RESEARCH ARTICLE
Can mask manda es boos na u e-based
ou ism? The ole o escapism and a el
anxie y
Ma io R. Pa edesID
1
*, Vanessa ApaolazaID
2
, Pa ick Ha mann
2
, Ai o Ma cosID
2
, Jose
Domingo Ga cı
´a-Me ino
2
1School o Managemen and Business, Uni e sidad del Rosa io, Bogo a
´, Colombia, 2Facul y o Economics
and Business Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain
*ma io .pa edes@u osa io.edu.co
Abs ac
Tou ism in a pos -pandemic e a will likely be o ien ed owa d na u e because con ac wi h
na u e has es o a i e heal h bene i s. The pu pose o his s udy was o analyze he an e-
ceden s o ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s du ing a pandemic. A na ionally
ep esen a i e sample o he Spanish popula ion (n = 500) was ec ui ed by an online com-
me cial panel o es and empi ically alida e he p oposed concep ual amewo k. The ind-
ings con i med a di ec ela ionship be ween nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic and ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s. The
ela ionship be ween he pe cei ed nega i e e ec s o wea ing ace masks and he in en ion
o isi na u e-based eso s was posi i ely media ed by he need o escapism. This impac
was less p onounced o anxious a ele s, as shown by esul s co obo a ing he mode a -
ing e ec o a el anxie y. The indings o his s udy con ibu e o esea ch on ou ism c ises
and p o ide u u e insigh s in o he eco e y o he indus y du ing COVID-19.
In oduc ion
The COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has adically a ec ed he ou ism indus y, one o
he ha des hi and mos damaged sec o s wo ldwide [1,2]. Owing o he pandemic, 2020 was
he wo s yea o e enue in he his o y o global ou ism, wi h o e 1 billion ewe in e na-
ional a ele s han he p e ious yea . By 2021, in e na ional ou ism had inc eased by 4%;
howe e , i was s ill 72% below p e-pandemic le els [3].
This s udy ocuses on Spain because he COVID-19 pandemic has had a his o ically nega i e
impac on he coun y’s ou ism indus y [4,5], making i a good ep esen a ion o he pandem-
ic’s wo ldwide impac on he sec o . Spain was one o he Eu opean coun ies mos a ec ed by
he pandemic. In 2019, ou ism ac i i y in he coun y ep esen ed 12.8% o i s g oss domes ic
p oduc (GDP). Howe e , in 2020 i s GDP sha e d opped o 5% due o he e ec s o he pan-
demic [6]. F om Ap il 2020 o Ma ch 2021, his c isis esul ed in mo e han 800,000 job losses
o he ou ism indus y in Spain [7]. Two ac o s ha s eng hen he signi icance o Spain’s
expe ience and es ablish a need o he sec o ’s eco e y a e he indus y’s domes ic economic
con ibu ion and he coun y’s pa icipa ion in he global ou ism indus y [8].
PLOS ONE
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 1 / 19
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OPEN ACCESS
Ci a ion: Pa edes MR, Apaolaza V, Ha mann P,
Ma cos A, Ga cı
´a-Me ino JD (2023) Can mask
manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? The ole o
escapism and a el anxie y. PLoS ONE 18(2):
e0280489. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.
pone.0280489
Edi o : Ali B. Mahmoud, S John’s Uni e si y,
UNITED STATES
Recei ed: Ma ch 29, 2022
Accep ed: Decembe 29, 2022
Published: Feb ua y 7, 2023
Copy igh : ©2023 Pa edes e al. This is an open
access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal
au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : All ele an da a a e
wi hin he pape .
Funding: The s udy was unded by he Spanish
Go e nmen and Eu opean Regional De elopmen
Fund (PID2021-123686OB-I00 AEI/FEDER UE)
h ps://www.ciencia.gob.es/, he Basque
Go e nmen (IT1731-22, PRE-2021-2-0037)
h ps://www.euskadi.eus/, and he FESIDE
Founda ion (03-21) h ps://www. eside.o g/ o VA
and PH. The unde s had no ole in s udy design,
Despi e he nega i e scena io in he ou ism indus y, ecen academic li e a u e and media
ou le s ha e sugges ed ha na u e ou ism eme ged as an op ion du ing he COVID-19 pan-
demic and ha his o m o ou ism was he b anch o he indus y leas a ec ed by he pan-
demic. Fo ins ance, be ween 2020 and 2021, na u e and u al ou ism in Spain inc eased by
51.8% [9] and was p ojec ed o be among he majo a el ends o 2022 [10]. The pandemic
has caused ou is s o conside he alue o con ac wi h na u e when choosing a des ina ion
[11]. As ou ism eco e s om COVID-19, ou is s may p e e na u e-based a ac ions [12].
Tou ism in a pos -pandemic e a will likely be o ien ed owa d na u e because con ac wi h
na u e has es o a i e heal h bene i s [13], and ou doo spaces, such as na u al pa ks, educe
he chances o con agion [14]. The e is also e idence o he healing bene i s o na u al sound-
scapes o imp o e he well-being o isi o s in acing he cu en public challenge o he
COVID-19 c isis [15]. Acco ding o hei esul s, he in e ela ionships o he es o a i e com-
ponen s a e mode a ed by he pe cei ed s ess le el, which shows signi ican di e ences be o e
and a e he COVID-19 pandemic. The pos -COVID-19 isi o s epo ed a highe le el o
s ess and ha na u al soundscapes had g ea e ec s on hei men al es o a ion [15].
The COVID-19 i us is ansmi ed p ima ily h ough espi a o y d ople s and di ec o
indi ec con ac [16]. To con ain he sp ead o he i us, go e nmen s ha e imposed con in-
gency measu es such as equen handwashing, social dis ancing, and wea ing ace masks [17].
Wea ing a ace mask in public spaces o nea o he people has become manda o y in many
coun ies. This is he case in Spain. Be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, masks we e used mainly
by heal hca e wo ke s [18]. Howe e , due o he pandemic, wea ing a ace mask has become
mo e common and occu s o longe pe iods [19]. E idence exis s o he e ec i eness o wea -
ing a ace mask as i educes he isk o i al ansmission, hus dec easing hospi aliza ions and
dea h a es [20–22]. Howe e , wea ing a mask o long pe iods o ime is also ela ed o pe -
cei ed ha m ul e ec s [23].
Be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, esea ch on wea ing ace masks was p ima ily ela ed o
speci ic ac i i ies, such as medical ca e [24]. Mask-wea ing is an unexplo ed a ea o in es iga-
ion in he ou ism con ex . Recen esea ch has ocused on he e ec s o wea ing ace masks
in he hospi ali y and ou ism sec o s (e.g., [25–27]) o on he pollu ion gene a ed by masks
being disca ded by ou is s [28]. Ano he unde -in es iga ed a ea o s udy is he ela ionship
be ween human connec ion o na u e and he pe cep ions and eac ions o indi iduals o
COVID-19 [29]. Acco ding o G ima e al. [30], he e is scan esea ch on he ole o na u e in
imes o c ises, especially gi en how g een spaces help imp o e pos -disas e esilience [31].
Thus, i is c ucial o add ess he e ec s o na u al a eas on indi iduals’ eac ions when acing
c ises, since mo e pandemics like he COVID-19 a e expec ed in he u u e. Recen ly, B ews e
and Gou lay [25] ha e called o a be e unde s anding o he e ec s o wea ing a ace mask
on cus ome beha io s in he hospi ali y indus y. Thus, he p esen s udy in ends o answe
he ollowing esea ch ques ion: Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? To he bes
o ou knowledge, no esea ch has explo ed how he habi o wea ing ace masks in luences
ou is beha io ega ding he choice o a na u e-based ou is des ina ion.
On he basis o he e olu iona y link be ween humans and na u e, Wilson [32] p oposed
he biophilia hypo hesis, which p edic s humans’ inclina ion owa d na u e. O e he pas 35
yea s, esea che s ha e documen ed he posi i e bene i s o na u e con ac on physical and
psychological well-being. The biophilia hypo hesis is he ounda ion o he na u e connec ed-
ness pa adigm, which examines he human–na u e ela ionship (e.g., [33–35]). Na u e con-
nec edness has been posi i ely associa ed wi h inc eased sel -es eem [36], posi i e emo ions
[37], lowe s ess and anxie y le els [38,39], be e physical heal h [40], and well-being [33].
Based on he na u e connec edness pa adigm, his esea ch aims o con ibu e o he ex an
ou ism li e a u e by de eloping and empi ically es ing a concep ual amewo k o explo e
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da a collec ion and analysis, decision o publish, o
p epa a ion o he manusc ip .
Compe ing in e es s: The au ho s ha e decla ed
ha no compe ing in e es s exis .
he impac o nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks du ing he COVID-19 pandemic on
ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s. The esea ch analyzes how his ela ionship is
media ed by he need o escapism. Mo eo e , ou model includes he po en ial mode a ing
e ec o a el anxie y due o he pandemic on he ela ionship be ween nega i e pe cep ions
o wea ing ace masks and people’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s. The indings p o-
ide impo an heo e ical con ibu ions and manage ial implica ions o he eco e y o he
ou ism indus y.
The emainde o his a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. Fi s , we e iew he li e a u e o
de elop hypo heses and p opose a concep ual amewo k. Second, we p esen he me hodol-
ogy, ollowed by he heo e ical and p ac ical con ibu ions. Finally, we discuss he limi a ions
and sugges ions o u u e esea ch.
Li e a u e e iew
The e ec o he nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s
in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s
Wea ing a ace mask o a long pe iod has been associa ed wi h se e al physiological and psy-
chological e ec s. Among he mos common ad e se physiological e ec s a e headaches [41],
poo b ea hing [24], dizziness [42], acial i ching, sc a ching [19], i i a ion [43], and highe
acial empe a u es [44]. Resea che s ha e also ecognized a ious psychological e ec s o
wea ing ace masks. D awing om he sel -de e mina ion heo y, Scheid e al. [41] iden i ied
h ee ac o s in luenced by wea ing ace masks: (i) au onomy, he abili y o ha e ee will and
choice; (ii) psychological ela edness, he eeling o connec ing socially wi h o he s; and (iii)
compe ence, eelings o capabili y, e ec i eness, and mas e y o e ci cums ances. In a sys em-
a ic li e a u e e iew, Bakhi e al. [23] ound ea , loneliness, s igma, and lack o empa hy o
be nega i e psychological e ec s o wea ing ace masks. The discom o o wea ing ace masks
has nega i e implica ions o se ice p o ide s in he hospi ali y indus y, especially in non e -
bal communica ion [27].
While he deba e abou he clinical implica ions and magni ude o hese e ec s con inues,
especially o indus y wo ke s no in heal hca e o a ela ed indus y [41,45], consensus has
been eached ha wea ing ace masks o long pe iods p oduces ha m ul e ec s and discom-
o , leading o po en ial misuse [24,42,46]. Owing o he co ona i us pandemic, people ha e
o wea masks mo e equen ly and o longe pe iods han hey did p io o he pandemic
[19]. Thus, indi iduals may look o ways o educe hese nega i e e ec s in hei e e yday
expe iences.
Resea ch ac oss se e al domains has ecognized he posi i e e ec o na u e connec edness
on he eco e y o physiological and psychological dis ess gene a ed by ou b eaks and social
o economic c ises. Fo ins ance, Li man e al. [47] explo ed how na u e con ac imp o es
psychological and physical heal h o mili a y e e ans wi h pos - auma ic s ess diso de .
Sachde a e al. [48] s a ed ha na u e has es o a i e elemen s a e imes o collec i e s ess,
such as he nega i e psychological and social consequences o he G ea Recession in he
Uni ed S a es. Block e al. [49] ound ha na u e connec edness is e ec i e o disas e eco -
e y ela ed o he imp o emen o men al heal h, well-being, and social connec edness. O os-
son and G ahn [50] ound ha a highe connec ion wi h na u e leads o a be e ehabili a ion
p ocess a e expe iencing pe sonal nega i e e en s, such as di o ce o he dea h o a signi i-
can o he . Finally, Gladkikh e al. [51] conduc ed a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew on e ugee
popula ions and how na u e bene i s emo ional and physical eco e y du ing ese lemen .
Simila ly, na u e-based ou ism has been ega ded as an in e es ing al e na i e o popula
aca ion des ina ions in he e a o COVID-19 because i o e s an open en i onmen whe e
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people can a oid c owded spaces, hus diminishing he isk o con agion while ha ing an
oppo uni y o s eng hen hei connec edness o na u e [14]. The na u e connec edness pa a-
digm s a es a posi i e associa ion be ween high exposu e o na u e and indi iduals’ well-being
[33,38]. Nisbe , Zelenski, and Mu phy [52] showed ha na u e connec edness is associa ed
wi h sel - eliance, pe sonal g ow h, hedonic well-being, and pu pose in li e. On he basis o a
sys ema ic li e a u e e iew, Qiu e al. [13] de eloped a concep ual amewo k o iden i y he
es o a i e elemen s (e.g., physical heal h, psychological wellness, psychosocial de elopmen ,
and spi i ual upli men ) o na u e-based ou ism, implying i s app op ia eness o deal wi h
he di icul ies o COVID-19. Indi iduals need a mechanism o deal wi h he nega i e e ec s
imposed by he COVID-19 pandemic, such as he pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace
masks. Based on he na u e connec edness pa adigm, which asse s ha con ac wi h g een
spaces inc eases well-being and helps indi iduals deal wi h nega i e pe cep ions, we p opose
he ollowing:
Hypo hesis 1 (H1): Nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks du ing he COVID-19 pan-
demic ha e a signi ican posi i e e ec on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s.
The media ing ole o he need o escapism
Escapism is a coping mechanism ha p o ides indi iduals wi h an oppo uni y o deal wi h
nega i e expe iences, such as emo ional s ess o anxie y p oduced by unpleasan eali ies o
di icul si ua ions [53]. People engage in a ious ac i i ies o shi hei ocus away om he
p oblems and p essu es de i ed om social si ua ions [54]. Since he h ea o COVID-19
diminishes subjec i e well-being [55], indi iduals escape he nega i e e ec s o he pandemic
and deal wi h emo ional dis ess by engaging in di e en ac i i ies, like binge-wa ching [56],
in e ne use [57], social media use [58], nos algic media use [59], and ideogame use [60].
Escapism cons i u es a majo mo i e o ou ism ac i i ies, allowing indi iduals o escape
om hei daily ou ines o imme se hemsel es in new eali ies and expe iences [61,62]. Peo-
ple escape hei daily ou ines when hey engage in ou ism ac i i ies [63]. Places ha o e
high imme sion, such as na u al pa ks o heme pa ks, p o ide escapis expe iences o isi o s
[64]. When ou is s become imme sed, hey escape om he eali y and s ess o he wo ld. In
analyzing ou ism a a moun ain eso , F ocho e al. [65] ound ha “imme sion closely ied
in wi h he eeling o ge ing away: he mo e imme sed hey go , he mo e hey o go abou
e e yday li e” (p. 87). Recen ly, Pa k e al. [66] ecognized escapism as a mo i a ion o ou is s
o isi a ood museum, since he expe ience allowed hem o escape om hei ou ines and
p o ided meaning o daily ood i uals. In he COVID-19 con ex , Leb un e al. [14] iden i ied
na u al pa ks as an al e na i e o ou is s “ o escape daily li e ou ine and o e i alize hei
li es” (p. 5), since isi o s may encoun e an imme si e expe ience wi h na u e while dimin-
ishing he p obabili y o con agion.
In a pos -pandemic e a, people may look o ou is des ina ions ha o e di ec con ac
wi h na u e a he han adi ional des ina ions [67]. Na u e-based ou ism may be an escapis
op ion o deal wi h he nega i e e ec s o he COVID-19 pandemic. Escapis mechanisms may
help indi iduals deal wi h he nega i e e ec s gene a ed by he co ona i us pandemic [68].
The g ea e he pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace masks, he mo e p one indi iduals
may be o escape om unpleasan eali ies, which may, in u n, posi i ely in luence hei in en-
ions o isi na u e-based eso s. Thus, we expec he ollowing:
Hypo hesis 2 (H2): Nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks ha e an indi ec bene icial
e ec on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s because o he posi i e e ec o
mask-wea ing on he need o escapism.
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The mode a ing e ec o he deg ee o indi idual’s pe cei ed a el anxie y
Conce n o sa e y has been a majo ac o in de e mining he a el in en ions o indi iduals
du ing he pandemic [12]; when a eling, he p obabili y o physical dis ancing dec eases and
he likelihood o con agion inc eases om exposu e o c owds [69]. P e ious esea ch has
es ablished he nega i e in luence o disease ou b eaks on a el in en ions [70]. Recen e i-
dence sugges s ha he COVID-19 pandemic has ha med people’s men al well-being, speci i-
cally h ough he gene a ion o unp eceden ed eelings o anxie y, s ess, and dep ession (e.g.,
[71]). These e ec s a e magni ied by he sp ead o in o ma ion h ough mass media and social
media [72].
Highe le els o anxie y a e posi i ely ela ed o sa e y and p e en i e beha io s [73]. People
seek o educe anxie y by es o ing eelings o con ol h ough coping s a egies [74]. Wea ing
a ace mask may se e as a sel -p o ec i e beha io ha diminishes an indi idual’s anxie y [75,
76], as well as i s imp ope ly use could inc ease an indi idual’s anxie y [77]. People may
become mo e ne ous o anxious when a eling. Anxie y and posi i e a ousal a e common
eelings when a eling, gene ally p oducing mino e ec s on a el in en ions [78]. Howe e ,
he global magni ude o COVID-19 has inc eased isk pe cep ions, enla ging a el anxie y
[79]. Resea ch sugges s ha when pe cei ed anxie y inc eases, sa e y pe cep ions dec ease,
nega i ely impac ing a el in en ions [80]. Recen in es iga ions s a e ha he co ona i us
pandemic inc eased he a el isk pe cep ions o ou is s, educing hei a el in en ions [79,
81,82].
Anxie y may be conside ed a subjec i e eeling expe ienced when indi iduals ace a po en-
ial isk and may be in luenced by a iables such as pe sonali y [80], age [83], o isk a e sion
[84]. Risk pe cep ions o a eling a y among indi iduals. The same des ina ion may gene a e
anxie y o some indi iduals and elaxa ion o o he s [80]. People may also expe ience di e -
en le els o a el anxie y [78]. On he o he hand, he li e a u e has iden i ied ha na u e has
a posi i e e ec on diminishing anxie y le els [85,86]. Na u e-based ou ism imp o es he
men al well-being o indi iduals, p o iding hem wi h a mechanism o anxie y educ ion [87].
Indi iduals who wo y mo e abou a eling because o COVID-19 expe ience less sa e y
pe cep ion o eel less sa e o a el and a e less willing o engage in a el decisions. We expec
ha people wi h highe (lowe ) le els o a el anxie y, who expe ience g ea e (lesse ) eelings
o isk when a eling, may be less (mo e) suscep ible o he e ec o nega i e pe cep ions o
wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he need o
escapism and hus we p opose he ollowing:
Hypo hesis 3 (H3): The indi ec e ec o he nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on
ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he need o escapism is mode a ed
nega i ely by indi idual’s deg ee o pe cei ed a el anxie y due o he COVID-19
pandemic.
Fig 1 depic s he heo e ical model and hypo hesized ela ionships.
Me hodology
Da a collec ion: Pa icipan s and p ocedu e
To es he p oposed concep ual amewo k, we collec ed da a using an online su ey o Span-
ish ou is s. The sample was d awn om a na ionally ep esen a i e online panel o he Span-
ish popula ion ec ui ed by a comme cial panel p o ide (n = 500, 50% emale, M
age
= 48.24,
SD = 16.26, ages anging om 20 o 84). We collec ed 500 esponses because he equi ed sam-
ple size o de ec media ed e ec s abo e 0.14 (i.e., e en small e ec s) wi h powe = .80 and 0.05
is a leas 462 subjec s [88]. Da a we e collec ed du ing he i s week o Decembe 2021. The
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esea ch e hics commi ee o he Uni e sidad del Rosa io app o ed his in es iga ion unde
he esolu ion DVO005 410-CS266. All pa icipan s p o ided w i en in o med consen .
Subjec s we e selec ed using a quo a-based andom sampling me hod om he panel un il
he quo as o age, gende , esiden ial a ea, and income we e comple ed (see Table 1 o de ails).
The quo as we e se o ma ch he popula ion app oxima ely in socio-demog aphic desc ip o s.
As a equi emen , gi en he ac ha li ing in an u ban en i onmen , compa ed o a u al en i-
onmen , de e mines he use o a ace mask o p o ec agains COVID-19, people who li ed in
owns wi h mo e han 20,000 inhabi an s we e a ge s o he s udy. To ensu e ha all espon-
den s me his equi emen , a il e ques ion was in oduced a he beginning o he ques ion-
nai e which asked he pa icipan s whe he hei usual place o esidence was in an u ban
cen e . Pa icipan s esponded o he online ques ionnai e, which assessed o wha ex en wea -
ing a ace mask as p o ec ion agains COVID-19 in hei day- o-day li es gene a ed nega i e
eelings, he equency wi h which hey el he need o escapism h oughou 2021, and hei
in en ion o isi a na u e-based ou ism des ina ion, speci ically whe he hey had plans o isi
a na u e-based eso in he nea u u e. Finally, he ques ionnai e con ained a ques ion o mea-
su e he le el o he pa icipan s’ a el anxie y due o he COVID-19 pandemic.
Measu emen
Valida ed measu es in he li e a u e we e used o each o he analyzed a iables. To assess he
pe cei ed nega i e o annoying e ec s o wea ing a ace mask as p o ec ion agains COVID-19
among he pa icipan s, we used i e i ems adap ed om scales in p e ious s udies [24,41,42].
Pa icipan s a ed each i em on a se en-poin Like - ype scale (1 = no a all; 7 = e y much).
Escapism was measu ed wi h a i e-i em scale adop ed om Hi schman [53] and Wu and
Holsapple [54]. Pa icipan s we e asked how o en hey had el he u ge o un away om
p oblems and p essu es in he pas yea (Table 2). They a ed each i em on a se en-poin
Like - ype scale (1 = no a all; 7 = e y much).
To assess ou is s’ beha io al in en ions o isi a na u e-based eso , we used a single-i em
scale adop ed om Han and Hyun [89]. Pa icipan s we e asked abou hei deg ee o ag ee-
men o disag eemen wi h he ollowing s a emen : “I ha e plans o spend a ew days o a a
na u e-based eso in he nea u u e.” We again used a se en-poin Like - ype scale (1 =
s ongly disag ee; 7 = s ongly ag ee).
Finally, i e i ems adop ed om he Pandemic (COVID-19) Anxie y T a el Scale (PATS)
ecen ly de eloped by Zenke e al. [78] we e used o measu e he pa icipan s’ a el anxie y.
Pa icipan s a ed each i em on a se en-poin Like - ype scale (1 = s ongly disag ee; 7 =
s ongly ag ee).
Fig 1. Theo e ical model o he indi ec e ec o he pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace masks on ou is s’
in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he pe cei ed need o escapism.
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All measu emen i ems and hei p ope ies a e displayed in Table 2. C onbach’s alpha con-
i med he eliabili y o all scales.
Da a analysis
The da a we e analyzed wi h he S a is ical Package o he Social Sciences (SPSS) Ve sion 26.
Media ion analyses we e pe o med as ou lined by Hayes [90] o examine whe he he need
Table 1. Sample cha ac e is ics.
F equency Pe cen age
Gende Male 250 50.0
Female 250 50.0
Age 20–24 53 10.6
25–34 69 13.8
35–44 97 19.4
45–54 93 18.6
55–64 75 15.0
>65 113 22.6
Household income <600 €32 6.4
601–1,000 €21 4.2
1,001–1,500 €53 10.6
1,501–2,000 €67 13.4
2,000–2,500 €59 11.8
2,501–3,000 €48 9.6
3,001–3,500 €31 6.2
3,501–4,000 €31 6.2
4,001–5,000 €27 5.4
5,001–8000 €10 2.0
>8,000 €5 1.0
I p e e no o say 116 23.2
Habi a 20,000–99,999 202 40.4
100,000–499,999 198 39.6
>500,000 100 20.0
Region o esidence Andalucı
´a 92 18.4
A ago
´n 12 2.4
P incipado de As u ias 18 3.6
Illes Balea s 6 1.2
Cana ias 22 4.4
Can ab ia 6 1.2
Cas illa y Leo
´n 23 4.6
Cas illa-La Mancha 23 4.6
Ca alunya 87 17.4
Comuni a Valenciana 56 11.2
Ex emadu a 14 2.8
Galicia 27 5.4
Mad id 66 13.2
Mu cia 8 1.6
Na a a 3 0.6
Paı
´s Vasco 37 7.4
To al 500 100
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o escapism media ed he ela ionship be ween he pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace
masks du ing he COVID-19 pandemic and ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s.
The media ion analysis es ablished whe he he e ec o he p edic o a iable (nega i e pe -
cep ions o wea ing ace masks) on he ou come a iable ( ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-
based eso s) could be explained a leas pa ially by an inc ease in he pe cei ed need o
escapism, ha is, whe he he g ea e he pe cep ion o nega i e sensa ions de i ed om wea -
ing masks led indi iduals o pe cei e highe le els o need o escapism and whe he i is his
e ec ha in u n inc eases ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based ou ism des ina ions, such
as na u e-based eso s. The indi ec eg ession coe icien was compu ed wi h a media ed
eg ession analysis using Hayes’s PROCESS SPSS mac o [90].
Nex , as a i s s ep ecommended by Hayes [90], he in e ac ion o he pe cei ed ad e se
e ec s o wea ing ace masks and a el anxie y mode a o on he need o escapism media o
was analyzed by mode a ed eg ession analysis o es whe he he mode a ion was signi ican .
To analyze he mode a ion o he indi ec e ec o nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks
on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he media o pe cei ed need o
escapism, a mode a ed media ion analysis was conduc ed using he PROCESS SPSS mac o
[90]. To es he signi icance o he mode a ion o indi ec e ec s, PROCESS compu ed an
index o mode a ed media ion and p o ided bias-co ec ed boo s ap con idence in e als
(CI) o he coe icien . We es ima ed he bias-co ec ed boo s ap CIs wi h 10,000 boo s ap
samples. The boo s ap in e al is indica ed in he Resul s sec ion below, which shows he
lowe and uppe limi s o he boo s ap CI (Boo LLCI, Boo ULCI). The signi icance o he
mode a ed media ion index is con i med when he co esponding boo s ap CI does no con-
ain ze o (Boo s ap signi icance es s do no ely on p- alues and a e conside ed mo e obus
han o he heo y es s).
Resul s
The co ela ion analysis (Table 3) con i med a signi ican posi i e ela ionship be ween he
pe cei ed damaging e ec s o wea ing ace masks and he need o escapism ( = .432, p <.01)
and be ween he need o escapism and ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s ( =
.260, p <.01). The esul s also con i med a signi ican posi i e ela ionship be ween he
Table 2. Va iables and measu emen i ems.
Mean SD α
Nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks 3.69 1.96 .87
Discom o
Psychological s ess
Skin i i a ion
Poo b ea hing
Dizziness
Need o escapism 4.65 2.04 .93
Escape om he wo ld o eali y
Escape om p oblems and p essu es
Escape om hings ha a e unpleasan and wo isome
Escape om he daily ou ine o li e
Desi e o go elsewhe e away om e e yday ac i i ies
T a el anxie y due o he pandemic 4.68 1.88 .89
COVID-19 makes me wo y a lo abou my no mal ways o a eling.
I makes me uncom o able o hink abou COVID-19 while planning my aca ion.
I am a aid o isk my li e when I a el because o COVID-19.
When wa ching news abou COVID-19, I become ne ous o anxious in ega d o a el.
I do no eel sa e o a el due o COVID-19.
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pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace masks and ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based
eso s ( = .125, p <.01), p o iding suppo o H1. An analysis o indi ec e ec s wi h 10,000
boo s ap samples and bias-co ec ed boo s ap CIs [90] con i med ha nega i e pe cep ions
o wea ing ace masks on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s we e media ed by
he pe cei ed need o escapism (b
ind
= .134, Boo s anda d e o [SE] = .03, 95% Boo CI
[.078, .195]), p o iding suppo o H2. The media ion was comple e, wi h he emaining
di ec e ec being non-signi ican (b = .019, SE = .059, = .33, p = .74). Thus, when he media -
ing a iable o he need o escapism was in oduced, he di ec e ec o nega i e pe cep ions
o wea ing ace masks on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s ceased o be
signi ican .
Subsequen ly, using Hayes’s PROCESS [90], we es ed whe he he indi ec e ec o nega-
i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s,
media ed by he pe cei ed need o escapism, was mode a ed nega i ely by he indi idual’s
deg ee o pe cei ed a el anxie y, as p oposed in H3. The mode a ed media ion index ha
was compu ed suppo ed he signi icance o he p oposed mode a ed media ion (10,000 boo -
s ap samples) because ze o was absen om he boo s ap CI (b
modmed
= -.016, SE = .007, 95%
Boo CI [-.032, -.002]). The esul s con i med ha he indi ec e ec o nega i e pe cep ions o
wea ing ace masks on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough a media o -
pe cei ed need o escapism was mode a ed by indi idual’s a el anxie y le els, p o iding
suppo o H3. Table 4 p esen s he pa e n o mode a ion o he indi ec e ec o pe cei ed
ad e se e ec s o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s, medi-
a ed by he pe cei ed need o escapism a di e en alues o mode a ed a el anxie y (see
also Fig 2).
Table 3. Va iable co ela es.
NPM ES IV TA
Nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing masks (NPM)
Need o escapism (ES) .432��
In en ions o isi na u e-based eso s (IV) .125�� .260��
T a el anxie y due o he pandemic (TA) .070 .257�� .281��
��p<.01
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Table 4. Mode a ed media ion analysis o he indi ec e ec o he nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s
h ough he pe cei ed need o escapism.
Index o mode a ed media ion
Mod. Med. Mod. med. index Boo SE Boo LLCI Boo ULCI
TA ES -.016 .007 -.032 -.002
Condi ional indi ec e ec a alues o he mode a o
Mod. Med. Values Mod. Cond. ind. e ec Boo SE Boo LLCI Boo ULCI
TA ES 3.10 (-1SD) .15 .03 .09 .22
4.68 (M) .12 .02 .07 .18
6.26 (+1SD) .10 .02 .05 .16
No e. Ten housand boo s ap samples o bias-co ec ed 95% boo s ap con idence in e als; boo SE = boo s ap s anda d e o , boo LLCI = boo s ap lowe limi
con idence in e al, boo ULCI = boo s ap uppe limi con idence in e al; alues o quan i a i e mode a o s a e he mean (M) and plus/minus one SD om mean
(-1SD / +1SD); Med.: media o , Mod.: mode a o , ES: need o escapism, TA: a el anxie y due o he pandemic.
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