,” sutvėrimas: Ale tai i sutvėrimas niekai vaikas! Plv., vežimas “wheels.”

In some words formed in this way, when a new meaning arises, the stress shifts and, most often, -imas is pronounced -ymas instead of the suffix, e.g.: padėjimas “the action” || padėjimas “a storehouse”: Ta bulvinė viskām geras padėjimas Žal., gėrimas “the action” || gėrymas “a drink.” Cf. the suffix -ymas.

There are a few nouns with the suffix -imas derived from adjectives, e.g.: jaunimas, minkštimas, tirštimai.

Adjectives with the suffix -imas, feminine -imà, worth mentioning are: svetimas, -à, artimas, -à, tolimas, -à; instead of the latter two, artymas, tolymas. are more often used.

4. -ymas. The suffix -ymas is complex: -y-mas, e.g., sāk-y-mas.

With this suffix, infinitive-based verbal nouns with a v-stem are especially noteworthy, e.g.: āydymas, gānymas, mātymas, klāusymas, sākymas. These are mostly words with abstract meanings. There are also formations of this type with two meanings—denoting both an action and something concrete, e.g.: maišymas “1. the action, 2. dough mixed for bread,” pūdmas “1. the action, 2. fallow, a field left uncultivated.”

Nouns are also formed with the suffix -ymas from primary verbs; they usually have a concrete meaning, e.g.: gėrymas: Prisidarė visokių gėrymų Gs., grendymas || grėmdymas “floor of a threshing barn,” gūrgždymas “groin.” Jį pervėrė peiliu į patį gūrgždymą Kps., klāusymas: kláusti: Koks klāusymas, toks ir acakymas. VIkv.||klāusymas: to listen, linkymas “the opposite side of the knee or elbow,” kūlymas: Jau prasidė kūlymai VIkv. Cf. also: gėrymas “1. drink, something drunk, 2. drinking”: Įpratęs į tą gėrymą, tai kap liga Žal., klāusymas “1. the action, 2. a question” and klaustimas “the action.” As regards stress placement, cf. -imas.

Noun formation from adjectives with the suffix -ymas is not widely attested. The following can be assigned to this type of formation: bāItymas “the white part of the eye, egg, etc.,” tūštymas “the most sensitive spot on the side, the flank, the hollow below the ribs”: Dūnkstelė į tūštymą, ir negyvas Gs., dvišākymas (: dvišakas) “crotch, perineum.”

The only adjectives with the suffix -ymas, feminine -ymā, are: artymas, -à || artymas as a noun, “friend,” tōlymas, -à; less often artimas, tolimas.

5. -uma. Various formations with the suffix -uma occur, with varied meanings (perhaps mostly denoting place), e.g.: aukštumà “a high place”: Užlipo į pačią aukštumą VIkv., gailumà “pungency”: Pačią gailumą nugėriau, o kas liko, tai tau Gž., gilumà “a deep place,” jaunumà “youth”: No jaunumoš lašinių nevalgau Gs., seklumà “a shallow place (e.g., in a river),” žemumà “a low-lying place.”

In addition, people say: daugumà “the majority,” šilumà, tuštumà: Vidūrvasarį pati tuštumà; tuščias metas — mažai tėra maisto Gs.

6. -umas. This is a fairly common suffix. It is used chiefly to form abstract nouns from adjectives, sometimes also with concrete meanings, e.g.: aiškūmas, baltūmas, gerūmas, gilūmas, kartūmas, riebūmas (and riebūmai “fat”), piktūmas: Piktūmas ‘anger’ ima į jį žiūrint Alk., sunkūmas, šviesūmas, tamsūmas. As the examples show, these words are formed not only from adjectives with a u-stem, but also from those with a and ja stems. In addition, alongside žalūmas, didūmas, one sometimes also hears žaliūmas Gs., Plv.: žalias, didžiūmas || didžūmà “the majority, the greater part”: Didžiumà jau nusikasė bulves, o jų dar stovi Nm.

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An occasional formation with -umas occurs, derived from a noun or another part of speech, for example: tinginumas: “Laziness comes over me from that heat” Gs., netikumas: “And what carelessness ‘slovenliness’ he has” Plv., daugumas “many.”

It is worth noting that in some formations with the suffix -umas, the instrumental case, when used adverbially, is stressed on the root, for example: gėrumu, gražumu, piktumu.

7. Other suffixes with the consonant -m-. a) -amas: rūkamas “part of a loom,” rare, Gs.

b) -ymė. With this suffix, only one word is known: kiaurymė “a hole”: “Oh, what a hole there is here!” Gs.

c) -imis, -ė. Only the word penimis, penimė “something being fattened, usually a pig” is worth mentioning: “We slaughtered a good fattening pig” Plv. “We’ll be able to sell that pig being fattened” Gs.

d) -umė. With this suffix, only the word mažumė “childhood” is known: “From childhood (more often mažumėlės) he got used to stealing” Plv.

IX. Suffixes with the consonant -n-

1. -(s)na, -(s)nas. Among words with the suffix -na, nouns with predominantly concrete meanings should be mentioned first, for example: briaunà “edge,” siena, šalnà, šutna “hot, sultry weather,” žiaunos.

There are also common-gender nomina agentis with the suffix -na, for example: gleinà (4) “someone who smears, daubs, makes a mess”: “What a gleinà—he can’t even cut himself a piece of meat with a knife” Žvr., klipnà: “Such a klipnà, and when it comes to boasting, there’s no end to it” Būbl., purkšnà “someone who gets angry quickly and starts snorting,” skretnà “someone with a dirty, filthy mouth; a filthy person”: “That child walks around as a terrible skretnà” Gs.

Words with other formations or various meanings also occur, for example: triznà “1. diarrhea, loose bowels. 2. a hot-tempered person, a fiery character.”

Words (nouns) formed with the suffix -sna refer mostly to people or concrete things, for example: dusnà “a person with a beard,” džiūsnà “a dried-up person,” rukšnà (after k s > š) “a frowner, a bad-tempered person,” skaursnà “1. poverty, 2. a person reduced to poverty,” lušnà, šerkšnà “a yoke.”

The suffix -nas is used to form adjectives (feminine -na), for example: drėgnas, glėžnas “slender,” liūdnas, pilnas, plonas, šilpnas, šaunas (more often šaunùs) “excellent, good” Žal.

There are quite a few nouns with concrete meanings formed with the suffix -nas, for example: dùgnas, kálnas, klùonas “threshing barn,” spar̃nas, svìrnas Klvr., šérnas.

The suffix -snas survives only in remnants. Alongside the more common word šerkšnà, šerkšnas is also said (ks > kš). In addition, the adverb skursnai is used (rare; cf. skursnas) Dkš., Vlkv. “poorly”: “They lived poorly, so they don’t look anything special” Gs.

2. -(s)nis, -(s)nys. With the suffix -nis (genitive singular -nies, feminine) there are nouns with concrete meanings, for example: kriaunis: “One edge of the (knife) came up” Vlkv., kulnis, plėnis (usually plural plėnys) “a dying fire turning to ashes,” skõbnis “a small low cask”: “Pour water into the cask” Br., šaknis, šlaunis “thigh,” trãknys “rotten straw ends”: “Only a few rotten straw ends remained from that straw” Gs.

The suffix -snis (genitive singular -snies) is rare. The words pusnìs and krósnis are worth mentioning with it: “1. a pile of stones” Klvr., “2. an oven” Alk.

11*

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stem suffix (gen. sg. -snio, masculine) -snīs || -šnys is more frequent, e.g.: alder || alder in Zanavykų, moreover, cf. Alder || Alder in upland Alk., dash (ks > kš), willow || willow, bathhouse || bathhouse, a measure of length || a measure of length, a measure of length || a measure of length.

3. -(s)nus, -nius. The suffix -nus is used mainly to form adjectives (fem. -ni), e.g.: sticky: “The hands get sticky from honey” Gs., swift-flowing stream, splendid “excellent, beautiful”: “That fellow Jone is splendid” Nm., gentle, smudgy “quick to get dirty, to become stained” Žal., Nm.

With the suffix -snus || -šnus, only adjectives are attested: impoverished “impoverished, poor” (rare), gentle “pleasant, gentle”: “All the girls are gentle with the men” Gs.

Two words are known with the suffix -nius, fem. -niuv. ž. || -nė: bedwetter, fem. bedwetter “1. one who wets themselves while lying down, 2. a frivolous person,” shitter, fem. shitter “1. one who has diarrhea, 2. a hot-tempered or frivolous person.”

4. -ana; -anas, -a. The suffix -anų is used to form nouns, e.g.: gift, garment “clothing,” object of worship, remnant, leather bridle “a horse’s leather bridle,” interest “percentage,” eye discharge (usually plural eye discharge), eye discharge (usually plural): “When she woke up, her eyes were full of discharge” Gs., fog “foggy weather.”

Two adjectives occur with the suffix -anas, fem. -ana: gloomy, overcast, “overcast; gloomy, angry”: “In autumn the days are gloomy” Plv. “Has something happened, that your face is so gloomy?” Vlkv. The adverb for free also belongs here: *dovanas.

5. -ena, -mena. The suffix -ena is widely used to denote common-gender nomina agentis with a pejorative meaning, e.g.: half-wit “a half-wit, a simpleton”: “Would you sew yourself such a half-wit?” Gs. near-dead thing “a half-dead one,” wretch “one who has wasted away”: “That mare is already a real wretch” Vlkv. “You can’t please that wretch with any food” Grl. “Would you travel with such wretches?” Ig., yellow-faced one “a person turned yellow by illness”: “Will that yellow-faced one live long, I wonder?” Bgt. “If she were a proper girl, then yes, but this one is such a yellow-faced one” Alk., fool “a blunderer”: “Where is that fool going now?” Plv., wreck “one who can barely walk, a crumpled wreck,” sluggish one “a sluggish creature”: “Look how sluggish he is” Šn. “What can that sluggish one do, I wonder?” Bgt., messy one “a disheveled, tousled person,” madcap “a madcap,” fool “a dazed fool, a madcap,” shrivel “a dried-up person,” wrinkled one “a person with a furrowed brow,” wrinkly “one with a wrinkled or frowning face, a scowling person,” toad “toad (as an insult or term of contempt),” poor wretch “an impoverished wretch, a pauper,” weakling “a feeble creature,” outcast “one whom everyone persecutes,” tousled one “a disheveled person.”

Some of the words listed have another meaning as well, e.g.: carcass meat “meat of an animal that has died,” carrion “meat of a dead animal,” dizziness “vertigo,” carrion “meat of an animal that has died.”

The following words are also worth mentioning: earmuffs “earmuffs”: “When the grain is cleaned, the chaff remains” Grl., soapy water “soapy water,” rotting matter “rot,” bran, chaff “grain husks,” potato peelings “peeled potato skin, peelings” Grl., scorched remains “scorched bits,” upper Dovinė “the upper reaches of the Dovinė” Dkš.

Several nouns occur with the suffix -mena, e.g.: small item “a small object or matter,” large item “a large object,” crumb regional “crumb.” Perhaps Šeimena “a tributary of the Širvinta” Žal. should also be mentioned here.

6. -sena (-šena). The better-known words with this suffix are only: gait “manner of walking,” breather “one barely breathing, barely alive”: “That little breather won’t live much longer” (of a gosling) Plv., spent one (s > š) “a dying, impoverished person.”

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7. -enė, -uomenė. Words that can be classified as formations with the suffix -enė include piemėnė, pabaigėnė “a stove” VIkv., Alk., priemenė || priemenia “a vestibule.”

Also worth mentioning here are words with the compound suffix -uomenė, mostly more recent ones, for example: didiuomenė “nobles, grandees, lords,” jaunūomenė, kariuomenė || karūomenė, visuomenė.

8. -ėna, -ėnas. The suffix -ėna is widely known only in the word velėna.

-ėnas is likewise not a common suffix. The following words are worth mentioning: pelėnas, rare, “a hawk that hunts mice” Plv., tetėnas “the husband of one’s aunt,” trakėnas, -ė “a horse or mare of this breed,” varmėnas “a starling.”

9. -inas. The suffix -inas, feminine -ina, is used in some adjectives derived from nouns that denote an external quality, for example: dūlkīnas “dusty,” dumbIinas “muddy,” krūvinas, pūvinas.

There are only a few deverbal adjectives: būtinas, kūpinas, mūrinas “covered in mortar, soiled,” tėkinas.

Among nouns with the suffix -inas, those denoting male animals should be mentioned first, for example: avinas, bitinas, katinas, kurkinas, meškinas, žąsinas, as well as gulbinas, rare, Gs., Plv., and Gulbinas “the left-bank tributaries of the Šešupė (Plv.) and Sūduonė (Ldvn.).”

There are nouns with the suffix -inas of various meanings, for example: ákštinas “a burr,” aūksinas “a certain kind of money in ancient times,” kirmėnas “a large worm,” milžinas, paršinas “a piglet,” pentinas: Gaidys kap raitelis — su pentinais VIkv., slibinas “a dragon,” Slibinai village, Nm., vaikiinas.

10. -inis, -inė; -utinis, -ė. The suffix -inis, feminine -inė, is used chiefly to form denominal adjectives¹³. They denote:

a) the material from which or with which something is made or produced, for example: Avižinis kisielius gerai stingsta Gs., bulvinė || bulbinė košė Grl., Atrodo, kap gintarinei karielei Alvt. Lininei marškinei geriausia skalbiasi Nm.;

b) possessive relation to an object or type, for example: Antinei kiaušinei prasti Gs. Naujas vieno pryžakinis, kie užpakalinis ratas Plv.;

c) an object’s external resemblance, for example: Rankos kab geležinės “hard” Gs. Akys ledinės, lyg numirėlio “cold, lifeless” Žal.;

d) a purpose or function, for example: Su dobiline (a machine for mowing clover) mašina i pievas pjauna Gs.;

e) a place from which someone originates or in which someone is or lives, for example: Su káimineis žmonėm lengviau rast rodą, kai su miestiniais Alk. Suė į kolūkius i pašėšupinei gyvėtoj ei “those living by the Šešupė” Gs. -inis, -ė is also used instead of or alongside the suffixes -ietis, -iškis: kalvarijinis žmogus Graž., pilviškinis mokytojas VIkv., šilavotinė marti “a daughter-in-law from Šilavotas” Pašl.;

f) a particular time with which something is associated, for example: auštrinis, -ė: Užteka žvaigždė auštrinė Klvr. Dovaninių (given to the bride at the wedding) pinigų turėjo Klvr. Geriausia deda morčinės vištaitės “hatched in March” Gs.;

g) a distinguishing feature of an object, for example: Pas mus yr akinės ir põninės kazyros Gs. Krūminei dantys jau kiauri VIkv.

¹³ Some of them may also have become nouns. Cf.: “Mouse, mouse, here’s a bone for you; give me an iron one” (folk song), Klvr.

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Adjectives with the suffix -inis are also derived from adjectives, e.g.: “They say that baistinei oaks used to grow here,” Ūt. “A Bergždine cow won’t bite; it’s poor,” Gs.

Adjectives with the suffix -inis are also sometimes derived from numerals, e.g.: “A Šešiolikine girl (sixteen years old) is the nimblest of all,” Alk.

There are also adjectives derived from past passive participles with the suffix -inis, e.g.: “Such a drėptinė (a stout girl) is like a sack,” Gs. “A Leistine dumpling (made from thin batter) is the best for me,” Vlkv.

An occasional adjective with the suffix -inis is derived from an adverb, e.g.: “For Kazdieninei clothing, but it suits everywhere,” Nm.

Also worth mentioning here are some adjectives with the compound suffix -utinis, feminine -utinė, e.g.: aukštutinis, viršutinis, galutinis, kraštutinis, paskutinis, paviršutinis, pirmutinis, vidutinis, žemutinis: “So, is that the final word now?” Vlkv. “I always have to be the first and the last—to start first and work the longest,” Pjv.

There are also nouns with the suffix -inis. These are some adjectives with the suffix -inis that have become nouns or function as nouns, so their formation is the same as that of adjectives: they are derived from nouns and some other parts of speech, e.g.:

a) garinis “part of a stove”: “There’s no garinis—the cottage is full of smoke,” Alk. “Put in the garinis—the ceiling is already starting to rot,” Gs.; gniauštinė “a blow with a clenched fist”: “Let’s settle it with ten gniauštinių,” Kt.;

b) pākulinis “poor-quality, made of tow,” prieigadinis “a pig fattened for slaughter; a pig put in the sty,” vilkaviškinis “a resident of Vilkaviškis”: “The woman from Vilkaviškis wasn’t friends with us,” Gs.;

c) aukštinis “a hole in the ceiling for smoke to escape,” nuošalinis: “If some nuošaliniai (outsiders) turned up, that would be better,” Klvr.; palaidinis “a loose, unfastened jacket,” šaltinis;

d) mergautinis “a girl-boy,” suktinis “a kind of dance”;

e) vienuolikinis and others: “Did you come by the vienuolikininas—the eleven o’clock train?” KzR.

Among nouns with the feminine suffix -inė, those denoting mostly a place or an object where something is or is put deserve mention first, e.g.: alinė “beer place, bar”: “Look, he’s turning into the alinę,” Vlkv.; druskinė, gimtinė “birthplace, native home,” kapinės mėsinė, pintinė, statinė, šalinė (in a barn): “He filled the šalinė,” Gs.

There are quite a few nouns with the suffix -inė that have other meanings, e.g.: aušrinė “morning star,” bergždinė “a barren cow”: “What good is that bergždinė to us?” Žal.; giltinė, krūtinė, kūlinė “a machine used for threshing, which also threshes the sheaves,” naginė, ráutinė “ten handfuls”: “In a day you pull up ninety handfuls of flax,” Grl.; sėtinė “a sown forest,” Alk.; šiltinė “a kind of illness,” vėjinė “a wind vane; a board at the end of a roof to keep the wind from tearing at the thatch,” taukinė “an undertaker,” žentinė “a daughter whose husband is brought into the family”: “Everything will be left to the žentinė,” Plv.

River and stream names with the suffixes -inis, -inė are also found, e.g.: Asinis Ss., Eglinis Brt., Ig., Kermušinis Kps., Dōvinė Dkš., Kastinė nj. Alvt., Meškinė Vv., Plaušinė Vv., Savinė || Sabinė Jnk., Vilktinis Krb.

As the examples show, the accentuation of adjectives and especially nouns with the suffixes -inis, -inė varies considerably. Nevertheless, this accentuation is determined, at least in part, by the accentuation of the stem and ending of the base word.

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11. -inys. Nouns are formed with the suffix -inys. They may be derived from verbs (or at least be related to them), adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech.

Words with a verbal root and the suffix -inys have various meanings. Some of them express both a result and an action, for example: atlaidinys “a thaw.” Pabō atlaidinys, i sutizo sniegas Vilkv., palaid-inys “thaw, snowmelt,” tinginys “laziness, idleness”: Ima mane tinginys tokiu oru Gs.

There are also agent nouns (their feminine form is -inė), for example: mokinys, tinginys: Nereik má jos — paskutinė tinginė Gž.

Other nouns formed from verbs or with a verbal root and the suffix -inys have concrete meanings, for example: grindinys “something paved; paving”: Grindiniu eik — mažiau purvyno Vilkv., kratinys “a mixture of hay and straw,” mezginys “something being knitted,” milinys “a stick for turning a millstone,” mutinys “a dish made of sweetened water with crumbled bread”: Prūsų šmulkštė pratraidis, lenkų mutinys sutaisys Alvt., pakulinys || pakulinis, pirkinys “a purchased item,” radinys “a found object,” rentinys “a well wall or other built wall,” tvenkinys “a dam.”

It is worth noting that the suffixes -inis and -inys may sometimes be used for the same purpose, for example: pašūkinis || pašūkinynys “a fabric made from tow”: Būdavo, įsiaudžiam kokio pašūkinio, i gerai Gs.

12. -yna, -ynas, -umynas, -ynė. A few nouns are formed with the suffix -yna. Some refer to living beings, usually in a derogatory sense; others, or the same words, have various meanings, for example: kempyna “a dried-up person, a withered thing”: Suvytes kap koks kempyną Žal., lupyna “1. potato peel, 2. someone or something dried up (a person or animal), 3. a derogatory word,” lentyna, šeimyna.

A few words formed by analogy or by foreign derivation are worth mentioning separately, for example: dvėšelyna “a wake,” krikštynos, vakarýnos “the eve of a wedding, a bachelorette party.”

The suffix -ynas is generally used in nouns with a collective meaning, some of which also denote a particular place, for example: brūklynas “a willow thicket”: Mūsų pievoje yra didelis brūklynas Lkš., alksnynas || elksnynas žan., aržuolynas, eglynas, medynas “forest, woodland”: Prie medynų gyvena Snt., pusnynas “a place where a lot of snow has drifted,” skiedrynas “a lot, a heap of wood chips,” žvyrynas “a place with lots of gravel; gravelly ground.” Proper names also occur with -ynas, for example: Jurkūnas surname, Brt., Barsukyno lake KzR., Kermušynas stream Šil., Rūškynas stream Jnk.

The compound suffix -umynas is used, generally, to denote concrete things associated with the quality expressed by the base word, or an intensified abstract quality, for example: gardumynas usually plural “a tasty thing,” gražumynas “1. a beautiful thing, 2. great beauty,” saldumynas “1. a sweet thing”: Pris pirko visókių saldumynų Vilkv. “2. great sweetness”: Alė i saldumynas — gali liežuvį nurýt Gs., tankumynas “dense thicket.”

The only adjectives with the suffix -ynas, feminine -yna, are mėlynas, mėlyna || mėlyna.

Various nouns are formed with the suffix -ynė. This suffix is often used to designate persons of common gender, usually with some negative connotation, for example: grasynė “a frightening person”: Ale tas zvoguója i zvoguója kai grasynė Būbl., lojynė “someone who speaks unpleasantly—barks,” pliauškynė “someone who chatters, talks nonsense”: Tokiam pliauškynėi, rodos, duotum per zapsàs, kat apsijukotų Gs., purškynė “someone who gets angry quickly,” staugynė “a howler,” tarškynė “a chatterbox”: Tos bobos visos tokios tarškynės Šn.

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Some words of the listed type also denote nomina actionis, e.g.: grūdýnė || grumdýnė “the act of jostling.” There are many people, a dreadful crush Gs., lojýnė “indecent speech,” pliauškýnė “ugly speech, babble,” piūvýnė “quarrels, arguments”: It seems, brothers, their squabbling never ends Plv.

Words with the suffix -ynė often denote tools, e.g.: birbýnė “a certain type of bagpipe”: Put that birbynė away—you’ll get some relief for your ears Gs., laidýnė “a launching device,” padarýnė “implement,” stovýnė “a certain device for helping a child stand,” tarškýnė “a kind of rattling noise—a clatter.”

The suffix -ynė is also widely used to denote a particular place, e.g.: dilgėlýnė “a nettle patch,” durpýnė “a peat bog,” klampýnė “a boggy place,” kupstýnė “a place with many hummocks, a hummocky area”: After the war there was nothing here but hummocks Kbr., lindýnė “a place to hide; a wretched little hut,” molýnė “a place (land) with a lot of clay, a clayey place.”

The suffix -ynė is especially widely used to describe a place where someone lived or still lives. It is generally added to surnames or given names, e.g.: Dubickýnė “a place where Dubickas lived, Dubickas’s former home (farmstead),” Glytýnė “a place where Glytas lived,” Jakubauckýnė, Žilinkýnė, Antanýnė, Jonýnė, Justinýnė. The name of the stream Kliokýnė KzR is worth mentioning.

Words with the suffix -ynė also occur with other meanings, e.g.: gegužýnė nj. “a May celebration,” lupýnė Grl. || lupýna, mėlynė “1. a blueberry”: Blueberries or bilberries—I don’t mind which Gs. “2. a bruised, blue area of the body,” riešutýnė: He climbed into the hazel tree—the tree where nuts grow Ūt., rūškýnė Gs., Klvr. || rūkštýnė Gs.

13. -onas, -ona. There are several agent nouns of varied origin and formation with the suffix -onas, e.g.: šiaušiónas || šiaušiõnas “a disheveled person”: He’s as puffed up as some šiaušionas Gs., nevidõnas (old-fashioned) “a villain, scoundrel,” galgõnas (old-fashioned) “a wastrel.”

There are also only a few nouns with concrete meanings (usually derived from nouns or verbs), e.g.: dirvónas “fallow [field”: Overgrown fallow fields have stood there since the war Nm., márškonas “linen cloth,” vilnonas “woollen cloth”: They have all kinds of woven cloth—linen and woollen Gs., žiūrónas “a viewing device,” lavónas “a dead body.”

Some surnames with -onas also occur, e.g.: Āšmonas, Ārmonas VIkv., Čiaučionas Gs.

There are only two adjectives: geltónas, raudónas, feminine geltóna, raudóna || geltónė, raudoná.

Place names with the suffix -ona also occur, e.g.: Lieponà || Lieponūà rare “the left tributary of the Old Širvinta” Kbr., Jevonà rare || Jevónis common “the left tributary of the Zanila” Pjv.

14. -onis, -onė; -onius, -ė. There are several nouns of varied origin with the suffix -onis, feminine -onė, e.g.: krikščiónis || krikščionis, ligónis, miestiónis || miestiónis, pagonis, velionis nj. Here i- and ja-stems are mixed (i-stem words generally bear stress on the ending). Surnames with -onis also occur, especially in the Padūškys Kapsian subdialect, e.g.: Baniõnis, Masiõnis.

There are only a few adjectives with the suffix -onis, feminine -onė: márškonis “linen,” vilnónis “made of wool”: Woollen clothing is warmer VIkv. Also worth mentioning here is the adjectival form used as a noun gražiónis, -ė “a handsome person”: The young man is a real gražiónis VIkv. She was such a beauty, not like the one he got Gs.

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Among nouns with the suffix -onė (of abstract and sometimes concrete meaning, and of various formations and origins), the following may be mentioned: abejonė “doubt, doubting,” malonė, šarvonės: Vieną dalukę dėjo an durų, kitą užmetė an nabašnyko, o trečią užmetė an šarvonės Plut., vakarónės: Prieš veseliją būna vakarónės Ut. Iš vakaro (prieš vestuves) būna vakarónės Ig., vilionė “enticing, seduction”: Usima su visokiom vilionėm – ka tik pinigą iš kitų ištraukė VIkv.

With the suffix -onius, -ė, only the adjective geltonius, -ė has been heard: Tas geltonius jurginas gražei auga VIkv.

15. -ūnas, -ūnė; -ūna. With the suffix -ūnas, feminine -ūnė, agent nouns derived from verbs are chiefly used, e.g.: gėrūnas “one who likes to drink a lot, drunkard”: Tokia gėrūnų giminė, tai nieko i neturi Gs., lepūnas “spoiled person,” rijūnas “glutton,” pagyrūnas “boaster,” pataikūnas “sycophant,” pavydūnas “envious person”: Nereik būt tokiam pavydūnui Žal., perėjūnas || perėjūnas, ristūnas “little horse” (d.) Plv., žinūnas “expert.” malūnas nj stands apart from these.

Among nouns formed from adjectives or numerals with the suffix -ūnas, feminine -ūnė, the more widely known ones worth mentioning are: dykūnas: Nieks nenor laikyt tų dykūnų Plv., drasūnas, pirmūnas nj. Of these, didžiūnas “magnate” is distinguished by its accent. A noun-derived formation is galiūnas: Įveikė didžiausius galiūnus Gs. Two common nouns may also be mentioned here: karaliūnas (ps.), perkūnas.

The suffix -ūnas is widely found in proper names (surnames and place names derived from surnames), e.g.: Dapkūnas, Gailiūnas Grš., Milčiūnas, Miliūnas, Tamošiūnas, Balčiūnai k. VIkv., Rėčiūnai k. Kbr. As can be seen, they are accented with an acute accent, although forms with a circumflex accent also occur, e.g., Bradūnas pvd. Alvt.

Among nouns with the suffix -ūnė, two words with a circumflex accent may be mentioned: alkūnė, viršūnė, but galūnė.

With the suffix -ūna, zvogūna scom. “chatterbox, gossip” has been heard: Nusibosta má tas zvogūna Gs.

16. -ainas, -a, -ainis, -ainė. With the suffix -ainas, only the adjective apvalainas, -à “round” is known: Apvalainas, kap žirnis VIkv.

Alongside apvalainas, apvalainis, -ė is also sometimes said.

The suffix -ainis is found in dialect nouns that have appeared recently, e.g.: saldainis || saldainė, sausainis.

The following may be mentioned with -ainė: ašakainė: Per karą gerai bo ir ašakainė duona su ašakomis Grš., molainė “clayey ground”: Aplink mus daugiau molainė Alvt., pakarainė: Tą jų mergaitė tikra pakarainė pajodžarga, visur karstosi Grl., plepatainė “chatterbox” Alk., šilainė “land by sandy soil (where there used to be a pinewood),” Ragainė mst., telekainė “lumpy soup”: Šiandien tai jau visai iš kukulių telekainė pasidarė Būbl., žabažainė: Tur būt, negerai duoną nukepet – tokia žabažainė (crumbly, tasteless) Gs. As the examples show, these nouns with the suffix -ainė are substantivized feminine forms of adjectives.

17. -iena, -ienas. Nouns with the suffix -iena mostly denote the meat of animals, e.g.: antiéna, aviena, jautiena, paršiena, žąsiena. The following also belong here: gyvulienė: Aš tos gyvulienos nė po akių nekenčiu Ss., žmogiena: Kas čia žmogiena smyrda? Vv.

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The suffix -iena is also used quite extensively to denote places where cereals grow, e.g.: avižiena, dobilieną, kvietiena, rugiena.

There are also words with -iena of various meanings, e.g.: mėnesieną, naujieną, pirmieną “the first time,” šviežieną “everything that is fresh; fresh meat”: He only wants fresh stuff, Gs., žardieną “the site of a former cattle enclosure.”

All the examples given here, though less often, are also stressed on the suffix (avižiena, mėnesiena).

The only nouns with the suffix -ienas are these: balžienas, blakstienas, kamienas “trunk (of a tree).”

18. -ienis, -ienė. The suffix -ienis, feminine -ienė, occurs in only one rare word (an adjective), draiskalėnis “ragged, torn”: Draiskalėnei marškinėi Vlkv. Having put on such ragged half-socks, Gs.

The suffix -ienė is fairly widely used in nouns. It is stressed with both the acute and circumflex accents. With circumflex accentuation, the suffix -ienė mostly denotes certain foods and dishes, e.g.: bulvienė “potato soup,” gručkienė “gručkų soup”: Gručkienė smells good to one person and bad to another, Plv. They cooked a whole pot of gručkienė, but nobody wants it, Gs., kruštienė “crushed barley groats or soup made from them,” lapienė “leaf soup,” obuolienė “apple purée,” pautienė Gs. || pautienė: They used to say “pautienė,” but now they say “kiaušinienė,” KzR., sausienė “a dish made from dried potatoes,” tarkienė “grated-potato mash,” žirnienė “pea soup.”

In addition, there are a few such words with a pejorative connotation, such as: gaiželienė || gaižalienė Alk. “sour food, sour gruel”: Their bread is always so sour, neither risen nor baked, Brt. Such sour stuff is what her broth is, Brt.; grūdienė “jostling, crush”: Do you think you can see anything through such a crush? Žvr. || grūdelienė: You can’t get through—what a crush, Kt.; gurgulienė “poor soup”: If he doesn’t gulp down some gurgulienė, the old man is as good as unfed, Gs.; kamšalienė “jam, crush”: It’s such a crush there that you don’t even feel like walking, Alk.; maišatienė “confusion,” makalienė “slop,” Gs., pairienė “disorder,” Brt., vakarienė.

With acute accentuation, the suffix -ienė is used in certain words denoting women and wives, as well as female animals, e.g.: dėdienė, karalienė, vilkienė (ps.), Antanienė “Antanas’s wife,” Jonienė, Petrienė, Bylienė, Kaminckienė. Women’s surnames derived from men’s surnames of the first accent class are stressed not on the suffix, e.g.: Dapkūnienė, Linkūnienė, Petraitienė.

Adding the suffix -ienė to two-syllable u-stem words most often produces the suffix -uvienė; in common nouns, e.g.: dėdžius: dėdžuvienė, kailius: kailiuvienė, puodžius: puodžiuvienė, tūpkus: tūpkuvienė “one who keeps squatting, crouching”; in surnames, e.g.: Balānius: Balāniuvienė || Balanienė, Būt kus: Būtkuvienė, Čėrnius: Čėrniuvienė Ūt., Seńkus: Seńkuvienė, Šalčius: Šalčiuvienė Grl., Šniečkus: Šniečkuvienė Būbl, Šaūkščius: Šaūkščiuvienė Ūt., but Katilius: Katilienė Gs.

In KpIIr (N. Ūta, Pašlavantis, etc.), elderly people, including in women’s surnames, use -e instead of Ik -uvienė, -ienė, e.g.: Mikušaukė, Paplauskė.

19. Various suffixes with the consonant -n-. Besides those already described, one or another word also occurs with other suffixes containing the consonant -n-, e.g.:

a) -enys. This is a suffix of certain plural nouns, e.g.: kepenys, krėkenys “the thick, fatty milk of a cow that has just calved”, smegenys.

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b) -uonys, -uonia. The suffix -uonys occurs, it seems, in only two words, in place of the less commonly used -uonis: gyvūnys (gyvūnio) || gyvūonis, geluonys (geluonio).

With the suffix -uonia || -uonė, the river Sūduonia || Sūduonė Ldyn. is also worth mentioning.

c) -enija: nešėnija “fashion, a way of dressing”. Nešėnijos greit mainosi Gs.

d) -ekšnis: ožekšnis bot. “Euonymus”: Ožekšnei, tur būt, dirvose auga Vilkv.

e) -ukšnis: šermukšnis: Ka šermukšnių (uogų) yr, tai kitais metais kviečių bus Plv.

f) -urna: pikčiurna “someone who is very angry, a scowling person”: Nekibik to pikčiurnos Gs.

g) -tena: rietenos “quarreling, arguments”, sviltenos “scorched remains”: Svíltenom iš tolo aci-duoda Gs.

h) -enčena: skrebenčena “a grubby, slovenly person”: Ot kokia ta šeiminynkė skre-benčena Br.

X. Suffixes with -p-

-opas, -a. This is an adjectival suffix. There are only a few examples with it; others, although not foreign to the dialect, are used very rarely. For example, the better-known forms are: dešim-teriópas, -a “tenfold”: They boast of having received a tenfold harvest in Vilkv.; dvejopas, -a “twofold”: They served two kinds of food in Gs. In addition, compare the adverbs: Dvejópai moka rašyt — stačei ir gulščei Gs. Dešimteriópai i šimteriópai atlygino Žal.

XI. Suffixes with -r-

1. -ra, -(s)ras. There are one or two nouns of various meanings with the suffix -ra, e.g.: kaitrā “heat,” kimbra “a dried-up, withered person”: That mare became a real dried-up nag over the winter, Būbl., skiedrā.

The adjectival suffix -ras, feminine -ra, is disappearing—giving way to the suffix -rus (see below). The better-known adjectives are only these: gùdras, miškras, tikras, žydras. There are also one or two examples of other parts of speech with the suffix -ras, e.g., nasrai: “And the jaws—like some yawning mouth!” (meaning “he shouts very loudly”), Gs.

With the suffix -sras, feminine -sra, only the adjective timšras is known: Timšrā kumelė “a dark brown and reddish [mare],” Gs. There is only one noun with -sras as well: gaisras.

2. -rus, -i. -rus, feminine -ri, is a comparatively quite productive adjectival suffix, displacing the suffix -ras, e.g.: aitrūs, aštrūs, ėdrūs, gudrūs, judrūs (also compare Jūd-rė upl. KzR), kaitrūs: Birchwood makes hot-burning firewood, Plv., kantrūs, sukrūs “well twisted”: Tightly twisted thread lasts longer, Gs.

3. -ara, -aras. Examples with the suffix -ara include, e.g.: vāsara, žaīžara || žaīžaras Vilkv. || žiežera Gž. “someone hot-tempered, malicious, irascible”: Don’t touch that irascible one, Gs.

The suffix -aras is likewise not numerous. Only the following are worth mentioning: stagaras “stalk, stem”: The clover heads have been eaten off; only the stalks remain, Gs.; stábaras “stem, stalk”: Why are you standing stiff as a post, without moving, Gs.; vākāras, žāgaras Gs., Vilkv. || žābaras Gs., Nm. “a large frog.”

Around Naujoji Ūta, I happened to hear the old people say añtaras, katarās; in these forms, the suffix may be -taras.

4. -eris, -erys. There are one or two words of various meanings and formations with the suffix -eris, belonging to the jp stem class, e.g.: plėperis “1. a chatterbox, a talkative person”: That woman is a terrible chatterbox, Gs. “2. a rattling cart”: It’s embarrassing to ride in such a rattling cart, Alk.

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With -erys only ašerys KpII || ešerys Zan. and šemerýs are known: Kartus kap šemerýs VIkv.

5. -orius. A few hybrids or nomina agentis of foreign origin occur with the suffix -orius, for example: dainõrius ‘singer’, drūtõrius ‘strong man’: Drūtõrius vyras buvo Būbl., dūdõrius, giedõrius. The feminine gender is sometimes used as well: Acirado, mat, giedõriuvienė Gs.

6. -uras. There are several nouns with this suffix, for example: pūmpuras ‘incipient flower bud’: Išsiskleidė ka pūmpuras VIkv., skūduras ‘rag’, stūburas ‘backbone’: Negaliu acitiest per stūburą Žal.

7. -urė, -erė. Among nouns with the suffix -urė, -erė, the following may be mentioned, for example: kepūrė, kosurė Gs., Plv. || koserė VIkv. || goserė Lbv. ‘throat (usually pejorative)’, skiauturė || skiauterė rare: Raudonas kab gaidžio skiauturė Gs.

8. -urys. This suffix forms nouns with various meanings, for example: dūburys ‘a small deep lake’, gomurys, smūdurys ‘dozing, drowsiness’: Šiltam kambary grėčiau snūdurys ima Plv., stimburys ‘part of a tail without hair’, šūkurys ‘whirlpool’, ungurys, vyturys: Anksčiausia vyturei parlekią VIkv.

9. Various suffixes containing the consonant -r-. There are also other suffixes with the consonant -r-, for example:

a) -ris, -rys: gūngris ‘a bent branch used for a boat’s frames’: Nedidelė valtis, tai tik su trim gūngreis VIkv., stuobris || stuobrys ‘trunk of a broken tree’: Ko stovi kap stuobrys? Gs., Vỹgris ėž. Klvr.

b) -era: klėdera ‘1. a misshapen implement, 2. a crooked person’: Ką norėt iš tokio klėderos Gs.

c) -uris: mentūris ‘a certain tool for stirring porridge’, smagūris || smagūrius ‘sweet tooth’: Duotum šaukštu į kaktą tam smagūriui, tegu nelenda Žal.

XII. Suffixes with -s-

1. -sas, -sa. Among the nouns formed with the suffix -sas, the following are noteworthy, for example: balsas, raupsai: Leprosy used to be a serious disease VIkv.

The suffix -sas, feminine -sa, occurs in one or another adjective, for example: skersas, liesas nj.

In addition, common-gender nomina agentis are formed with the suffix -sa, for example: knėpsa ‘one who is not inclined to eat (e.g., a child)’: You’d think you ought to rap that knėpsa over the knuckles (since he doesn’t eat, but just picks at his food) Gs., murkša ‘one who is morose and taciturn’, vėpsa rare ‘a gawker, a simpleton.’

2. -sus, -si. The suffix -sus, feminine -si, occurs in adjectives, for example: skalsūs: It seems we earn quite a lot, yet that money is not at all abundant VIkv., tamsūs: They are all dark-faced Gs.

3. -ėsa, -ėsai, -ėsis. Formed with the suffix -ėsa, plevėsa ‘a vagabond, a frivolous person’ is noteworthy: I told you not to associate with that plevėsa Nm.

With -ėsai, pelėsai is expressed VIkv., and svilėsai means ‘scorching, scorched bits’ Gs. (more often: pelėsei, svilėsei).

Known forms with the suffix -ėsis include: gardėsis ‘a tasty thing, a delicious meal’: He looks around to see if he can grab some tasty morsel Gs., griuvėsis, pelėsis, puvėsis. These words are more often used in the plural. Compare also: Pelėseis a puvėseis ‘mice and rot’—it all comes out the same VIkv.

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4. -esys, -esis. Words with the suffix -esys worth mentioning include: a) abstract nouns: rumbling “rumbling sound,” behavior, longing; b) names of concrete objects: cloud, building “farmhouse, building,” but feed “fodder”: What kind of food is this—pig feed? Plv.

XIII. Suffixes with -š-

1. -šė. With the suffix -šė, one occasionally encounters a feminine noun with a particular derogatory meaning, e.g.: bóbšė “grandmother, old woman,” mer̆kšė “a poor girl or young woman”: Ale ir išdykę tos merkšės Nm., nabā̆kšė (: sl. nabā̆gas) “poor woman”: What will the poor woman do—she has to go to Vinkš.

2. -išius. This is a fairly productive suffix, also characteristic of descriptive dialects, especially the Kapsai dialect. It denotes people who have a particular negative trait, e.g.: godišius “a greedy person”: You can’t satisfy such greedy people, Gs., mergišius “a womanizer,” kiaulišius “an impolite, slovenly, pig-like person,” kvailišius “rather foolish, half-witted,” nuogišius “a naked person”: How are they not cold, those naked people? Plv., vagišius “a petty thief.” Compare also the surnames Juodišius Brt., Martišius Pjv.

3. Various suffixes with the consonant -š-. Other suffixes with the consonant -š- also occur, though rarely, e.g.:

a) -šas: dripšas “a small crumb,” niekšas.

b) -šius: dripšius: He walks as if he were some dripšius Gs.

c) -aša: Lašāša “the right-bank tributary of the Jiesia” Šil.

Here we should also include the word kundūšas, of unclear origin, meaning “bundle”: We all got out of the vehicle with all our kundūšas Grš.

XIV. Suffixes with -t-

1. -(s)tas, -(s)ta. With the suffix -tas, feminine -ta, ordinal numerals are foremost among those to be mentioned, e.g.: penktas, šeštas, devintas: He is related as the ninth water to kissel, Vlkv.

This suffix is widely used to form passive past-tense participles, e.g.: gautas, muštas, paliktas, palieptas, pakištas. Cf.: In the old days they used to say that for one beaten one, ten unbeaten ones are given, Br.

There are also adjectives with the suffix -tas, e.g.: baltas, lėmtas “not bad”: The times have become not so good, Gs., rimtas, rist as “horse” (d.), šaltas. Many derivatives of this type are adjectivized passive past-tense participles.

There are nouns of various meanings and origins with the suffix -tas, e.g.: grāštas, kāltas, krañtas, liẽntas, plūoštas: I got a bundle (a lot) of money, Žal., rūoštas: We too will have a taste of our own preparation, Gs., sietas, šlaitas.

The suffix -ta is used to form feminine nouns, e.g.: geltà “jaundice”: And is she not ill with jaundice, that she looks so yellow? VIkv., juosta, lakta “1. a small board by the opening of a beehive or bird nesting box for flying out and landing on return, 2. poles where they all fly up to perch”, našta, plutà, srutà (usually plural srūtos), Aistà “a right-bank tributary of the Širvinta” Brt., Pentà “a right-bank tributary of the Nova” Grš.

There are a dozen or so nouns with the suffix -stas, e.g.: krauštas (usually plural krauštai) “a small movable/transportable object”: The corners are full of all kinds of stuff, Gs., kūpstas, pagrėpstai “gathered heaps, grain left scattered in the fields after reaping”: We brought in the grain; only the leftover heaps remained, Alk.

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After k, the suffix is -stas, feminine -sta > -štus, -šta, e.g.: lūkštas: The ice is thin as an eggshell, Žal., minkštas, -a.

2. -(s)tė. Several nouns occur with the suffix -tė, e.g.: gniūštė “clenched fingers; a piece squeezed in the hand”: A fistful is already like a man's, Vikv. He hit me right in the forehead with a snowball, Gs. Dried up like a fistful, Gs., grįštė “a specially twisted and tied bundle of flax”, kirptė “a girl with cropped hair”: Oh, what a pretty little thing that cropped-haired girl is, Alk., pasóstė “wagon seat”, prijuostė.

With the suffix -štė there are only the words: bõpštė || bõpšė “woman (derog.), old woman”, rėkštė “rekštė, rekštė” Klvr., Laikštė “a right-bank tributary of the Šešupė” Kps.

3. -(s)tis. The suffix -tis is used mainly to form feminine abstract nouns (genitive singular -ies), e.g.: gaištìs “delay, wasting time”, grauštìs “remorse, heartache”: When remorse comes over me, I don't know where to turn, Bgt., grūstis “pushing”, įtartìs “suspicion”: Then suspicion fell upon him, Gs., kliūtìs “obstruction, obstacle”, klotìs “good fortune”: They wished him good luck, Vikv., mirtìs, papjūtìs “trouble”, paspirtìs “support, help”, pažintìs, pragaištìs “worry, perishing”: Those chickens are nothing but trouble, Žal.

There are also concrete feminine nouns with the suffix -tis, e.g.: gniáuštis || gniúštis: She squeezed it with her fist (handful), as if with pincers, Plv. These are so short—only about a handspan, Gs., kártis, klėtis, nýtis (usually plural nýtys), padėtis “placing”: You have lots of things, but there is no good place to put them, Gs., péntis, skiltis, svirtis, žiótys “1. jaws, 2. a part of a loom used in weaving”.

Among the masculine nouns (genitive singular -čio) with the suffix -tis, the following should be mentioned: dánktis, kàmštis, keltìs “the raised part on the top of the foot”, lañktis “a device for winding thread”, raikštis (< raĩštis), ramštis “something used for support”, sámtis.

With the suffix -stis (-štis), there are only a few feminine nouns (genitive singular -ies), e.g.: nuotarstis || nūotarstis Plv. “suspicion, gossip”, rūkštis, sprūstis “pushing, pressing”: There are so many people—such a crush, AžB.

Derivatives of this type are sometimes also found as masculine nouns (genitive singular -čio), e.g., slėnštis.

4. -(s)tus. The suffix -tus occurs in only one or two nouns or adjectives, e.g.: lytùs || lietùs Brt., glitùs, -i “sticky, slippery”: Those mushrooms are so slippery, Plv.

With the added consonant š before -tus, which derives from s after k, g, p—that is, with the suffix -štus (< -stus)—the following may be mentioned: baikštùs ‘timid’, baukštùs ‘timid, fearful’, darpštùs ‘hard-working’, grakštùs ‘flexible’, kruopštùs, rūkštùs, šmaikštùs: Šmaikštūs ka botas Gs.

5. -ata. The suffix -ata occurs somewhat more often in common-gender nomina agentis, usually with a derogatory meaning, e.g.: pliaũškata ‘chatterbox, blabbermouth’, rizata ‘one who giggles, laughs; giggler’: Nustok tu, rizata! Žal., šìpata ‘one who is always mocking’, žìbata ‘one who is always squealing and chattering’: Jam patinka toki žibatos Gs.

In addition, the suffix -ata is found in a few feminine nouns of various origins and formations, with concrete and abstract meanings, e.g.: ãdata, plìukata ‘muddy place’: Negali išbrist — baisi pliūkata Alvt., sveikatà, sarmatà.

6. -atis. Verbal feminine nouns with the suffix -atis (gen. sg. -ies) are occasionally found, e.g.: gaišatìs ‘delay’, maišatìs ‘confusion, turmoil, commotion’: Užė karai, maišatìs, i tep likau Vikv.

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Worth mentioning separately is pilnatis, -ies (-čio) || pilnatys ‘the full-moon phase’: Jau pač pilnatys Gs.

7. -eta, -etas. Among nouns formed with the suffix -eta, those with concrete meanings are the first to be mentioned, e.g.: kūpeta ‘small haystack’: Boba kap kūpeta ‘stora’ Gs., skėpeta ‘shawl, kerchief’, šėrpeta ‘small shred, flaking skin’: No to vėjo rankos vienų šėrpetų Nm.

The suffix -eta also occurs in collective numerals dvėjeta, trėjeta, kėtvėrta, penkėta… and kėleta, whose masculine forms are: dvėjetas, kėtvėrtas, trėjetas, penkėtas…, kėletas.

8. -ėtas, -a. The suffix -ėtas, feminine -ėta, is used to form adjectives. Most adjectives with this suffix are formed from ē-stem nouns and denote possession of the property expressed by the base word, e.g.: duobėtas ‘full of holes’: Duobėtas kelias – kap tu ir išvažiuosi? Gž., košėtas pot Grš., kremzlėta || kremzliuota meat Gs., pūslėti palms Gs., raukšlėtas face, saulėta day, skrybėlėtos || skrybėliūotos girls Nm., žolėti ‘covered in grass’: Šįmet labai žolėti linai – nebus ko raut Plv.

A few adjectives with the suffix -ėtas are also formed from nouns of other stems, e.g.: debesėtas || usually debesuotas || debesiuotas sky Vlkv., kaulėta meat Grš., molėta ‘clayey’ earth, vasarėta ‘warm, beautiful’ day Gs.

9. -otas, -ota. The suffix -otas, feminine -ota, is used mainly to form adjectives from o-stem nouns, e.g.: barzdotas ‘with a large beard’: Dabar vėl į madą atė barzdoti vyrai Gs., galvotas ‘a person with a good head’ Gs., gyslotos || gysliuotos (rare) hands Gs., kuprótas child, miglóta day, putótas: Smarkei važiuovam, tai net putótas ‘very overheated’ horse Vlkv., rasótas window, ūkanota day.

Adjectives with the suffix -otas are also formed from nouns of other stems, e.g.: dievótas ‘pious, god-fearing’, pilvótas ‘with a large belly’: Kai pagirdai, tai pilvótas veršiuks Žal.

Worth mentioning separately is augalotas ‘large, having grown quickly’: Augalotas tas jų vaiks Nm. Also belonging here is Laukščiotas ‘a tributary of the Jiesia’ Šil.

The suffix -ota occurs in surnames, e.g.: Aūšrota, Būlota.

A few loanwords or hybrids occur with the suffix -avotas of foreign origin, feminine -avota, e.g.: durnavótas ‘half-witted, rather stupid’, kiaul(i)avótas ‘pig-like’: Na, ir kiaul(i)avótas tu! Gs. In the latter example, the suffix may also be a compound suffix formed according to Lithuanian patterns. Cf. the suffix -ava.

The place name Šilavótas Prn., KzR. is of similar origin and formation.

10. -otė. Nouns with the suffix -otė include: mazgótė ‘rag for wiping washed dishes’: Ta jų merga tai jau paskutinė mazgótė (very dissolute) Gs., mergiõtė rare ‘middle-aged girl’, nešiõtė ‘childminder—carrier’: Aš pas juos už nešiõtę buvau VIkv. In verbal derivatives, it might be more accurate here to treat -tė as the suffix.

11. -uotas, feminine -uota. The suffix -uotas is primarily used to form adjectives from a-stem nouns, e.g.: kalnúotas: Around Vištytis, the fields are hilly Vlkv., langúotas woven fabric, mėšliúotos legs, miltiuotas sack, sriestúotas knife.

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Adjectives with the suffix -uotas are also formed from nouns with other stems, e.g.: debesuotas Grš. ‖ debeciuotas sky, dederviniuotas face, ožiuotas “capricious” child, skrybėliuota “wearing a hat” girl, plunksnuotas “feather-covered” sack, skauduliuotos “with sores” hands, vyžuotas: In former times, people wearing bast shoes (vyžóti) used to walk around Vilkv.

12. -ytis, feminine -ytė. In the dialects described, this suffix usually has an accentual contour different from that of the standard language—a circumflex—except in the name of the town Vištytis.

The suffix -ytis is generally used to denote very small and young living creatures or small objects, e.g.: antytis (usually ančiukas), bliūdytis, brolytís, plaukytis, šunytis, žąsytis. The suffix -ytis also has an emphatic endearing meaning. This meaning is especially prominent in compound diminutive suffixes.

An adjective or two also occurs with the suffix -ytis, feminine -ytė, e.g.: mažytis, mažutytis: “The hair is so very short” Alvt. (Here there is also the compound suffix -utytis).

The suffix -ytė is used to form feminine nouns with diminutive and endearing meanings, e.g.: akytė, mamytė, mamulytė (here the suffix is -ulytė), mergýtė, žuvýtė.

Of a different meaning and formation are mazgýtė “a small stick to which threads are tied when beginning to weave,” važýtė rarely “transportation (the act)” VIkv.

The suffix -ytė is sometimes also used in proper names, especially women’s names, e.g.: Marytė, Onytė. In surnames, the suffix -ytė was formerly not used among the Kapsai in folk speech; instead, the suffix -ūtė was used predominantly. In some Zanavykai surnames, -ytė occurs alongside other suffixes, e.g.: Kuraitýtė Grš., Rimosaiýtė ib., Žiūrai-tytė Žvr.; it is used to refer to daughters formally, seriously, and publicly.

13. -aitis, feminine -aitė. The masculine suffix -aitis is not much favored for forming diminutive nouns; for example, one finds: aržuolaitis, grįžuolaitis: “Aržuolaitis, grįžuolaitis, the moon shines above” (the flax is blooming) Ss., gaspadoraitis (archaic), kepalaitis, vežimaitis.

The feminine diminutive suffix -aitė is more commonly used, e.g.: eglaitė, kiaulaitė, kumelaitė, mergaitė, niekotaitė Būbl., obelaitė, pušaitė.

As the examples show, in derivatives of this type the suffixes -aitis and -aitė bear a circumflex accent, which distinguishes them from the standard language. This is how the Kapsai and, to some extent, the Zanavykai accent them today. The old accentuation has been preserved throughout the dialects described in men’s surnames (see below) and in a few place names, e.g., Keklaitis “a tributary of the Jiesia” Iš.: Keklyš “a tributary of the Rudė” Vv.

Words with the suffix -aitis, feminine -aitė, that have possessive or other meanings include: aukštaitis, giminaitis, jaunikaitis (no feminine form), karaliūnaitis (in fairy tales), našlaitis, žemaitis.

The suffix -aitis is also used, especially among the Zanavykai, in men’s surnames, e.g.: Jókūbáitis, Kalváitis ‖ Kálvaitis, Kuráitis, Vaičiuláitis. It should be noted that some surnames with the suffix -aitis tend to be shortened in the dialect, e.g.: Brazáitis — Brazýs, Mekšráitis — Mekšras, or have another suffix substituted, e.g.: Paršáitis — Paršiukas, Mergáitis — Mergėlis.

In the surnames of girls and unmarried women, the suffix -aitė is not customary in folk speech; this purpose is generally served by the suffix -ūtė. The suffix -aitė, now found alongside other suffixes, e.g.: Bartkaitė (: Bartkus) Grš., Jablonckaitė VIkv., Juškaitė Nm., Kazlauckaitė Grš., is used when addressing women seriously and publicly. Cf. XIV 12.

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Words with the suffix -aitė that should be mentioned separately are savaitė ‘week’ (nj.) and tarnaitė ‘maid’ (psn.), which do not have a diminutive or endearing meaning.

14. -ietis, feminine -ietė, although not very common, is used to form words such as giminietis ‘relative’ and kaimietis ‘villager’. To indicate origin or place of residence, alongside other suffixes with this meaning, the Kapsai and Zanavykai also use -ietis, -ietė, e.g. kaunietis, šakietis, vilkaviškietis, vilnietis ‘an inhabitant of the city or area of Kaunas, Šakiai, Vilkaviškis, Vilnius’.

The words avietė, vokietis || usually vokietys may also be noted with the suffix -ietis, -ietė: Vadinam: „vokietys“ i „prūsas“ Gs.

15. -utas. Several nouns with concrete meanings are formed with the suffix -utas, e.g. ąšutas ‘a hair from a horse’s tail or mane’, degutas ‘tar obtained by burning birch bark’. Smirda kab degūtas Br., kalakūtas, riešūtas: Kietas kap riešutas VIkv.

The village name Opšrūtai ~ Obsrūtai Plv. has the long derivational -ū-.

16. -utis, -utė. The suffix -utis forms some nomina agentis, most often of common gender, e.g. barškutis ‘rattler, noisy person’: Nustok, jau nustok tu, barškuti! Plv.; ieškutis ‘seeker’: Ar jau pamatei tu, ieškuti? Gs.; pliuškutis ‘a frivolous, unserious person or child’; purškutis ‘one who gets angry quickly and grumbles’; taškutis ‘chatterbox, babbler’; traukutis ‘a shrunken person’.

The suffix -utis also occurs in words with other concrete meanings, e.g. barškūtis ‘rattle, rattling toy’: Vaikam tai bile tik koks barškutis Žal.; likūtis ‘remnant’; pinūtis ‘a fence stake made from branches (pinučiai)’ || pinučė ‘a branch fence’; spurgūtis: Pravertė blakstienas, o vė spurgūčei, pūlių yra Būbl.; sukūtis ‘a tool for twisting rope’; žibūtis ‘a shiny little object and toy’; traukūtis, botanical term, ‘traukas, gyslalapis’.

Also to be mentioned here are kriūkūtis ‘a hard, congealed object’, slogūtis ‘a nightmare that presses down on one during sleep’, and vasarūčėi ‘summer wheat’.

The suffix -utis, feminine -utė, is widely used with a diminutive and endearing meaning (in nouns and adjectives), e.g. alūtis, kampūtis, lytūtis || lietūtis Ss., vaikūtis, zuikūtis; avūtė, dukrūtė Grl., galvūtė, girūtė, karvūtė, lapūtė, rankūtė, šakūtė; didūtis, -ė: Auk didūtis, būk greitūtis (said to a small child) Gs.; gerūtis, -ė; greitūtis, -ė: Adbėga greitūtė (about a mouse) Alvt.; jaunūtis, -ė; mažūtis, -ė; silpnūtis, -ė; žemūtis, -ė. Cf. also: Svočiūtė, pumpurūtė, graži tavo kepurūtė (song). Alvt. Buvo diedūtis ir bobūtė (ps.) Alvt. Ainam polkūtę sušokt KzR. Nor laukūčių (laukan) ait mergelė VIkv.

The suffix -utis, -utė is also used in the surnames of boys or unmarried men and girls or young women, usually when the father’s surname has an -a, -o, or -u stem with a stem-final k or g consonant, e.g. Marcinkūtis Kbr., Mickūtis Dkš., Paplauc-kūtis Kps., Ramanauckūtis VIkv., Tarnauckūtis Grš. (: Marciñkus, Mičkus, Paplàuckas, Ramanáuckas, Tarnáuckas). This is how children and, familiarly, unmarried adult men are referred to.

-utė is used mostly only in the Kpllr dialect (Pašlavantis, Garliava, Išlaužas): Juockutė, Mickutė, Mikalauckutė, Peckutė, Repeckutė, Striupkutė¹⁴. It is also used by the Zanavykai, e.g. Bartkūtė Būbl., Grš., Jablonckūtė Plb., Kazlauckūtė Grš.

¹⁴ At the cemetery of Naujoji Ūta, the inscription Mickevičiūtė. was recorded on a gravestone in 1957.

12. Leksikos tyrinėjimai

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Here the suffix -utė (and -ukė) is used chiefly to refer to little girls, but is also said of grown-up girls.

Among words with the suffix -utė, the following may be noted separately: bėdutė || bėda ‘a two-wheeled cart’: Važiuosim su bėdute Br., imkutė ‘taking in sewing’. Imkutės reikėjo įsiūti, būtų gražiau stovėję Grš., žibutė ‘bluebell’.

17. -ūtė. The suffix -ūtė, preceded by a soft consonant, is characteristic in the dialects described of the surnames of girls and unmarried women, formed from male surnames of all stem types, e.g.: Blažiūtė, Eidikiūtė, Glyčiūtė, Jakubauckiūtė, Luišiūtė, Šilingiūtė, Šniečkiūtė, Viltrakiūtė, Žiev(i)ūtė, Žukauckiūtė: Blažys, Eidikys, Glytas, Jakubáuckas, Lūšis, Šilingas, Šniečkus, Viltrakis, Žievys, Žukáuckas. In some places, e.g., around Daukšiai and elsewhere, it is the only suffix for girls’ and young women’s surnames.

In the surnames of girls and unmarried women, the suffixes -aitė, -ytė are not customary or colloquial in the dialects described; they are known to a greater or lesser extent from documents or written sources and are used for public, official forms of address.

Common nouns with the suffix -ūtė, -aičiūtė (a compound suffix) have been heard only in folktales: karalaičiūtė ‘the king’s son’s daughter’: Sykį apsirgo karalaičiūtė Kps., karalaitė ‘princess’: Ta karalaitė jam i sako Kbr.

18. -astis, -astas. Among words with the suffix -astis (gen. sg. -ties || -čio), the following may be noted: gyvastis ‘life’: Nesigaili nė savo gyvasties, nė sveikatos Vlkv., nerimastis ‘restlessness, anxiety’: Kai viena lieku, nerimastis ima Gs., pykastis ‘anger, irritability’.

With the suffix -astas, gyvastas ‘health’ may be mentioned: Toks čia jau jo gyvastas Gs.

19. -estis, -estys. The suffix -estis (gen. sg. -ties || -čio) is used in a small number of words (nouns), e.g.: gailestis, lūkestis ‘waiting, hope, longing’, mokest(i)s, rūpestis.

In some places, older people also say the same words with the suffix -estys, e.g.: Mokesčēi bó dideli AžB. Bereikalingas tik rūpestỹs Pašl.

The forms mōkesis, rūpesnis, which occur occasionally in the dialects described, are recent.

20. -ysta, -ystė. Alongside the suffix -ystė, somewhat less frequently in the dialects described, the suffix -ysta¹⁵ is also used, usually with the same meaning by older people. Words (nouns) with this suffix are formed from nouns and adjectives.

Among words formed from nouns with the suffix -ysta are: gaspadorystà (Sl.): Plati gaspadory stā ‘a large collective farm’ Vlkv., martystà ‘being a daughter-in-law’, mergystà ‘being a girl’, našlystà ‘widowhood’, šelmystà (colloq.) ‘a bad, roguish deed’, tarnystà ‘service’, žmogystà ‘human shape’: Miega žmogystà ‘a wolf who has turned into—disguised himself as—a human’ (folktale) VšR. Acirado žmogystà ‘a poor little fellow’ Vlkv.

Examples of nouns formed from adjectives with the suffix -ysta include: dur-nystà (Sl.), jaunystà, kvailystà, mažystà ‘smallness, littleness’, senystà ‘old age’: Ka nor an senystos ramei pagyvėčia Gs.

¹⁵ Around Griškabūdis and elsewhere, as far as observed, both suffixes are used almost interchangeably; only certain individual words differ, e.g., only žmogystà ‘a little man, a poor fellow’ was heard. Around Pašlavantys, people say jaunystė, draugystė, but senystà.

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The suffix -ysta is more widely used in the dialect than the suffix -ystė. Nouns with this suffix are generally abstract in meaning. They denote mainly an abstract property of the base word. They are formed from nouns and adjectives.

Nouns with the suffix -ystė are formed chiefly from nouns, e.g.: draugystė ‘friendship’, galvažudystė ‘killing, murder’: During the war, murders and all sorts of offenses were common in Gs., godulẏstė ‘greed’, kaiminẏstė, kiaulystė ‘a piggish deed’, melagystė ‘a lie, lying’, moterystė: Prėmė moterystės stoną ‘she got married’ in Vlkv., tinginystė ‘idling, laziness’, vaikystė ‘childhood’.

Nouns with the suffix -ystė are also sometimes formed from adjectives, e.g.: jaunystė ‘youth’, puikystė ‘pride, magnificence’.

Among nouns formed with the suffix -ystė from adjectives with the suffix -ingas, only milaširdingystė || mielaširdingystė ‘kindheartedness, mercy’ is sometimes used: Neturi jokios milaširdingystės ‘He has no compassion at all’ in Plv.

21. Various suffixes with the consonant -t-. There are also a dozen or so different suffixes containing the consonant t, occurring in one or another word, e.g.:

a) -atė: gyvatė: Tikra gyvatė ta mergiščia ‘That girl is a real snake’ in Kt.

b) -etė: aketė kp. || eketė zan., raukėtė ‘a scowling, ill-tempered person’: Neik arty prie tos raukėtės ‘Don’t go near that bad-tempered mare’ in Alk.

c) -ėtis: buckthorn kpII.

d) -etys: reketys ‘a certain device for threshing rye’ in Gs.

e) -yta: klipytà ‘a limping person, a lame person’: Eina kap koks klipytą ‘He walks like some limping fellow’ in Žal.

f) -itas: the place name Alvitas || Elvitas: Iš Elvito parsirito, iš Virbalio parsirado ‘He came back from Elvitas, came back from Virbalis’ in Gs.

g) -uotė: važiuotė: Graži važiuotė ‘A fine carriage and harness’ in Vlkv.

h) -enta: serbentà: Serbėntos vienos raudonos, kitos juodos ‘Some currants are red, others black’ in Alvt.

i) -intà: Širvintà ‘a left-bank tributary of the Šešupė’ in Nm.

y) -ykštis, -ė || -ykščias, -a: pernykštis, -ė rarely pernykščias, vakarykštis, -ė || vakarykščias¹⁶, -a, vaivorykštė ‘rainbow’.

j) -iščias || -ištis, -ištys; -iščia: vaikiščias || vaikištīs || vaikištis in Grš., Vlkv. ‘a young boy’, mergiščia in Grš., Gs. ‘an adolescent girl’.

k) -uistas: ligūistas, -a “slightly ill,” miegūistas, -a “drowsy, bleary-eyed.”

l) -ūkštis: bjaurybiūkštis Dkš., vaikiūkštis rare VIkv., varliūkštis Dkš., velniūkštis Gs.

XV. Suffixes with the consonant -v-

1. -(s)vas, -(s)va. There are a few nouns with the suffix -vas, e.g.: naṙvas, pil̇vas, plovai “plova” Ūt., pūrvas kpI (more often purvynas), stovai “sides of a loom”: Stuk-stuk stovai – devintovai, viršuj gaidžei gieda (organ) Gs.

There are somewhat more adjectives with the suffix -vas, feminine -va, e.g.: blaivas || blaivūs, gyvas, kreivas, lengvas, palvas, šleivas “lame, crooked”: Gražus, tik šleivas, kreivas į kuprotas (ironic) Plv.

The suffix -va is used to form feminine nouns, e.g.: dirvà, džiovà “1. drying”: Nė džiovos, nė pagados nėr Būbl. “2. tuberculosis,” galvà

¹⁶ Around Griškabūdis and in some other places pernykštis is more usual, but vakarykščias.

12*

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krūvą, pievą, plovą “bog, quagmire”: The lakes that have silted up are called Plovôm tie (užakę) ažerėlei Ūt., sparvą. Also worth mentioning here is grėva scom. “an awkward, bulky person”: Wherever this grėva turns up, nothing good will come of it Gs. I have never seen such grėvos as long as I’ve lived Kt.

The suffix -svas, feminine -sva, is also used to form adjectives; here it denotes a certain degree corresponding to the meaning of the prefix apy-, e.g.: gelsvas, -à “yellowish”: Užďė vainikėlį an gelsvų kaselių (song) AžB., juosvas “blackish,” mėlsvas “bluish,” raūsvas “slightly red, reddish,” rėšvas “somewhat sparse”: Šįmet rėsvi rugucėi Plv., rūšvas “slightly brown or red,” žàlsvas “greenish.”

2. -(s)vė. Nouns with the suffix -vė worth mentioning are: gérvė, plėvė: When you boil milk, a skin forms afterward VIkv., smárvė, virvė.

With the suffix -svė there is only the word làisvė: Some say “làisvė,” others “liuosybė” Gs., Raušvė “a left tributary of the Šešupė” Gž., Plv.

3. -vis. The suffix -vis is not common. It occurs in some older and newer nouns, e.g.: kálvis, kirvis, as well as ateivis, -ė || more commonly ateivỹs, -ė: There are all sorts of newcomers here Žal., kareivis.

4. -avas, -ava. There are only a few adjectives with the suffix -avas, feminine -ava, e.g.: linàvas, -à “flax-flower-colored, bluish azure,” perhaps formed on the model of words of foreign origin ružavas, -à, vyšniavas¹⁷, -à “cherry-colored,” as well as Liubàvas town Klvr.

There are more derivatives with the suffix -ava: feminine nouns, e.g.: baūdžiava, gãniava “grazing; pasture”: We give the sheep elsewhere to graze Gs. The grazing is poor here in that meadow Žal., kiauliava “work associated with pigs,” pàniava, pỹliava “tribute,” velniava “devilry, a devilish business.” Also to be mentioned here are the place names Sasnàva, Garliavà.

Also worth mentioning here are a couple of words formed with the derivational /-/ before -ava (with the suffix -liava): riñkliava, mėzliava “giving money when a collection is being made, for example, formerly at weddings.”

5. -ovas, -ovė. There are several personal nouns with the suffix -ovas, feminine -ovė, e.g.: gėròvas “one who drinks a lot; drunkard”: Drink, drink away, you drinkers (song) Alk., palydòvas “companion, escort,” sugulòvas “unmarried male partner,” vadòvas, valdòvas, žinòvas.

The suffix -ovė also occurs, in addition to the words mentioned above, in some other nouns with various meanings, e.g.: daržòvė, rankòvė, senòvė, stipròvė “fortress”: Senovėj didelė bō čia stipròvė Ūt.

6. -tuvas, -tuva. A few nouns denoting implements and tools are formed with the suffix -tuvas, e.g.: grieptùvas “a tool for raking grain, a small rake”: Mãre, kudė nepasėmei grieptuvo, būtų geriau griept? VIkv., karštùvai “a machine for carding wool,” mintuvai “a device for scutching flax,” purkštùvas nj., skíltuvas “an implement or flint for striking a spark”: Seniau vyrai skíltuvus nešiojosi Bgt., šáutuvas.

A few common-gender nomina agentis with the suffix -tuvas are also found, e.g.: grauštùvas “a gnawer, rodent”: Eik eik tu, grauštùve! Plv., nepàeitùvas “someone very clumsy—unable to walk,” šiktùvas “someone who keeps making a mess.”

With the feminine suffix -tuva, only one form is known: sietuvà “a broad and deep part of a river; a whirlpool”: Pakliuvo sietuvõn i nusken do Nm.

¹⁷ Plg. P. Skardžius, Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, p. 379.

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7. -tuvis, -tuvė. The suffix -tuvis occurs in nouns denoting the names of tools or vessels, e.g.: grūstūvis “a pestle”: Piestos nèr, tik grūstūvis Alk., koštūvis “something with which something is strained, for example, milk,” muštūvis || muštūvas Klvr. “a device (vessel) for churning butter.”

The feminine suffix -tuvė is used much more widely. Words formed with this suffix denote implements or household objects, e.g.: bruk­tuvė, milstuvė || melstuvė, sėtuvė “a basket for sowing grain (cereals).” A few words with other meanings also occur, e.g.: rietuvė “a high stack of something, for example, firewood” Alk.

The suffix -tuvės (plural) is widely used to denote celebrations, feasts, or other ceremonies, e.g.: įkurtuvės, išleistuvės, keltuvės: Anryt būna keltuvės (per vestuves) Ig. The groom gives out sweets and vodka, and that is what they call the keltuvės Ig. After the keltuvės, they soon disperse and go home Ig., lauktuvės “the act of waiting or gifts received for doing so,” pabaiktuvės, skerstuvės, sukaktuvės.

8. Various suffixes with the consonant -v-. Besides those listed, some other suffixes with the consonant -v- also occur, e.g.:

a) -atvė: amžinatvė “eternity”: Dabar mažai kas tiki į amžinatvę Vlkv., senatvė.

b) -yvas, -a: senyvas, -a Būbl., Vlkv., nevalyvas, -a “unclean, untidy” Būbl., Žal., ankstyvas, -a || ankstybas, -a Pašl., velyvas, -a || velybas, -a Pašl. Cf. 12.

c) -uva¹⁸: sesuvà kp II, šuvà, Valčiuvà “a left tributary of the Sasna” Ss., Igl.

d) -uvis: liežuvis, lietuvis, -ė nj., rare—more commonly lietuvỹs, -ė.

e) -lyvas, -a: this is a Slavic suffix, e.g.: gėdlyvas, -a rare || more commonly sarmatlyvas, -a, supratlyvas, -a “understanding.”

XVI. Suffixes with the consonant -z-, -ž-

With the consonant -z-, one or another rather rare suffix with a more or less pejorative meaning occurs, e.g.:

1. -erza: keverža “a short, clumsy person” (a riddle word): Kiūrza keverža visą lauką apkeveržavo Vlk., plepėrza “chatterbox” Gs.

2. -ėzas: vaikėzas “kid, brat”: Prisirenka tokių vaikėzų = tuoj į pešasi Plv.

3. -ozas: vaikiožas “kid,” valkiožas Gs., Vlk. || valkiožas Grš. “one who goes about everywhere, wanders, a vagrant.”

4. -ūzas: pilvūzas, -ė “a person with a big belly, a fat-bellied person.”

With the consonant -ž-, the only suffix with a negative or pejorative meaning is -uža || -užas, found in the single word raiguža || raigužas “a frivolous, restless, lively girl”: Ko ta raiguža tę po medžius karstosi? Alk.

With the consonant -ž- there is the suffix -užis, feminine -užė, sometimes used to form diminutive and endearing nouns, e.g.: broliūžis, tėtiūžis || tėtušis, mergūžė rare || more commonly mergužėlė.

Words with the suffix -užis occur mainly in folklore, e.g.: Aš dangūžy žibėsu Kbr. Te tau šūibužę, vyniok kojučės, duos dievulis gerus metus – pirksiu kurpūžės (d.) Alvt.

¹⁸ For the formation of this suffix, see P. Skardžius, Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, p. 381.

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The only words with the suffix -užis having other (non-diminutive) meanings are drabužis ‘clothing’. Also worth mentioning here are the words bažnytūžė ‘Protestant church’ and kunigūžis ‘Protestant minister’, which are also non-diminutive, but perhaps have a certain pejorative meaning¹⁹.

C. GENERAL SURVEY OF SUFFIXAL NOMINAL FORMATION

Having examined nominal formation in the Kapsai–Zanavykai dialects using suffixes classified according to their consonant, we will also briefly survey some suffixes of individual parts of speech and the nominal formations made with them, while offering a brief functional classification of some suffixes. This survey may be regarded as a certain summary of the preceding chapter. It touches on only some suffixes that are more widely known in the dialects under discussion. Many of them do not differ at all from the suffixes used in the standard language.

At the very end, we will list several suffixes used in the dialects under discussion or in individual subdialects, but not characteristic of the standard language, and offer some conclusions as well.

I. Some noun suffixes

1. Suffixes of nouns derived from nouns

a) -ukas, -ukė, -elis, -elė, -ėlis, -ėlė, -ytis, -ytė, -utis, -utė, -ūtė, -aitis, aitė, -užis, -užė

These suffixes are used to derive other nouns from nouns, the so-called diminutives and terms of endearment, e.g.: namukas, paršiukas, mokytojukė Grl., viščiukė VIkv. || vištukė Grl., vaikelis, dobilėlis, aguonėlė, šunytis, duonytė mergytė, vaikutis, laputė, vežimaitis, pušaitė, broliužis, kurpūžė.

Compound suffixes are also included here, e.g.: -eliukas, -eliukė, -užėlis, -užėlė: aukseliukas Grl., grybeliukas Grl., brolužėlis, mergužėlė.

In addition, the suffixes -ukė and -ūtė (after a palatalized consonant), and perhaps the newly arising -aitė and -ytė in this case, are used in girls’ surnames, e.g.: Šliumpūkė Grl., Trumpūkė Šil., Biliūtė, Luišiūtė, Senkiūtė, Bartkaitė rare, recent, Žiūr aitytė (: Šliumpa, Trumpa, Bilius, Luišis, Senkus, Bartkus, Žiūr aitis).

b) -iškis, -iškė, -ietis, -ietė, -inis, -inė, -okas, -okė

Nouns with these suffixes are derived from place names and usually refer to people who come from or live somewhere, e.g.: alytiškis, -ė, kauniškis, -ė, vilniškis, -ė; kaunietis, -ė, vilkaviškietis, -ė; vilnietis, -ė; alksnėninis, -ė, didvyžinis, -ė, pilviškinis, -ė; kauniokas, -ė, prieniokas, -ė.

Sometimes any two, three, or even four of the suffixes mentioned here are used without any clear difference in meaning. For example, in reference to Pašlavantys (Prienai District), people say: kauniškis and kauniokas, prieniškis and prieniokas, šilavotiškis and šilavotinis.

In reference to Vygreliai (Kalvarija District), four suffixes with the same meaning have been heard in different words, e.g.: gražiškiečei, kalvarijiniei || kalvarijiečei, virbališk ei, višt yčio-

¹⁹ Both final words were used in the past when speaking of the Protestant religion.

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kai. However, it should be noted that nouns with the suffix -išk- (Pilviškiai, Plutiškės, Vilkaviškis) cannot be formed from place names with the suffix -iškis, -ė.

With these suffixes mentioned above, there also occur one or another noun with different meanings, e.g.: man, woman, homestead, raspberry, lad.

c) -ūkštis, -ūkštė, -ėzas, -ozas, -ūzas

With these suffixes, an occasional noun is formed from a noun to express contempt for and disparagement of certain things or people, e.g.: brat, frog (derog.), little devil, brat, brat, tramp “vagabond,” big-belly “someone with a large belly.”

d) -inė, -ydė, -udė; -ynas, -ynė

Nouns formed from other nouns with the suffixes -inė, -ydė, -udė most often denote a place where something is kept, stored, or the like, e.g.: a place for storing salt, butcher’s shop, stable, tavern || brewery, chaff store.

Nouns formed from nouns with the suffixes -ynas, -ynė most often denote the name of a place where one kind of thing is abundant. E.g.: oak grove, pine forest, wood-chip pile, nettle patch, stump field, clay pit.

e) -ienė, -uvienė

The noun suffix -ienė generally has two meanings. With a circumflex-falling accent or an unstressed suffix -ienė, it denotes wives or female animals; with a circumflex-rising accent, it denotes the names of foods and dishes, e.g.: sister-in-law, aunt (uncle’s wife), Mrs. Jonas, Mrs. Paulauskas, she-wolf (dial.); potato dish, omelet, sorrel soup, apple sauce, pea soup.

Nouns formed with the suffix -ienė from bisyllabic nouns with a u-stem take the form -uvienė, which generally indicates whose wife someone is, e.g.: Kašlys’s wife, the potter’s wife, Mrs. Būtkis, Mrs. Seikus. Of course, exceptions (in formation and meaning) occur, e.g.: darkąčiuvienė: “She is a poor little pear—she’s a real darkąčiuvienė,” Gs.

2. Nouns formed from adjectives by means of suffixes

a) -ybė, -enybė, -umas, -uma, -ysta, -ystė, -atvė

With some of these suffixes (-ybė, -ystė), nouns (galybė, draugystė) can also be formed from nouns, but they are formed mainly from adjectives. Nouns with these suffixes denote abstract things, e.g.: saldybė, tamsybė, retenybė, saldumas, tamsumas || tamsuma, senystė, jaunystė || jaunystą, senatvė.

b) -imas, -uomenė

Nouns formed from adjectives with the suffixes -imas, -uomenė denote a body or group of people, a particular collective, or the like, e.g.: jaunimas, jaunúomenė.

3. Nouns formed from verbs by means of suffixes

There are quite a few suffixes in the dialect under discussion that are used to form nouns from verbs. The meaning of nouns formed from verbs is usually related to the action of the verb from which they are derived.

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a) -ėčios, -iklis, -yklė, yklės, -ynė, -tukas, -tuvas, -tuvis, -tuvė

Nouns formed from verbs with these suffixes usually denote implements and tools, e.g.: akėčios, kūpėčios, taikiklis, laidyklė, šaudykklė, svarstykles, birbynė, švilpynė, plaktukas, skaptukas, dūrtuvas, mintuvai, koštuvis, muštūvis, bruktuvė, kultuvė || kūltuvė.

b) -ėjas, -ėja, -ikas, -ikė, -klys, -slys, -snys, -snė, -tojas, -toja, -vis, -vė

Nouns with these suffixes are usually formed, some from the past-tense stem and others from the infinitive stem, and denote nomina agentis, e.g.: audėja, gynėjas (less often gynėjas), ėdikas, kūlikas (less often kulikas), kirtikas (sometimes kirtėjas), ryklys, turklys, kviestys, reksnys, verksnys, verksnė, pilstytojas, pilstytoja, skaitytojas, praeivis.

c) -alas, -inys, -esys, -ėšiai (-ėsis)

Nouns formed from verbs with these suffixes usually denote the result of an action, e.g.: jovalas “1. something muddled or tangled, 2. pig slop,” viralas, grindinys, siuvinys, elgesys, liūdesys, griuvėsiai || griuvėsis, pelėsė || pelėsis.

d) -imas, -ymas

Nouns formed from verbs with the suffixes -imas, -ymas usually denote the name of an action or the action itself, and also quite often have a concrete or other meaning.

The suffix -ymas is added to infinitives with the formant -y-ti (skaityti, taisyti), while -imas is added to all other verbs’ past-tense stems, e.g.: ėdymas, šakymas, maišymas “1. an action, 2. dough mixed for bread”; pūdymas “1. an action, 2. fallow, land left uncultivated”; bėgimas, metimas, ūžimas, arimas “1. an action, 2. ploughing”; vežimas “1. an action, 2. a cart.”

II. Some adjective suffixes

1. Suffixes of adjectives derived from adjectives

a) -okas, -oka, -ukas, -ukė, -ytis, -ytė, -utis, -utė

These adjective suffixes are diminutive and endearing; with them, adjectives are derived from adjectives, e.g.: šaltokas ‘rather cold’, trumpokas ‘rather short’, juodūkas, -ė, mažiukas, -ė, mažytis, -ė, mažutis, -ė.

b) -inis, -inė, -iškas, -iška, -ingas, -inga

With these suffixes, adjectives are most often derived from nouns. Adjectives derived from adjectives also occur with some of these suffixes, e.g., saldinis, -ė.

The suffix -inis, -inė has several meanings, or at least distinct shades of meaning. Most often it indicates what something is made from (auksinis, medinis). See B IX 10 for more details.

The suffix -iškas, -a most often denotes similarity, suitability, purpose, or affiliation, e.g.: bobiškas, -a, pasakiškas, -a, vyriškas, -a, žiemiškas, -a, vokiškas, -a.

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With the suffix -ingas, -a, adjectives mostly denote having a great deal of something, the quality of abundance and plenitude, e.g.: gailestingas, -a, galingas, -a, laimingas, -a, miltingas, -a, naudingas, -a, pinigingas, -a.

2. Suffixes of adjectives derived from nouns

-ėtas, -ėta, -otas, -ota, -uotas, -uota, -uistas, -uista

These suffixes are used to form adjectives from nouns. It should be noted that adjectives with the suffix -uotas, -a are most often formed from nouns with an a stem, while those with the suffix -otas, -a are formed from nouns with an o stem (cf. plaukūotas, barzdotas); adjectives with the suffix -ėtas, -a are usually formed from nouns with an ė stem (cf. skylėtas), but there is no clear consistency across the dialects described in any of these three cases.

Adjectives formed with these suffixes denote external, visible qualities. The basis for these qualities consists respectively of the objects or things and concepts whose name’s root and stem are used to form the adjective. E.g.: duobėtas, -a, raukšlėtas, -a, kuprótas, -a, miglótas, -a, sviestúotas, -a, miežúistas, -a, ligiúistas, -a.

3. Suffixes of adjectives derived from verbs

-tas, -ta, -onas, -ona, -svas, -sva

Adjectives are formed from verbs with these suffixes. They most often denote qualities of color or temperature. In addition, the suffix -svas, -a denotes a degree weaker (lower) than the positive degree. E.g.: báltas, -à, šáltas, -à, karštas, -à, šiltas, -à, geltónas, -a, raudónas, -a, juósvas, -à, gel̃svas, -à.

III. Some more characteristic meanings of noun suffixes

Here, without discussing word formation, we will separately list some of the more characteristic meanings of noun suffixes in the dialects described. According to the meaning of the suffix, nouns in the dialects described include, for example:

1. Names of implements and tools

-ukas: švilpukas ‘whistle’, žindukas

-tukas: peštukas ‘a tool for plucking a pig’s bristles’, plaktukas

-lys: grėblys, kablys

-alas: barškālas ‘rattle’, skambalas

-klas: plow

-ynė: birbynė, lazdynė, stovynė

-tas: grąštas, kaltas

2. Place names

-udė: aludė “beerhouse,” peludė

-ykla: a lying place, a carding place, a bathing place

-mė: gelmė, tankmė

-uma: giluma, sekluma, žemuma

-inė: alinė, bulvinė, daržinė

-ynas: an oak grove, a willow thicket, a wooded area

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-ynė: durpynė, kupstynė, molynė

-iena: oat flour, clover flour, wheat flour

3. Names of action results

-alas: slops, yarn, brew

-lys: padėlys, pašėlys

-ena: gaišena, skurdėna, stipena

-inys: flooring, purchase, rot, find

-snys: a handful, a fathom, a step

-ėsis: (usually plural) degėsei, griuvėsei, puvėsei

-tė: grįštė, gniūštė

4. Names of abstract concepts

-ybė: galybė, kantrybė, lygybė

-ulys: agony, thirst

-umas: whiteness, patience, brightness

-ata: sarmata, sveikata

-vsta, -vstė: youth || youth, foolishness || foolishness

-ava: painiava, velniava

5. Names of people's occupations

-inykas (-ininkas): beekeeper, worker, clerk

-orius: singer, chanter

IV. Some conclusions

Although the descriptive dialects are the foundation of 1k, they nevertheless exhibit cases of suffix use that differ from 1k. Some cases of differing usage also occur among the descriptive dialects, subdialects, and local varieties. Here we will list a few of these cases of differing usage and related features.

1. Instead of the suffix -ininkas, descriptive dialects more widely pronounce -inykas. The Kapsai most often use only -inykas, whereas the Zanavykai, alongside -ininkas, also use -inykas (darbinýkas). In the area around Naujoji Ūta, -inikas (pùlkininkas) is also reported.

2. Instead of the 1k adjective suffix -yvas, -a, the Zanavykai and Kapsai also use the suffix -ybas, -a (ankstýbas).

3. In some ja-stem nouns, the 1k suffix -snis corresponds to the suffix -snys in the descriptive dialects, e.g.: sieksnys, žinks­nys.

4. In the 1k adjectives artimas, tolimas, the 1k suffix -imas, -a is most often pronounced -ymas, -a: ártymas, tólymas.

5. The diminutive noun suffix -ikė is widely used in the eastern dialect of the Kapsai II variety, e.g.: kačikė, pelikė, skarikė, višči̇kė. In this dialect, this suffix is also used in girls’ surnames, e.g.: Brundżikė, Varkalikė.

6. In girls’ surnames, the Zanavykai and Kapsai II eastern varieties also often use the suffix -ukė, e.g.: Bernotukė, Kuraitukė, Matulaitukė, Šlimpukė.

7. In girls’ surnames, the Kapsai most often use only the suffix -iūtė, e.g.: Byliūtė (: Bylà), Luišiūtė (: Lùisis), Senkiūtė (: Señkus), Žvirbliūtė (: Žvirblỹs).

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8. Many of the suffixes of descriptive dialects have long been familiar here; only a few have spread recently. Cf., for example: -ykla (kirpykla, siuvykla), -ija (Aukštaitija, Kaunija, Zanavykija).

9. In general, the suffixes of descriptive dialects are Lithuanian; only very few are of foreign origin, yet under their influence even these have not remained firmly established. Cf., for example, -inyčia: langinyčia || langinė.

NOMINAL SUFFIXAL WORD FORMATION IN THE KAPSAS AND ZANAVYKAS DIALECTS

J. SENKUS

Summary

The paper presents an extensive analysis of nominal suffixal word formation in the Kapsas and Zanavykas dialects, which formed the basis of the Lithuanian literary language. It characterizes derivatives formed with the suffixes -uva, -ybas(-a), -ybė, -enybė, -inyčia, -očius, -očiuvienė, -uočius, -uočiuvienė, -da, -das, -odas, -ėzdas, -ozdas, -ga, -gas, -gys (—ė), -ingas (-ė), -ju-, -ija, -ijas, -tojas(-a), -auja, -ojus, -ka, -kas, -kis(-ė), -(s)kus, -(s)kuvienė, -ikas, -ikė, -okas, (-a); okas(-ė), -ukas, -ukė, -uka, -tukas, -inykas || -ininkas, -iškas(-a), -iškė, -(s)las, -(s)lys (—ė), -lius, -lus(-i), -ala, -alas, -alis (-ė), -alius (ė), -aliuvienė, -elis(-elė), -intelis(-ė), -ėlys, -ėlis, (-ėlė), -utėlis(-ė), -umėlis, -ėlius, -ėliuvienė, -ėlė, -olius, -oliuvienė, ~olė, -ula, -ulas, -ulis (-ulė), -ulys, -aila, -uolius, ~uolė, -uolys, -(y)kla, -klas, -klė, -klis, -klys, -(s)mas, -(s)mė, -imas, -ymas, -uma, -umas, -(s)na, -(s)nas, -(s)nis, -(s)nys, -(s)nus, -nius, -ana, -anas(-a), -ena, -mena, -sena(-šena), -enė, -uomenė, -ėna, -ėnas; -inas, -inis(-ė), -utinis (-ė), -inys, -yna, -ynas, -umynas, -ynė, -onas, -ona, -onis (-onė), -onius(-ė), -ūnas, (-ūnė), -ūna, -ainas(-a), -ainis, -ainė, -iena, -ienas, -opas (-a), -ra, -(s)ras, -rus(-ri), -ara, -aras, -eris, -erys, -orius, -urė, -erė, -sas(-sa), -sus(-si), -ėsa, -ėsai, -ėsis, -ėsys, -esis, -šė, -išius, -(s)tas (-ta), -(s)tė, -(s)tis, -(s)tus, -ata, -atis, -eta, -etas, -ėtas (-ėta), -otas(-ota), -otė, -uotas(-a), -ytis, -ytė, -aitis (-aitė), -ietis (-ietė), -utas, -utis (-utė), -ūtė, -astis, -astas, -estis, -estys, -ysta, -yste, -(s)vas (-va), -(s)vė, -vis, -avas(-ava), -ovas, -ovė, -tuvas, -tuva, -tuvis, -tuvė, -erza, -ėzas, -ozas, -ūzas, -uža, -užis, and others.

The paper concludes with findings on nominal suffixal word formation in the Kapsas and Zanavykas dialects.