Academic Edi o : Al onso Ma ezzoli
Recei ed: 30 Sep embe 2025
Re ised: 7 No embe 2025
Accep ed: 27 No embe 2025
Published: 9 Decembe 2025
Ci a ion: Camacho-Iglesias, M.;
Ge mán, L.; I u mendi, A.;
Seoane-Ri e o, R. Ci cula
App oaches o The mose
Composi es. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9,
682. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
jcs9120682
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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Re iew
Ci cula App oaches o The mose Composi es
Ma a Camacho-Iglesias 1,2,* , Lo ena Ge mán 1, Ai zibe I u mendi 1and Rubén Seoane-Ri e o 2
1GAIKER Technology Cen e, Basque Resea ch and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Pa que Tecnológico de
Bizkaia, Edi icio 202, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; ge man@gaike .es (L.G.); i u mendi@gaike .es (A.I.)
2Chemical and En i onmen al Enginee ing Depa men , Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU),
Alameda U quijo s/n, 48013 Bilbao, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: ma a.camacho@gaike .es
Abs ac
The ecycling and euse o he mose composi e ma e ials p esen conside able challenges
due o he c oss-linked ne wo k o med du ing he cu ing p ocess. The g owing imple-
men a ion o hese ma e ials in a ious indus ies, such as au omo i e and wind ene gy
sec o s, has gene a ed signi ican esea ch in e es in his a ea. This pape p esen s a
comp ehensi e e iew o di e en app oaches o he ecycling, ocusing on wo aspec s:
es ablished me hods wi h highe echnological eadiness le els (mechanical, he mal, and
chemical) and eme ging me hods s ill unde de elopmen (mic owa e-assis ed ecycling,
enzyma ic ecycling, elec ochemical ecycling, supe hea ed s eam ecycling and ul asonic
ecycling). Fu he mo e, he euse o he mose composi e ma e ials by he mo o ming,
o example, is discussed, along wi h an o e iew o inno a i e esin sys ems specially
designed o ecyclabili y and eusabili y. Finally, he challenges and u u e p ospec s a e
b ie ly summa ised.
Keywo ds: ci cula i y; he mose composi es; ecycling; euse; he mo o ming
1. In oduc ion
The use o he mose composi e ma e ials is inc easing ac oss a g owing numbe o
indus ies, such as a ia ion/ae ospace, au omo i e, and wind ene gy. These ma e ials,
which consis o a he mose polyme ma ix ein o ced wi h ib e, a e ou s anding due o
hei abili y o p o ide di ec ional ein o cemen , hei high s i ness, and speci ic s eng h,
in addi ion o hei low densi y, low p oduc ion cos , ailo ed mechanical p ope ies, and
co osion esis ance [
1
–
4
]. Despi e all he a o emen ioned ad an ages, he main eason
o hei use in he e e ed sec o s is based on i s s uc u al weigh educ ion capaci y.
In ai c a manu ac u ing, o example, a weigh educ ion o 20% has been achie ed
compa ed o adi ional ma e ials, esul ing in an annual sa ing o 12 ons o CO2[1].
The mose composi e ma e ials, as p e iously men ioned, a e o med by a he mose
polyme ma ix, such as epoxy, polyes e , phenolic, o inyl es e esins, which a e chemi-
cally c oss-linked h ough a cu ing p ocess. Due o his c oss-linked s uc u e, he mose
polyme ma ices canno be mel ed o ep ocessed, making hem di icul o ecycle. These
ma ices a e combined wi h ein o cemen s, usually in he o m o ib es, ei he con inuous
o discon inuous, esul ing in high-pe o mance ma e ials. These ein o cemen s can be
classi ied in o wo ca ego ies acco ding o hei o igin: na u al ib es, such as ju e o lax
ib e, and syn he ic ib es, which include glass, ca bon, o a amid ib es. The he mose
ma ix p o ides load ans e , ein o cemen p o ec ion, and geome ic in eg i y, while he
ein o cemen mainly con ibu es o he s eng h and s i ness o he composi e ma e ial [
5
].
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/jcs9120682
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 2 o 23
The inc easing end in he use o he mose composi e ma e ials is e lec ed in he global
ma ke , in which he olume g ew om 13 million onnes in 2023 o 14 million onnes in
2024 [
6
,
7
]. In he wind ene gy sec o , o example, he demand o gene a e mo e powe
has d i en he ma ke g ow h, wi h composi e ma e ials being used in blade lamina es,
ein o cemen s, and access s uc u es. The annual g ow h a e o composi e ma e ials
in he wind ene gy ma ke is expec ed o be 10% be ween 2023 and 2028 [
1
,
8
]. In he
au omo i e indus y, con e sely, uel sa ing is signi ican ly linked o weigh sa ing, which
ansla es in o g ea e au onomy and lowe emissions. The implemen a ion o composi e
ma e ials, capable o achie ing up o 40% weigh sa ing, is expec ed o each 16.4 billion
eu os in 2032 compa ed o 7.4 billion eu os in 2022 in his indus y [9].
In his con ex Eu ope is expec ed o gene a e 683 million onnes o new composi e
was e in 2025, while he annual global ecycling capaci y is only 100 million onnes, which
is no mo e han 15% o he gene a ed was e [
10
,
11
]. The ene gy sec o accoun s o 14% o
he composi e indus y, whe e i is essen ial o he de elopmen o wind u bine blades.
This sec o is he main d i e behind he de elopmen o euse and ecycling p ocesses,
owing o he signi ican olume o was e gene a ed. In 2024, a o al o 1.3 GW o wind
powe capaci y was decommissioned in Eu ope, wi h Ge many, Spain, and I aly accoun ing
o o e 90% o his capaci y [
12
]. Addi ionally, a signi ican po ion o Eu ope’s ins alled
onsho e wind powe capaci y is app oaching i s end-o -li e (app oxima ely 20 yea s). By
2030, i is expec ed ha 57 GW o ins alled capaci y will exceed his pe iod, esul ing in an
es ima ed 684 onnes o was e (1 MW = 12 onne scena io).
The e o e, in iew o he inc easing was e gene a ion, i s managemen is becoming a
majo conce n. Acco ding o he Eu opean Was e F amewo k Di ec i e (2018/851) was e
managemen is s uc u ed ollowing he was e hie a chy diag am (Figu e 1) [
13
–
15
], which
p io i ises p e en ion as he mos p e e ed al e na i e while disposal ep esen s, he leas
desi ed op ion.
Figu e 1. Was e managemen hie a chy.
The ollowing sec ion add ess each le el o he was e hie a chy in de ail, s a ing
wi h p e en ion:
•
P e en ion. Se e al s a egies ha e been used o inc ease he p e en ion o composi e
was e gene a ion [
16
–
18
]. These include he design o composi es wi h a longe se ice
li e by dec easing he ailu e a e, using componen s ha acili a e ecycling, imp o ing
he sepa a ion o componen s and ma e ials o e en op imising and educing he
amoun o ma e ial equi ed, esul ing in less ma e ial o ecycle [8,19].
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 3 o 23
•
Reuse/Repu pose. Reuse o epu posing is based on using he end-o -li e compos-
i e was e o an applica ion wi h ewe equi emen s h ough econdi ioning [
20
].
Di e en me hods o composi e was e euse a e p esen ed in Sec ion 3.
•
Recycling. The e a e se e al echniques p oposed and cu en ly used o he ecycling
o composi e ma e ials. These echniques a e ypically ca ego ised in o h ee main
g oups: mechanical ecycling, chemical ecycling, and he mal ecycling. A mo e
de ailed o e iew o hese me hods can be ound in Sec ion 2.
•
Reco e y. Hea o ene gy eco e y is one way o manage composi e was e. The e a e
di e en eco e y me hods, such as hea eco e y by incine a ion o he use o he
eco e ed polyme ac ion in co-p ocessing as uel.
•
Disposal. In his ca ego y, he lowes in he hie a chy diag am, land illing and incine -
a ion wi hou hea eco e y a e conside ed.
Despi e he e o s o he Eu opean Commission o p omo e sus ainabili y and he
ci cula economy h ough he di e en op ions o he was e hie a chy, in p ac ice, he
h ee main ou es cu en ly applied o composi e was e a e: land illing, incine a ion, and
ecycling (see Figu e 2) [
21
]. The Eu opean Composi e Indus y Associa ion (EuCIA) es i-
ma es, o example, ha up o 70% o composi e was e is cu en ly land illed o incine a ed
wi hou ene gy eco e y [22].
Figu e 2. End-o -li e scena ios.
Land illing is he cheapes and mos common echnique despi e i s la ge nega i e
impac on he en i onmen [
21
,
23
]. Land illing is p og essi ely es ic ed in he EU, wi h
some coun ies al eady implemen ing bans and Di ec i e 2018/850 se ing a limi o 10%
o municipal was e by 2035 [
19
,
24
]. Incine a ion can pa ially o se disposal by enabling
ene gy eco e y, al hough a signi ican ac ion o ash s ill ends up in land ills [
25
–
28
]. In
con as , ecycling emains he mos desi able op ion, ye i aces majo challenges due o
he di icul y o sepa a ing he ein o cemen om he ma ix in c oss-linked composi es.
The e o e, he e iew i s examines he mos de eloped ecycling me hods (mechan-
ical, chemical, and he mal), ollowed by incipien s a egies s ill in he esea ch phase
bu wi h exci ing po en ial o he u u e. Subsequen ly, he e iew explo es he concep
o composi e ma e ial epu posing, highligh ing he di e en app oaches ha con ibu e
o he ci cula i y. Finally, i examines inno a ions in he o mula ion o esins speci ically
designed o acili a e ecycling, as well as he po en ial o he mo o ming as a me hod o
eusing composi e ma e ial.
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 4 o 23
2. Recycling Me hods
The e a e se e al ecycling me hods cu en ly p oposed, esea ched, and de eloped o
he ecycling o he mose ma ix composi es and which a e conside ed easible al e na i es
o incine a ion and land illing [
3
]. The mos de eloped ecycling me hods can be di ided
in o h ee main g oups: mechanical comminu ion echniques, chemical p ocesses, and
he mal p ocesses (see Figu e 2) [4,21,29].
2.1. Chemical Recycling
In he chemical ecycling p ocess (see Figu e 3), he ma ix and ein o cemen a e
sepa a ed by decomposing he ma ix in a chemical solu ion [
30
]. The selec ed solu ion
depends on he na u e o he polyme ic s uc u e. In he ma ix decomposi ion, he c oss-
linked ne wo k is decomposed by chemical me hods, esul ing in a complex mix u e
o monome s, oligome s, and o he low molecula weigh compounds [
23
,
31
]. These
p oduc s can subsequen ly be p ocessed o eco e aluable chemicals o used as building
blocks o he syn hesis o new ma e ials. In some cases, he eco e ed compounds can
e en be eused o he p epa a ion o he s a ing ma e ial, hus closing he cycle [
31
,
32
].
A e depolyme ising he ma ix, he ib es a e cleaned o emo e possible small esidues,
esul ing in long ib es wi h high mechanical p ope ies [
8
]. The ene gy demand o he
chemical ecycling me hod is app oxima ely 21–91 MJ/kg [21].
Figu e 3. Gene ic chemical ecycling diag am.
Fo he mose composi es, chemical ecycling is p edominan ly based on sol oly-
sis [
18
]. The e a e wo main ypes o sol olysis: low- empe a u e sol olysis and sub-
supe c i ical sol olysis. Low- empe a u e sol olysis is usually pe o med a empe a u es
below 200
◦
C and a a mosphe ic p essu e, p o iding g ea e con ol o e he chemical
eac ion and a oiding he occu ence o a seconda y chemical eac ion [
23
,
33
]. I is usually
ca ied ou wi h an acid medium o sol en s including wa e , alcohol, ammonia, o ni ic
acid. The wo k o Guadagno e al. [
34
], o example, ocuses on he chemical ecycling
o a bio-based epoxy esin by a mix u e o sus ainable sol en s composed o ace ic acid
and hyd ogen pe oxide. Among he s udied empe a u es, he mos e icien was 90
◦
C,
wi h a depolyme isa ion yield o 81.3%. The empe a u e o 90
◦
C co esponds o he glass
ansi ion empe a u e (Tg) o he esin sys em. Spec oscopic es s indica ed ha he chem-
ical bonds we e b oken by selec i ely b eaking he C-N bonds in he c oss-linked ma ix
s uc u e, allowing he ein o cemen o be eco e ed along wi h he oligome s/monome s
in he ma ix. The esea ch highligh s he abili y o ecycle he mose composi es using
low-impac sol en s and he need o in es iga e en i onmen ally iendly and e icien
ecycling p ocesses.
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 5 o 23
On he o he hand, sub-supe c i ical sol olysis is based on he use o supe c i ical
luids. This ecycling me hod has gained popula i y due o he p ope ies and being mo e
en i onmen ally iendly [
23
,
33
]. The use o supe c i ical luids p o ides op imal condi ions
o he decomposi ion o polyme s esul ing in a conside ably as chemical esponse.
Tempe a u e and p essu e equi emen can be educed by using al e na i e sol en s such
as me hanol, e hanol, p opanol, and ace one oge he wi h wa e [
23
].
Souza e al. [35]
p oposed a g een echnology o GF- ein o ced polyes e composi es wi h sho eac ion
imes (45–60 min) using D-limonene a sub-supe c i ical o supe c i ical condi ions in he
absence o ca alys s. Almos 100% o he GF is eco e ed main aining i s ensile s eng h
a 64–85% compa ed o i gin ib es. These esul s p esen an inno a i e eco- iendly
echnology o his kind o ma e ial.
2.2. Mechanical Recycling
Mechanical ecycling is conside ed he mos widesp ead me hod because i does
no equi e complex p ocess empe a u es o chemical agen s. The p ocess leads o he
agmen a ion o he composi e ma e ial in o small pieces, in some cases e en eaching he
dimensions o powde , whe e he a e age leng h o he eco e ed ib es anges is be ween
app oxima ely 2 mm and 5 mm [
26
,
36
,
37
]. I is also commonly used as a p e- ea men
p ocess o o he ecycling/ eusing echniques such as he mal ecycling o epu posing in
cemen i ious ma e ial [33].
2.2.1. Mechanical G inding
This p ocess is based on he use o one o mo e pai s o coun e - o a ing sha s
equipped wi h blades causing he ma e ial o pass h ough he o e lapping blades (see
Figu e 4) [
38
]. In an ini ial phase, he esidue is sh edded in o 50–100 mm pieces o acili a e
he emo al o embedded inse s. Once he in alid pa has been emo ed, he olume
is educed o 10 mm–50
µ
m agmen s by means o g inde s. The e a e di e en ypes o
g inde s, each wi h i s own speci ic p ope ies; cu ing g inde s achie e a mo e uni o m
leng h dis ibu ion while hamme mills do no equi e sha pening o he blades, which
inc ease p oduc i i y. In he las s ep, he agmen s a e sepa a ed acco ding o size and
con en [
26
]. This ecycling me hod does no equi e high ene gy inpu , wi h ene gy
consump ion anging be ween 0.1 and 4.8 MJ/kg [21].
Figu e 4. Gene ic mechanical g inding diag am.
In his ecycling p ocess, he en i e was e p oduc is educed in size, esul ing in small
agmen s consis ing o a mix u e o polyme , ib e, and ille s. Despi e he signi ican loss
o mechanical p ope ies o he ein o cemen due o i s size educ ion, se e al companies

J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 6 o 23
ha e ocused hei e o s on he indus ialisa ion o mechanical g inding. The p oposed
solu ions o he u ilisa ion o he ma e ial ob ained a e he mechanical g inding ha e
been based on bulk moulding compound (BMC) and shee moulding compound (SMC).
These compounds ypically consis o he mose esins combined wi h p opo ions o ille ,
commonly calcium ca bona e o i e- e a dan alumina ihyd a e. The ecycled ma e ial is
inco po a ed o subs i u e he calcium ca bona e, which has a highe densi y, hus ob aining
a ligh e ma e ial han using only calcium ca bona e. Howe e , mo e han 10% o ecycled
ma e ial is no ecommended due o he educ ion in mechanical p ope ies, in addi ion o
p ocessing p oblems [39].
2.2.2. Elec o agmen a ion
Elec o agmen a ion was ini ially applied in he mining ield o disin eg a e ock
in o pa s in o de o ex ac aluable mine als and c ys als using epe i i e discha ge o
elec ical pulses in a dielec ic en i onmen [
26
,
40
]. This high ol age (100–200 kV) elec ical
discha ge causes he ensile s eng h o he ma e ial in oduced in o he dielec ic luid o
become lowe han he b eaking s eng h o he dielec ic luid (see Figu e 5). The discha ge
gene a es a spa k channel ha adhe es o in e nal bounda ies and ex e nal in e aces. As
his channel p opaga es, i gene a es a high-p essu e and high- empe a u e shock wa e.
These shocks gene a e in e nal s esses which, as hey exceed he ensile s eng h o he
ma e ial, cause agmen a ion o he ma e ial.
Figu e 5. Gene ic elec o agmen a ion diag am.
This echnique has been examined in se e al s udies [
41
–
43
]. Diani e al. [
44
], o
example, demons a ed he easibili y o ecycling EoL wind blades using High-Vol age
F agmen a ion (HVF). In hei expe imen al es s, hey success ully ob ained clean ib es
and sepa a ed impu i ies, con i ming he po en ial o his echnology as a p e- ea men
s ep. Howe e , moni o ing he ene gy consump ion is c ucial, as he main d awback o
elec o agmen a ion lies in i s high ene gy demand, wi h alues o 17.1 MJ/kg, 35.6 MJ/kg,
60 MJ/kg, and 89.1 MJ/kg o 500, 100, 1500, and 2000 elec ical pulses, espec i ely [26].
2.3. The mal Recycling
The mal ecycling me hods mainly include py olysis and luidized bed py olysis [
45
,
46
].
2.3.1. Py olysis
Py olysis, he mos s udied he mal ecycling p ocess, is based on hea ing in he
absence o oxygen. As a esul o he decomposi ion o o ganic molecules in an ine
a mosphe e wi hin a empe a u e ange o 450
◦
C o 700
◦
C, oil and gases a e p oduced,
while solid p oduc s such as ib es e ain hei s uc u al in eg i y (see Figu e 6) [
23
,
29
,
45
].
Howe e , due o he high empe a u es o which he sample is exposed, he ein o ce-
men ib es can su e a signi ican dec ease in i s mechanical p ope ies, consequen ly
educing conside ably i s ensile s eng h. Due o he po en ial signi ican dec ease in hei
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 7 o 23
mechanical p ope ies, he whole p ocess mus be ca e ully designed, as he beha iou
o he ecycled ib e depends on he p ocess a iables. Wi h op imal adjus men o hese
pa ame e s, i is possible o achie e ca bon ib es o up o 90% o he s eng h o i gin
ib es [
33
]. In con as o he good pe o mance o ca bon ib e, glass ib e ecycled by
py olysis unde goes ex ensi e deg ada ion, eaching be ween 40% and 50% educ ion in
ensile s eng h [47,48].
Figu e 6. Gene ic py olysis ecycle diag am.
While nume ous s udies ha e in es iga ed he in luence o he pa ame e s on esin
decomposi ion and he loss o mechanical p ope ies, he e a e ew s udies ha ha e
ocused on he eco e ed componen s [
49
]. The solid pa is eco e ed in he highes
pe cen age, anging om 50% o wo- hi ds by weigh . The liquid p oduc s a e be ween
0 and 50% by weigh , while he gaseous p oduc s cons i u e be ween 5% and 15% by
weigh [
26
]. The main componen s o he eco e ed gases a e H
2
, CH
4
, CO, and CO
2
. The
ob ained amoun o each o hem depends on he py olysis mode (slow o as ), py olysis
empe a u e, and esidence ime [50].
Finally, he ob ained oil shows mainly a oma ic na u e, in which s y ene, benzene,
oluene, e hylbenzene, and p-xylene a e usually iden i ied as he main componen s o
he o ganic ac ion. In addi ion o a oma ic compounds, oxygena ed species a e also
p esen such us ph halic acid o benzoic acid [
51
]. These oils a e o en used in boile
combus ion, engine and ubula uels, ans o ma ion in o anspo a ion uels, o as
enewable eeds ock o chemicals and ma e ials [
52
]. In addi ion, o imp o e he ene gy
e iciency o he py olysis p ocess, esea ch is being conduc ed on he eci cula ion o he
oil and gas ob ained a e py olysis o hea supply. This s udy has demons a ed ha he
ene gy e iciency o py olysis can be signi ican ly imp o ed. I has also been shown ha
excess hea can be s o ed using mol en sal wi h a high speci ic hea capaci y [49].
Howe e , one o he d awbacks o he py olysis p ocess is ha i equi es an addi-
ional pos -py olysis p ocedu e o emo e he ca bonised su ace ma e ial o med by he
decomposi ion o he ma ix [
36
]. In o de o a oid mul iple eac ion s eps, Xu e al. [
53
]
conduc ed as py olysis o was e om wind u bine blades a 500
◦
C in h ee di e en
a mosphe es (100% N
2
, 80% N
2
+ 20% CO
2
, and 80% N
2
+ 20% H
2
O). The s udy obse ed
ha , compa ed o a pu e N
2
a mosphe e, H
2
O ac s as a gasi ying agen , accele a ing bond
b eakage. Fu he mo e, he in oduc ion o H
2
O educes he p oduc ion o ca bon in a
single s ep.
2.3.2. Fluidised Bed P ocess
The luidised bed p ocess also enables he he mal decomposi ion o he ma ix [
54
].
Bu on he con a y, his uses a ho ai low cu en o ans e he hea o a silica sand
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 8 o 23
ba h whe e he was e is placed, leading o he he mal deg ada ion o he ma ix. The
empe a u e anges a ound 400 ◦C.
The ma ix is decomposed in he p e iously luidised bed and subsequen ly he ib es
and ille s a e sepa a ed om he gas s eam in a cyclone de ice ha sepa a es solid
pa icles om gas using he cen i ugal o ce (see Figu e 7). The ola ilized polyme passes
in o a seconda y combus ion chambe o hea eco e y [
55
]. As a esul o his p ocess,
he loss o mechanical p ope ies o he ib es is e iden . S.J. Picke ing [
56
] s udied he
loss o mechanical p ope ies o glass ib e, a 450
◦
C he ensile s eng h is educed by
50%, while a 550
◦
C and 650
◦
C i is educed by 80% and 90%, espec i ely. Howe e ,
Hyde e al. [
57
] obse ed ha wi h ca bon ib e a 450
◦
C he deg ada ion is less signi ican ,
om abou 25% loss in ensile s eng h. Al hough his p ocess causes mo e damage o
he ein o cemen ib es compa ed o con en ional py olysis and does no allow o he
eco e y o esin-de i ed p oduc s o he han gases [
29
], i should be no ed ha i ope a es
a lowe empe a u es, esul ing in highe ene gy e iciency.
Figu e 7. Gene ic diag am o luidised bed ecycling p ocess.
Table 1summa ises he s a us o each o he ecycling echnologies men ioned abo e.
Table 1. Summa y o ecycling me hods.
Recycling Me hods P os Cons
Chemical ecycling Sol olysis
- Ob ained monome s o oligome s
can be used
- Mechanical p ope ies o he
ein o cemen a e p ope ly p ese ed
- High ope a ing cos due o high
ene gy demand (21–91 MJ/kg)
- Gene a ion o seconda y
chemical was e
Mechanical ecycling
Mechanical g inding
- No high empe a u e o
chemical agen
- Low ene gy consump ion
(0.1–4.8 MJ/kg)
-Low cos and easy o implemen
- La ge loss in alue o
ecycled ma e ial
Elec o agmen a ion - Good sepa a ion o he componen s
( esin and ib e)
- High ene gy consump ion
(17.1–89 MJ/kg)
The mal ecycling
Py olysis
- Decomposes he esin
- In addi ion o ein o cemen , oils and
gases a e eco e ed
- Loss o mechanical p ope ies
- High ope a ing cos s due o low
ene gy e iciency
Fluidised bed
- Good pe o mance in he sepa a ion
o ma e ials
- Good ene gy e iciency
- Reco e y o mo e damaged
ein o cemen han py olysis
- Only gases eco e ed om esin
by-p oduc s
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 9 o 23
The e a e only a limi ed numbe o indus ial-scale plan s ha ca y ou hese ecy-
cling p ocesses. This is due o he a o emen ioned disad an ages, such as high ene gy
and low echnical and economic iabili y esul ing om he loss o mechanical p ope -
ies, pa icula ly in he case o chemical ecycling, which has no ye been indus ialised.
Despi e hei limi ed p esence, i is wo h men ioning he Fai ma and he Was e2Fibe
®
plan s p omo ed by ACCIONA, based on mechanical ecycling and he mal ecycling,
espec i ely. Fai ma is able o eco e up o 90% o he ma e ial wi h 10 imes ewe
CO
2
emissions h ough an au oma ed and obo ised mechanical ecycling p ocess [
58
]. In
con as , Was e2Fibe
®
uses he mal ea men o ecycle 6000 onnes o ma e ial om wind
u bine blades each yea [
59
]. These indus ial plan s a e pionee s in he scaling-up o hei
espec i e echnologies, con ibu ing o he de elopmen o ci cula i y and sus ainabili y.
2.4. Incipien Recycling Me hods
Beyond he ecycling me hods p e iously men ioned, se e al new me hods a e cu -
en ly eme ging. These can be based on combining di e en phases o he ecycling
me hods desc ibed abo e o using o he ways o b eaking he chemical bonds p esen
in he he mose ma e ials. These include, among o he s, mic owa e-assis ed ecycling,
enzyma ic ecycling, elec ochemical ecycling, supe hea ed s eam ecycling, and ul asonic
ecycling [60].
2.4.1. Mic owa e-Assis ed Recycling
Mic owa e-assis ed ecycling is a mo e ene gy e icien he mal ecycling p ocess as i
uses mic owa e ene gy o selec i i y hea he ma e ial ma ix, enabling he ma ix o decom-
pose [
60
]. Compa ed o he con en ional py olysis p ocess which equi es
24–30 MJ/kg
,
mic owa e-assis ed ecycling consumes 5–10 MJ/kg [
21
]. Howe e , i should be consid-
e ed ha he e ec i eness o his echnology is limi ed when applied o ma e ials wi h low
dielec ic cons an s, as hese abso b mic owa es poo ly [61].
Addi ionally, he mechanical p ope ies o he eco e ed ib es a e compa able o hose
ob ained om he con en ional py olysis p ocess [
62
]. I is impo an o no e, howe e , ha
hese app oaches ocused exclusi ely on ca bon ib e eco e y. In con as , Ca a o e al. [
63
]
de eloped an op imised Mic owa e-Assis ed Chemical Recycling (MACR) p ocess o
epoxy esin ma ices employing eco- iendly eagen s, such as hyd ogen pe oxide and
a a ic acid, o eco e no only he ib e bu also he polyme ma ix. Addi ionally, LCA
has indica ed ha he ene gy cos o MACR is 16 imes and 30 imes lowe han ha o
chemical and py olysis, espec i ely [60,64].
Cu en ly, his ecycling me hod has a e y limi ed exis ence, e en a he pilo scale.
Despi e e o s by se e al uni e si ies and esea ch ins i u ions, success ul implemen a ion
has no ye been achie ed [
21
,
46
]. This is due o challenges such as he high cos and
complexi y o he equipmen , dielec ic p ope y-dependen in e ac ions wi h ma e ials,
di icul y in op imising he p ocess, and limi a ions in he pene a ion and ea men o
hick ma e ials [65,66].
2.4.2. Enzyma ic Recycling
Al hough ew s udies ha e been ca ied ou , he po en ial o enzyma ic deg ada ion
using oxida i e enzymes such as ligninase enzymes o b eak down he mos able composi es
is being explo ed. Addi ionally, by means o p o ein enginee ing, he enzymes ha e been
molecula ly modi ied o enable he eco e y o he he mose esin and gi e hem a second
li e [
67
]. This ecycling me hod is conside ed o be a sus ainable and en i onmen ally
iendly solu ion [60].
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 16 o 23
ageing o leaching o he ca alys s, long- e m ins abili y o oxida ion o hyd olysis, he mal
deg ada ion du ing ep ocessing, low mechanical p ope ies, scalabili y and cos , e c. [
104
].
5. The mo o ming o Cu ed Composi e Polyme ic Ma e ials
The mo o ming o he moplas ic ma e ials is a well-es ablished p ocess in which he
ma e ial is hea ed abo e he Tg o he polyme , allowing he ma e ial o ake he desi ed
shape. This manu ac u ing o epu posing echnique o e s se e al ad an ages, including
sho cycle imes, low ooling cos , and ela i ely clean ope a ion. Howe e , he main
limi a ion o he p ocess is ha he ma e ial’s pe o mance s ongly depends on i s duc ili y,
as well as on speci ic pa ame e s o he inal geome y, such as dep h o he d aw and
bending adius [110].
When wo king wi h cu ed composi e ma e ials, due o he high c oss-linking deg ee
o he ma ix, he po en ial delamina ion o he laye s, is almos ine i able. The e o e, he
he mo o ming s a egy is undamen al o mi iga e he isk o such delamina ion. The
iden i ied key ac o s in luencing he he mo o ming p ocess a e as ollows [110,111]:
•Hea ing ime and he mal amp a e;
•Mould empe a u e;
•The mo o ming eloci y;
•Cooling a e.
These pa ame e s ha e a signi ican impac on he inal p oduc , so a p elimina y
cha ac e isa ion s udy o he he mo o ming condi ions is necessa y o de ine he op imal
p ocessing pa ame e s. Fini e elemen analysis (FEA) enables he e alua ion o ma e ial
de o ma ion h ough nume ical simula ions [110].
5.1. The moplas ic Resin Composi es
Fo he no el he moplas ic esins desc ibed in Sec ion 4.1, he e a e ew s udies
suppo ing his p ope y in ein o ced composi es [
48
]. Acco ding o he la es esea ch by
Obande e al. [
89
], wo king wi h Elium
®
180 (A kema—Colombes, F ance) and polyme ised
wi h dibenzoyl pe oxide ini ia o (BT-50-FT), a low- empe a u e high- alue euse h ough
emoulding is achie able. The lamina es used in he s udy we e composed o ou laye s
o a glass ib e ab ic wi h a quasi-unidi ec ional con igu a ion. The lamina es o be
he mo o med we e L-shaped lamina es manu ac u ed by in usion. The p oposed me hod
consis ed o a dynamic closu e o he p ess a 120
◦
C in which e e y 5 min he closu e
was inc eased un il he lamina e was comple ely la . The empe a u e was main ained
o 5 min wi h a comple e closu e a 11 ba . A e his ime, he lamina e was cooled by
main aining he acuum un il i eached 40 ◦C.
The lexu al es and TGA and DMTA es s showed ha he mal eshaping did no
damage he lamina e. In addi ion, he Tg is main ained a 125
◦
C. I was p edic ed, based
on he mass loss gi en in he cycles pe o med, ha he mo o ming can be pe o med up
o 10 cycles wi hou signi ican change in mass.
5.2. Dynamic C oss-Linked The mose Resin Composi es
As men ioned ea lie , CANs allow eshaping h ough he applica ion o an ex e nal
s imulus. Depending on whe he he exchange is associa i e o dissocia i e, he ep o-
cessing echniques o co alen adap i e ne wo k composi es di e . This is because s ess
elaxa ion and iscosi y educ ion a e mo e p onounced in dissocia i e ne wo ks, en-
abling he use o liquid-s a e p ocessing echniques. Con e sely, o associa i e exchange
chemis y, he applica ion o ex e nal s ess is equi ed o acili a e ma ix low, making
comp ession moulding he mos sui able echnique [112].

J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 17 o 23
Weidmann e al. [
113
] compa ed he he mo o mabili y o ca bon ib e- ein o ced
epoxy i ime composi es, based on disulphide c oss-links, wi h ha o he moplas ic-
CFRPC (Ca bon Fib e-Rein o ced Polyme Composi e). The s udy was pe o med by a
3-poin bending es on specimens wi h dimensions o 18 mm
×
50 mm. The bending speed
o he es was 1 mm/s wi h an applied load o 50 N. In he es , he specimens we e i s
hea ed o he se empe a u e. The hea is main ained o 300 s o homogenise he hea ing o
he specimen. A e his ime, he specimen is he mo o med o 9.5 mm and held o
300 s
wi h he applied o ce and he specimen is cooled. Viscosi y measu emen s wi h a o sion
clamp heome e a di e en empe a u es show ha he iscosi y o he i ime epoxy
esin dec eases a empe a u e abo e Tg. Despi e he dec ease in esin iscosi y, he i ime
epoxy esin s ill shows a highe iscosi y compa ed o he he moplas ic esin, he e o e
he i ime -CFRP composi es do no low, which p esen s a challenge in he mo o ming.
Simila ly, A anbe i e al. [
99
] s udied he he mo o mabili y o a dynamic epoxy
sys em based on he e e sible exchange o a oma ic disulphides. In he s udy, a pul-
uded CFRP was ab ica ed and he mo o med by applying hea and p essu e. A shee
o he p o ile wi h dimensions 120
×
100
×
3 mm was p ehea ed a 190
◦
C o 10 min
(
Tg = 136.2 ◦C
). A s eel zig zag mould was used o p ess i a 100 ba o ob ain a wa y 3D
composi e. The e o e, he signi ican esul o his s udy is he de elopmen o an epoxy
esin o manu ac u e ecyclable and eshapable CFRP by pul usion.
5.3. Con en ional The mose Resins
As p e iously men ioned, con en ional he mose polyme s a e ypically conside ed
as non- he mo o mable due o he chemical i e e sibili y o c oss-linking. Howe e ,
ecen s udies sugges he possibili y o de eloping a new p ocess o eusing he mose
composi es by he mo o ming [111].
The assump ion o he mo o mabili y o he mose ma ices is mainly based on shape
memo y polyme s (SMPs), which, when hea ed abo e hei glass ansi ion empe a u e by
applying a conside ably low s ess, can de o m empo a ily. This de o ma ion is main ained
by cooling he ma e ial below i s Tg. When he ma e ial is hea ed again, a apid eco e y
occu s, hus es o ing he chains equilib ium [114].
In he case o con en ional he mose polyme s, when hey a e hea ed o empe -
a u es highe han hei Tg, he elas ic modulus dec eases sha ply and hei de o ma-
ion a ac u es inc eases conside ably [
115
]. This beha iou sugges s he possibili y
o he mo o ming.
6. Fu u e Pe spec i es
This e iew has p esen ed ad an ages ela ed o he ci cula i y o he mose composi e
ma e ials. Despi e hese ad an ages, he e is s ill a long way o go o achie e sus ainabili y,
e iciency, and cos -e ec i eness in he ci cula i y o he mose composi e ma e ials.
When discussing chemical ecycling, i is essen ial o con inue de eloping ecycling
me hods ha a e mo e sui able in e ms o sa e y, ene gy sa ings, and en i onmen al
impac . Fu he mo e, conside ing ha many o he cu en es ic ions on ecycling a e
due o he chemical s uc u e o he esin, ano he imp o emen s a egy is based on
designing he chemical s uc u e o be ecyclable, ei he by adding dynamic co alen
bonds o by eplacing con en ional he mose ing esins wi h he moplas ic esins ha
a e speci ically designed o eplica e hei p ope ies. The p ocessing o he manu ac u e
o composi es inco po a ing he a o emen ioned he moplas ic esins is s ill an a ea ha
equi es imp o emen due o he ola iles. Con e sely, esins wi h dynamic co alen bonds
ace challenges such as s abili y agains oxida ion o hyd olysis, con olled deg ada ion
unde mild condi ions, and biocompa ibili y.
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 18 o 23
In he case o he epu posing in cemen i ious ma e ials, he mose composi es
mus be so ed and p ocessed o comply wi h cons uc ion equi emen s. The e o e,
Kazemi e al. [65]
p oposes he c ea ion o an in as uc u e dedica ed o so ing ma e-
ial ha can be use ul o cons uc ion om hose ha canno . In addi ion, he use o a ax
incen i e is p oposed o encou age he indus y o use hese ma e ials.
Finally, he he mo o ming o he mose ma e ials, as men ioned abo e, is based on
shape memo y polyme s, bu his echnology is s ill a e y low TRLs. The e o e, a s udy
is needed o con i m ha he indings o hose ew s udies ha ha e been conduc ed a e
accu a e, and ha he mo o ming can be a me hod o epu pose.
7. Conclusions
The inc easing demand o he mose composi es in a ious indus ial sec o s is
leading o an accumula ion o end-o -li e ma e ials, p esen ing a signi ican challenge.
Cu en ly, mos was e ends up in land ills o he incine a o . Despi e egula o y e o s,
cu en da a indica es ha up o 70% o composi e was e is s ill land illed o incine a ed
wi hou ene gy eco e y. The cu en s a e o was e managemen highligh s he u gen
need o he de elopmen o inno a i e and economically iable ecycling and euse
echnologies. Despi e he p og ess made o e he las ew yea s, cu en ecycling me hods
p esen signi ican challenges, pa icula ly wi h glass ib e- ein o ced composi e ma e ials.
The main disad an ages o hese me hods include high ene gy cos s and mechanical
deg ada ion o he ib es.
The epu posing o he mose composi e ma e ials, ei he o s uc u al applica ions
o in cemen i ious ma e ials, ep esen s a solu ion o educe was e managemen p oblems
and ex end hei se ice li e. Despi e he en i onmen al bene i s, he e a e also se e al
challenges ela ed o he alue o he eused ma e ial, he a iabili y o he composi ion o
he eco e ed ma e ial and he inc easing olume o was e expec ed o be gene a ed in he
coming yea s.
No el ecyclable and eusable esins ep esen a signi ican ad ancemen in he sus-
ainabili y o composi e ma e ials. The moplas ic esins enable euse h ough mechanical,
chemical, and he mal ecycling p ocesses, as well as he mo o ming. Complemen a y,
he mose esin sys ems wi h co alen adap i e ne wo ks (CAN) such as i ime s, o e
signi ican ad an ages by enabling he epai abili y, ep ocessabili y, and ecyclabili y o he
composi e ma e ials manu ac u ed wi h hem. Ad ances in esea ch on he he mo o ming
no el esins, pa icula ly he moplas ic esins and he mose esins based on CANs, high-
ligh he po en ial o he mo o ming as a iable echnique o composi e ma e ial euse.
Addi ionally, de elopmen s based on shape memo y polyme s (SMPs) sugges possibili ies
o he mo o ming ein o ced he mose ma e ials.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.C.-I. and L.G.; o mal analysis, A.I. and R.S.-R.; in es i-
ga ion, M.C.-I. and A-I.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, M.C.-I.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing,
M.C.-I. and A.I.; isualiza ion A.I. and R.S.-R.; supe ision, R.S.-R. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed
o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No new da a we e c ea ed o analyzed in his s udy.
Con lic s o In e es : Au ho s Ma a Camacho-Iglesias, Lo ena Ge mán, Ai zibe I u mendi we e
employed by he company GAIKER Technology Cen e, Basque Resea ch and Technology Alliance
(BRTA). The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he absence o any comme cial o
inancial ela ionships ha could be cons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 19 o 23
Abb e ia ions
The ollowing abb e ia ions a e used in his manusc ip :
DC Di ec cu en
EoL End-o -li e
GF Glass ib e
CAN Co alen adap i e ne wo k
Tg Glass ansi ion empe a u e
FEA Fini e elemen analysis
DMTA Dynamic Mechanical The mal Analysis
CFRPC Ca bon Fib e-Rein o ced Polyme Composi e
SMP Shape Memo y Polyme
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