Can mask mandates boost nature-based tourism? The role of escapism and travel anxiety

RESEARCH ARTICLE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? The ole o escapism and a el anxie y Ma io R. Pa edesID 1 *, Vanessa ApaolazaID 2 , Pa ick Ha mann 2 , Ai o Ma cosID 2 , Jose Domingo Ga cı ´a-Me ino 2 1School o Managemen and Business, Uni e sidad del Rosa io, Bogo a ´, Colombia, 2Facul y o Economics and Business Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain *ma io .pa edes@u osa io.edu.co Abs ac Tou ism in a pos -pandemic e a will likely be o ien ed owa d na u e because con ac wi h na u e has es o a i e heal h bene i s. The pu pose o his s udy was o analyze he an e- ceden s o ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s du ing a pandemic. A na ionally ep esen a i e sample o he Spanish popula ion (n = 500) was ec ui ed by an online com- me cial panel o es and empi ically alida e he p oposed concep ual amewo k. The ind- ings con i med a di ec ela ionship be ween nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks du ing he COVID-19 pandemic and ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s. The ela ionship be ween he pe cei ed nega i e e ec s o wea ing ace masks and he in en ion o isi na u e-based eso s was posi i ely media ed by he need o escapism. This impac was less p onounced o anxious a ele s, as shown by esul s co obo a ing he mode a - ing e ec o a el anxie y. The indings o his s udy con ibu e o esea ch on ou ism c ises and p o ide u u e insigh s in o he eco e y o he indus y du ing COVID-19. In oduc ion The COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has adically a ec ed he ou ism indus y, one o he ha des hi and mos damaged sec o s wo ldwide [1,2]. Owing o he pandemic, 2020 was he wo s yea o e enue in he his o y o global ou ism, wi h o e 1 billion ewe in e na- ional a ele s han he p e ious yea . By 2021, in e na ional ou ism had inc eased by 4%; howe e , i was s ill 72% below p e-pandemic le els [3]. This s udy ocuses on Spain because he COVID-19 pandemic has had a his o ically nega i e impac on he coun y’s ou ism indus y [4,5], making i a good ep esen a ion o he pandem- ic’s wo ldwide impac on he sec o . Spain was one o he Eu opean coun ies mos a ec ed by he pandemic. In 2019, ou ism ac i i y in he coun y ep esen ed 12.8% o i s g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP). Howe e , in 2020 i s GDP sha e d opped o 5% due o he e ec s o he pan- demic [6]. F om Ap il 2020 o Ma ch 2021, his c isis esul ed in mo e han 800,000 job losses o he ou ism indus y in Spain [7]. Two ac o s ha s eng hen he signi icance o Spain’s expe ience and es ablish a need o he sec o ’s eco e y a e he indus y’s domes ic economic con ibu ion and he coun y’s pa icipa ion in he global ou ism indus y [8]. PLOS ONE PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 1 / 19 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 OPEN ACCESS Ci a ion: Pa edes MR, Apaolaza V, Ha mann P, Ma cos A, Ga cı ´a-Me ino JD (2023) Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? The ole o escapism and a el anxie y. PLoS ONE 18(2): e0280489. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal. pone.0280489 Edi o : Ali B. Mahmoud, S John’s Uni e si y, UNITED STATES Recei ed: Ma ch 29, 2022 Accep ed: Decembe 29, 2022 Published: Feb ua y 7, 2023 Copy igh : ©2023 Pa edes e al. This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : All ele an da a a e wi hin he pape . Funding: The s udy was unded by he Spanish Go e nmen and Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund (PID2021-123686OB-I00 AEI/FEDER UE) h ps://www.ciencia.gob.es/, he Basque Go e nmen (IT1731-22, PRE-2021-2-0037) h ps://www.euskadi.eus/, and he FESIDE Founda ion (03-21) h ps://www. eside.o g/ o VA and PH. The unde s had no ole in s udy design, Despi e he nega i e scena io in he ou ism indus y, ecen academic li e a u e and media ou le s ha e sugges ed ha na u e ou ism eme ged as an op ion du ing he COVID-19 pan- demic and ha his o m o ou ism was he b anch o he indus y leas a ec ed by he pan- demic. Fo ins ance, be ween 2020 and 2021, na u e and u al ou ism in Spain inc eased by 51.8% [9] and was p ojec ed o be among he majo a el ends o 2022 [10]. The pandemic has caused ou is s o conside he alue o con ac wi h na u e when choosing a des ina ion [11]. As ou ism eco e s om COVID-19, ou is s may p e e na u e-based a ac ions [12]. Tou ism in a pos -pandemic e a will likely be o ien ed owa d na u e because con ac wi h na u e has es o a i e heal h bene i s [13], and ou doo spaces, such as na u al pa ks, educe he chances o con agion [14]. The e is also e idence o he healing bene i s o na u al sound- scapes o imp o e he well-being o isi o s in acing he cu en public challenge o he COVID-19 c isis [15]. Acco ding o hei esul s, he in e ela ionships o he es o a i e com- ponen s a e mode a ed by he pe cei ed s ess le el, which shows signi ican di e ences be o e and a e he COVID-19 pandemic. The pos -COVID-19 isi o s epo ed a highe le el o s ess and ha na u al soundscapes had g ea e ec s on hei men al es o a ion [15]. The COVID-19 i us is ansmi ed p ima ily h ough espi a o y d ople s and di ec o indi ec con ac [16]. To con ain he sp ead o he i us, go e nmen s ha e imposed con in- gency measu es such as equen handwashing, social dis ancing, and wea ing ace masks [17]. Wea ing a ace mask in public spaces o nea o he people has become manda o y in many coun ies. This is he case in Spain. Be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, masks we e used mainly by heal hca e wo ke s [18]. Howe e , due o he pandemic, wea ing a ace mask has become mo e common and occu s o longe pe iods [19]. E idence exis s o he e ec i eness o wea - ing a ace mask as i educes he isk o i al ansmission, hus dec easing hospi aliza ions and dea h a es [20–22]. Howe e , wea ing a mask o long pe iods o ime is also ela ed o pe - cei ed ha m ul e ec s [23]. Be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, esea ch on wea ing ace masks was p ima ily ela ed o speci ic ac i i ies, such as medical ca e [24]. Mask-wea ing is an unexplo ed a ea o in es iga- ion in he ou ism con ex . Recen esea ch has ocused on he e ec s o wea ing ace masks in he hospi ali y and ou ism sec o s (e.g., [25–27]) o on he pollu ion gene a ed by masks being disca ded by ou is s [28]. Ano he unde -in es iga ed a ea o s udy is he ela ionship be ween human connec ion o na u e and he pe cep ions and eac ions o indi iduals o COVID-19 [29]. Acco ding o G ima e al. [30], he e is scan esea ch on he ole o na u e in imes o c ises, especially gi en how g een spaces help imp o e pos -disas e esilience [31]. Thus, i is c ucial o add ess he e ec s o na u al a eas on indi iduals’ eac ions when acing c ises, since mo e pandemics like he COVID-19 a e expec ed in he u u e. Recen ly, B ews e and Gou lay [25] ha e called o a be e unde s anding o he e ec s o wea ing a ace mask on cus ome beha io s in he hospi ali y indus y. Thus, he p esen s udy in ends o answe he ollowing esea ch ques ion: Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? To he bes o ou knowledge, no esea ch has explo ed how he habi o wea ing ace masks in luences ou is beha io ega ding he choice o a na u e-based ou is des ina ion. On he basis o he e olu iona y link be ween humans and na u e, Wilson [32] p oposed he biophilia hypo hesis, which p edic s humans’ inclina ion owa d na u e. O e he pas 35 yea s, esea che s ha e documen ed he posi i e bene i s o na u e con ac on physical and psychological well-being. The biophilia hypo hesis is he ounda ion o he na u e connec ed- ness pa adigm, which examines he human–na u e ela ionship (e.g., [33–35]). Na u e con- nec edness has been posi i ely associa ed wi h inc eased sel -es eem [36], posi i e emo ions [37], lowe s ess and anxie y le els [38,39], be e physical heal h [40], and well-being [33]. Based on he na u e connec edness pa adigm, his esea ch aims o con ibu e o he ex an ou ism li e a u e by de eloping and empi ically es ing a concep ual amewo k o explo e PLOS ONE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 2 / 19 da a collec ion and analysis, decision o publish, o p epa a ion o he manusc ip . Compe ing in e es s: The au ho s ha e decla ed ha no compe ing in e es s exis . he impac o nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks du ing he COVID-19 pandemic on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s. The esea ch analyzes how his ela ionship is media ed by he need o escapism. Mo eo e , ou model includes he po en ial mode a ing e ec o a el anxie y due o he pandemic on he ela ionship be ween nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks and people’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s. The indings p o- ide impo an heo e ical con ibu ions and manage ial implica ions o he eco e y o he ou ism indus y. The emainde o his a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. Fi s , we e iew he li e a u e o de elop hypo heses and p opose a concep ual amewo k. Second, we p esen he me hodol- ogy, ollowed by he heo e ical and p ac ical con ibu ions. Finally, we discuss he limi a ions and sugges ions o u u e esea ch. Li e a u e e iew The e ec o he nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s Wea ing a ace mask o a long pe iod has been associa ed wi h se e al physiological and psy- chological e ec s. Among he mos common ad e se physiological e ec s a e headaches [41], poo b ea hing [24], dizziness [42], acial i ching, sc a ching [19], i i a ion [43], and highe acial empe a u es [44]. Resea che s ha e also ecognized a ious psychological e ec s o wea ing ace masks. D awing om he sel -de e mina ion heo y, Scheid e al. [41] iden i ied h ee ac o s in luenced by wea ing ace masks: (i) au onomy, he abili y o ha e ee will and choice; (ii) psychological ela edness, he eeling o connec ing socially wi h o he s; and (iii) compe ence, eelings o capabili y, e ec i eness, and mas e y o e ci cums ances. In a sys em- a ic li e a u e e iew, Bakhi e al. [23] ound ea , loneliness, s igma, and lack o empa hy o be nega i e psychological e ec s o wea ing ace masks. The discom o o wea ing ace masks has nega i e implica ions o se ice p o ide s in he hospi ali y indus y, especially in non e - bal communica ion [27]. While he deba e abou he clinical implica ions and magni ude o hese e ec s con inues, especially o indus y wo ke s no in heal hca e o a ela ed indus y [41,45], consensus has been eached ha wea ing ace masks o long pe iods p oduces ha m ul e ec s and discom- o , leading o po en ial misuse [24,42,46]. Owing o he co ona i us pandemic, people ha e o wea masks mo e equen ly and o longe pe iods han hey did p io o he pandemic [19]. Thus, indi iduals may look o ways o educe hese nega i e e ec s in hei e e yday expe iences. Resea ch ac oss se e al domains has ecognized he posi i e e ec o na u e connec edness on he eco e y o physiological and psychological dis ess gene a ed by ou b eaks and social o economic c ises. Fo ins ance, Li man e al. [47] explo ed how na u e con ac imp o es psychological and physical heal h o mili a y e e ans wi h pos - auma ic s ess diso de . Sachde a e al. [48] s a ed ha na u e has es o a i e elemen s a e imes o collec i e s ess, such as he nega i e psychological and social consequences o he G ea Recession in he Uni ed S a es. Block e al. [49] ound ha na u e connec edness is e ec i e o disas e eco - e y ela ed o he imp o emen o men al heal h, well-being, and social connec edness. O os- son and G ahn [50] ound ha a highe connec ion wi h na u e leads o a be e ehabili a ion p ocess a e expe iencing pe sonal nega i e e en s, such as di o ce o he dea h o a signi i- can o he . Finally, Gladkikh e al. [51] conduc ed a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew on e ugee popula ions and how na u e bene i s emo ional and physical eco e y du ing ese lemen . Simila ly, na u e-based ou ism has been ega ded as an in e es ing al e na i e o popula aca ion des ina ions in he e a o COVID-19 because i o e s an open en i onmen whe e PLOS ONE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 3 / 19 people can a oid c owded spaces, hus diminishing he isk o con agion while ha ing an oppo uni y o s eng hen hei connec edness o na u e [14]. The na u e connec edness pa a- digm s a es a posi i e associa ion be ween high exposu e o na u e and indi iduals’ well-being [33,38]. Nisbe , Zelenski, and Mu phy [52] showed ha na u e connec edness is associa ed wi h sel - eliance, pe sonal g ow h, hedonic well-being, and pu pose in li e. On he basis o a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew, Qiu e al. [13] de eloped a concep ual amewo k o iden i y he es o a i e elemen s (e.g., physical heal h, psychological wellness, psychosocial de elopmen , and spi i ual upli men ) o na u e-based ou ism, implying i s app op ia eness o deal wi h he di icul ies o COVID-19. Indi iduals need a mechanism o deal wi h he nega i e e ec s imposed by he COVID-19 pandemic, such as he pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace masks. Based on he na u e connec edness pa adigm, which asse s ha con ac wi h g een spaces inc eases well-being and helps indi iduals deal wi h nega i e pe cep ions, we p opose he ollowing: Hypo hesis 1 (H1): Nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks du ing he COVID-19 pan- demic ha e a signi ican posi i e e ec on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s. The media ing ole o he need o escapism Escapism is a coping mechanism ha p o ides indi iduals wi h an oppo uni y o deal wi h nega i e expe iences, such as emo ional s ess o anxie y p oduced by unpleasan eali ies o di icul si ua ions [53]. People engage in a ious ac i i ies o shi hei ocus away om he p oblems and p essu es de i ed om social si ua ions [54]. Since he h ea o COVID-19 diminishes subjec i e well-being [55], indi iduals escape he nega i e e ec s o he pandemic and deal wi h emo ional dis ess by engaging in di e en ac i i ies, like binge-wa ching [56], in e ne use [57], social media use [58], nos algic media use [59], and ideogame use [60]. Escapism cons i u es a majo mo i e o ou ism ac i i ies, allowing indi iduals o escape om hei daily ou ines o imme se hemsel es in new eali ies and expe iences [61,62]. Peo- ple escape hei daily ou ines when hey engage in ou ism ac i i ies [63]. Places ha o e high imme sion, such as na u al pa ks o heme pa ks, p o ide escapis expe iences o isi o s [64]. When ou is s become imme sed, hey escape om he eali y and s ess o he wo ld. In analyzing ou ism a a moun ain eso , F ocho e al. [65] ound ha “imme sion closely ied in wi h he eeling o ge ing away: he mo e imme sed hey go , he mo e hey o go abou e e yday li e” (p. 87). Recen ly, Pa k e al. [66] ecognized escapism as a mo i a ion o ou is s o isi a ood museum, since he expe ience allowed hem o escape om hei ou ines and p o ided meaning o daily ood i uals. In he COVID-19 con ex , Leb un e al. [14] iden i ied na u al pa ks as an al e na i e o ou is s “ o escape daily li e ou ine and o e i alize hei li es” (p. 5), since isi o s may encoun e an imme si e expe ience wi h na u e while dimin- ishing he p obabili y o con agion. In a pos -pandemic e a, people may look o ou is des ina ions ha o e di ec con ac wi h na u e a he han adi ional des ina ions [67]. Na u e-based ou ism may be an escapis op ion o deal wi h he nega i e e ec s o he COVID-19 pandemic. Escapis mechanisms may help indi iduals deal wi h he nega i e e ec s gene a ed by he co ona i us pandemic [68]. The g ea e he pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace masks, he mo e p one indi iduals may be o escape om unpleasan eali ies, which may, in u n, posi i ely in luence hei in en- ions o isi na u e-based eso s. Thus, we expec he ollowing: Hypo hesis 2 (H2): Nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks ha e an indi ec bene icial e ec on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s because o he posi i e e ec o mask-wea ing on he need o escapism. PLOS ONE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 4 / 19 The mode a ing e ec o he deg ee o indi idual’s pe cei ed a el anxie y Conce n o sa e y has been a majo ac o in de e mining he a el in en ions o indi iduals du ing he pandemic [12]; when a eling, he p obabili y o physical dis ancing dec eases and he likelihood o con agion inc eases om exposu e o c owds [69]. P e ious esea ch has es ablished he nega i e in luence o disease ou b eaks on a el in en ions [70]. Recen e i- dence sugges s ha he COVID-19 pandemic has ha med people’s men al well-being, speci i- cally h ough he gene a ion o unp eceden ed eelings o anxie y, s ess, and dep ession (e.g., [71]). These e ec s a e magni ied by he sp ead o in o ma ion h ough mass media and social media [72]. Highe le els o anxie y a e posi i ely ela ed o sa e y and p e en i e beha io s [73]. People seek o educe anxie y by es o ing eelings o con ol h ough coping s a egies [74]. Wea ing a ace mask may se e as a sel -p o ec i e beha io ha diminishes an indi idual’s anxie y [75, 76], as well as i s imp ope ly use could inc ease an indi idual’s anxie y [77]. People may become mo e ne ous o anxious when a eling. Anxie y and posi i e a ousal a e common eelings when a eling, gene ally p oducing mino e ec s on a el in en ions [78]. Howe e , he global magni ude o COVID-19 has inc eased isk pe cep ions, enla ging a el anxie y [79]. Resea ch sugges s ha when pe cei ed anxie y inc eases, sa e y pe cep ions dec ease, nega i ely impac ing a el in en ions [80]. Recen in es iga ions s a e ha he co ona i us pandemic inc eased he a el isk pe cep ions o ou is s, educing hei a el in en ions [79, 81,82]. Anxie y may be conside ed a subjec i e eeling expe ienced when indi iduals ace a po en- ial isk and may be in luenced by a iables such as pe sonali y [80], age [83], o isk a e sion [84]. Risk pe cep ions o a eling a y among indi iduals. The same des ina ion may gene a e anxie y o some indi iduals and elaxa ion o o he s [80]. People may also expe ience di e - en le els o a el anxie y [78]. On he o he hand, he li e a u e has iden i ied ha na u e has a posi i e e ec on diminishing anxie y le els [85,86]. Na u e-based ou ism imp o es he men al well-being o indi iduals, p o iding hem wi h a mechanism o anxie y educ ion [87]. Indi iduals who wo y mo e abou a eling because o COVID-19 expe ience less sa e y pe cep ion o eel less sa e o a el and a e less willing o engage in a el decisions. We expec ha people wi h highe (lowe ) le els o a el anxie y, who expe ience g ea e (lesse ) eelings o isk when a eling, may be less (mo e) suscep ible o he e ec o nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he need o escapism and hus we p opose he ollowing: Hypo hesis 3 (H3): The indi ec e ec o he nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he need o escapism is mode a ed nega i ely by indi idual’s deg ee o pe cei ed a el anxie y due o he COVID-19 pandemic. Fig 1 depic s he heo e ical model and hypo hesized ela ionships. Me hodology Da a collec ion: Pa icipan s and p ocedu e To es he p oposed concep ual amewo k, we collec ed da a using an online su ey o Span- ish ou is s. The sample was d awn om a na ionally ep esen a i e online panel o he Span- ish popula ion ec ui ed by a comme cial panel p o ide (n = 500, 50% emale, M age = 48.24, SD = 16.26, ages anging om 20 o 84). We collec ed 500 esponses because he equi ed sam- ple size o de ec media ed e ec s abo e 0.14 (i.e., e en small e ec s) wi h powe = .80 and 0.05 is a leas 462 subjec s [88]. Da a we e collec ed du ing he i s week o Decembe 2021. The PLOS ONE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 5 / 19 esea ch e hics commi ee o he Uni e sidad del Rosa io app o ed his in es iga ion unde he esolu ion DVO005 410-CS266. All pa icipan s p o ided w i en in o med consen . Subjec s we e selec ed using a quo a-based andom sampling me hod om he panel un il he quo as o age, gende , esiden ial a ea, and income we e comple ed (see Table 1 o de ails). The quo as we e se o ma ch he popula ion app oxima ely in socio-demog aphic desc ip o s. As a equi emen , gi en he ac ha li ing in an u ban en i onmen , compa ed o a u al en i- onmen , de e mines he use o a ace mask o p o ec agains COVID-19, people who li ed in owns wi h mo e han 20,000 inhabi an s we e a ge s o he s udy. To ensu e ha all espon- den s me his equi emen , a il e ques ion was in oduced a he beginning o he ques ion- nai e which asked he pa icipan s whe he hei usual place o esidence was in an u ban cen e . Pa icipan s esponded o he online ques ionnai e, which assessed o wha ex en wea - ing a ace mask as p o ec ion agains COVID-19 in hei day- o-day li es gene a ed nega i e eelings, he equency wi h which hey el he need o escapism h oughou 2021, and hei in en ion o isi a na u e-based ou ism des ina ion, speci ically whe he hey had plans o isi a na u e-based eso in he nea u u e. Finally, he ques ionnai e con ained a ques ion o mea- su e he le el o he pa icipan s’ a el anxie y due o he COVID-19 pandemic. Measu emen Valida ed measu es in he li e a u e we e used o each o he analyzed a iables. To assess he pe cei ed nega i e o annoying e ec s o wea ing a ace mask as p o ec ion agains COVID-19 among he pa icipan s, we used i e i ems adap ed om scales in p e ious s udies [24,41,42]. Pa icipan s a ed each i em on a se en-poin Like - ype scale (1 = no a all; 7 = e y much). Escapism was measu ed wi h a i e-i em scale adop ed om Hi schman [53] and Wu and Holsapple [54]. Pa icipan s we e asked how o en hey had el he u ge o un away om p oblems and p essu es in he pas yea (Table 2). They a ed each i em on a se en-poin Like - ype scale (1 = no a all; 7 = e y much). To assess ou is s’ beha io al in en ions o isi a na u e-based eso , we used a single-i em scale adop ed om Han and Hyun [89]. Pa icipan s we e asked abou hei deg ee o ag ee- men o disag eemen wi h he ollowing s a emen : “I ha e plans o spend a ew days o a a na u e-based eso in he nea u u e.” We again used a se en-poin Like - ype scale (1 = s ongly disag ee; 7 = s ongly ag ee). Finally, i e i ems adop ed om he Pandemic (COVID-19) Anxie y T a el Scale (PATS) ecen ly de eloped by Zenke e al. [78] we e used o measu e he pa icipan s’ a el anxie y. Pa icipan s a ed each i em on a se en-poin Like - ype scale (1 = s ongly disag ee; 7 = s ongly ag ee). Fig 1. Theo e ical model o he indi ec e ec o he pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace masks on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he pe cei ed need o escapism. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489.g001 PLOS ONE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 6 / 19 All measu emen i ems and hei p ope ies a e displayed in Table 2. C onbach’s alpha con- i med he eliabili y o all scales. Da a analysis The da a we e analyzed wi h he S a is ical Package o he Social Sciences (SPSS) Ve sion 26. Media ion analyses we e pe o med as ou lined by Hayes [90] o examine whe he he need Table 1. Sample cha ac e is ics. F equency Pe cen age Gende Male 250 50.0 Female 250 50.0 Age 20–24 53 10.6 25–34 69 13.8 35–44 97 19.4 45–54 93 18.6 55–64 75 15.0 >65 113 22.6 Household income <600 €32 6.4 601–1,000 €21 4.2 1,001–1,500 €53 10.6 1,501–2,000 €67 13.4 2,000–2,500 €59 11.8 2,501–3,000 €48 9.6 3,001–3,500 €31 6.2 3,501–4,000 €31 6.2 4,001–5,000 €27 5.4 5,001–8000 €10 2.0 >8,000 €5 1.0 I p e e no o say 116 23.2 Habi a 20,000–99,999 202 40.4 100,000–499,999 198 39.6 >500,000 100 20.0 Region o esidence Andalucı ´a 92 18.4 A ago ´n 12 2.4 P incipado de As u ias 18 3.6 Illes Balea s 6 1.2 Cana ias 22 4.4 Can ab ia 6 1.2 Cas illa y Leo ´n 23 4.6 Cas illa-La Mancha 23 4.6 Ca alunya 87 17.4 Comuni a Valenciana 56 11.2 Ex emadu a 14 2.8 Galicia 27 5.4 Mad id 66 13.2 Mu cia 8 1.6 Na a a 3 0.6 Paı ´s Vasco 37 7.4 To al 500 100 h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489. 001 PLOS ONE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 7 / 19 o escapism media ed he ela ionship be ween he pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace masks du ing he COVID-19 pandemic and ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s. The media ion analysis es ablished whe he he e ec o he p edic o a iable (nega i e pe - cep ions o wea ing ace masks) on he ou come a iable ( ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e- based eso s) could be explained a leas pa ially by an inc ease in he pe cei ed need o escapism, ha is, whe he he g ea e he pe cep ion o nega i e sensa ions de i ed om wea - ing masks led indi iduals o pe cei e highe le els o need o escapism and whe he i is his e ec ha in u n inc eases ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based ou ism des ina ions, such as na u e-based eso s. The indi ec eg ession coe icien was compu ed wi h a media ed eg ession analysis using Hayes’s PROCESS SPSS mac o [90]. Nex , as a i s s ep ecommended by Hayes [90], he in e ac ion o he pe cei ed ad e se e ec s o wea ing ace masks and a el anxie y mode a o on he need o escapism media o was analyzed by mode a ed eg ession analysis o es whe he he mode a ion was signi ican . To analyze he mode a ion o he indi ec e ec o nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he media o pe cei ed need o escapism, a mode a ed media ion analysis was conduc ed using he PROCESS SPSS mac o [90]. To es he signi icance o he mode a ion o indi ec e ec s, PROCESS compu ed an index o mode a ed media ion and p o ided bias-co ec ed boo s ap con idence in e als (CI) o he coe icien . We es ima ed he bias-co ec ed boo s ap CIs wi h 10,000 boo s ap samples. The boo s ap in e al is indica ed in he Resul s sec ion below, which shows he lowe and uppe limi s o he boo s ap CI (Boo LLCI, Boo ULCI). The signi icance o he mode a ed media ion index is con i med when he co esponding boo s ap CI does no con- ain ze o (Boo s ap signi icance es s do no ely on p- alues and a e conside ed mo e obus han o he heo y es s). Resul s The co ela ion analysis (Table 3) con i med a signi ican posi i e ela ionship be ween he pe cei ed damaging e ec s o wea ing ace masks and he need o escapism ( = .432, p <.01) and be ween he need o escapism and ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s ( = .260, p <.01). The esul s also con i med a signi ican posi i e ela ionship be ween he Table 2. Va iables and measu emen i ems. Mean SD α Nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks 3.69 1.96 .87 Discom o Psychological s ess Skin i i a ion Poo b ea hing Dizziness Need o escapism 4.65 2.04 .93 Escape om he wo ld o eali y Escape om p oblems and p essu es Escape om hings ha a e unpleasan and wo isome Escape om he daily ou ine o li e Desi e o go elsewhe e away om e e yday ac i i ies T a el anxie y due o he pandemic 4.68 1.88 .89 COVID-19 makes me wo y a lo abou my no mal ways o a eling. I makes me uncom o able o hink abou COVID-19 while planning my aca ion. I am a aid o isk my li e when I a el because o COVID-19. When wa ching news abou COVID-19, I become ne ous o anxious in ega d o a el. I do no eel sa e o a el due o COVID-19. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489. 002 PLOS ONE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 8 / 19 pe cei ed ha m ul e ec s o wea ing ace masks and ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s ( = .125, p <.01), p o iding suppo o H1. An analysis o indi ec e ec s wi h 10,000 boo s ap samples and bias-co ec ed boo s ap CIs [90] con i med ha nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s we e media ed by he pe cei ed need o escapism (b ind = .134, Boo s anda d e o [SE] = .03, 95% Boo CI [.078, .195]), p o iding suppo o H2. The media ion was comple e, wi h he emaining di ec e ec being non-signi ican (b = .019, SE = .059, = .33, p = .74). Thus, when he media - ing a iable o he need o escapism was in oduced, he di ec e ec o nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s ceased o be signi ican . Subsequen ly, using Hayes’s PROCESS [90], we es ed whe he he indi ec e ec o nega- i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s, media ed by he pe cei ed need o escapism, was mode a ed nega i ely by he indi idual’s deg ee o pe cei ed a el anxie y, as p oposed in H3. The mode a ed media ion index ha was compu ed suppo ed he signi icance o he p oposed mode a ed media ion (10,000 boo - s ap samples) because ze o was absen om he boo s ap CI (b modmed = -.016, SE = .007, 95% Boo CI [-.032, -.002]). The esul s con i med ha he indi ec e ec o nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is s’ in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough a media o - pe cei ed need o escapism was mode a ed by indi idual’s a el anxie y le els, p o iding suppo o H3. Table 4 p esen s he pa e n o mode a ion o he indi ec e ec o pe cei ed ad e se e ec s o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s, medi- a ed by he pe cei ed need o escapism a di e en alues o mode a ed a el anxie y (see also Fig 2). Table 3. Va iable co ela es. NPM ES IV TA Nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing masks (NPM) Need o escapism (ES) .432�� In en ions o isi na u e-based eso s (IV) .125�� .260�� T a el anxie y due o he pandemic (TA) .070 .257�� .281�� ��p<.01 h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489. 003 Table 4. Mode a ed media ion analysis o he indi ec e ec o he nega i e pe cep ions o wea ing ace masks on ou is ’s in en ions o isi na u e-based eso s h ough he pe cei ed need o escapism. Index o mode a ed media ion Mod. Med. Mod. med. index Boo SE Boo LLCI Boo ULCI TA ES -.016 .007 -.032 -.002 Condi ional indi ec e ec a alues o he mode a o Mod. Med. Values Mod. Cond. ind. e ec Boo SE Boo LLCI Boo ULCI TA ES 3.10 (-1SD) .15 .03 .09 .22 4.68 (M) .12 .02 .07 .18 6.26 (+1SD) .10 .02 .05 .16 No e. Ten housand boo s ap samples o bias-co ec ed 95% boo s ap con idence in e als; boo SE = boo s ap s anda d e o , boo LLCI = boo s ap lowe limi con idence in e al, boo ULCI = boo s ap uppe limi con idence in e al; alues o quan i a i e mode a o s a e he mean (M) and plus/minus one SD om mean (-1SD / +1SD); Med.: media o , Mod.: mode a o , ES: need o escapism, TA: a el anxie y due o he pandemic. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489. 004 PLOS ONE Can mask manda es boos na u e-based ou ism? PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0280489 Feb ua y 7, 2023 9 / 19 38. Maye FS, F an z CM, B uehlman-Senecal E, Dolli e K. Why is na u e bene icial? The ole o con- nec edness o na u e. En i on Beha . 2009; 41(5):607–43. 39. Roe JJ, Thompson CW, Aspinall PA, B ewe MJ, Du EI, Mille D, e al. 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