Circular Approaches for Thermoset Composites

Academic Edi o : Al onso Ma ezzoli Recei ed: 30 Sep embe 2025 Re ised: 7 No embe 2025 Accep ed: 27 No embe 2025 Published: 9 Decembe 2025 Ci a ion: Camacho-Iglesias, M.; Ge mán, L.; I u mendi, A.; Seoane-Ri e o, R. Ci cula App oaches o The mose Composi es. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ jcs9120682 Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/ licenses/by/4.0/). Re iew Ci cula App oaches o The mose Composi es Ma a Camacho-Iglesias 1,2,* , Lo ena Ge mán 1, Ai zibe I u mendi 1and Rubén Seoane-Ri e o 2 1GAIKER Technology Cen e, Basque Resea ch and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Pa que Tecnológico de Bizkaia, Edi icio 202, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; ge man@gaike .es (L.G.); i u mendi@gaike .es (A.I.) 2Chemical and En i onmen al Enginee ing Depa men , Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Alameda U quijo s/n, 48013 Bilbao, Spain; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: ma a.camacho@gaike .es Abs ac The ecycling and euse o he mose composi e ma e ials p esen conside able challenges due o he c oss-linked ne wo k o med du ing he cu ing p ocess. The g owing imple- men a ion o hese ma e ials in a ious indus ies, such as au omo i e and wind ene gy sec o s, has gene a ed signi ican esea ch in e es in his a ea. This pape p esen s a comp ehensi e e iew o di e en app oaches o he ecycling, ocusing on wo aspec s: es ablished me hods wi h highe echnological eadiness le els (mechanical, he mal, and chemical) and eme ging me hods s ill unde de elopmen (mic owa e-assis ed ecycling, enzyma ic ecycling, elec ochemical ecycling, supe hea ed s eam ecycling and ul asonic ecycling). Fu he mo e, he euse o he mose composi e ma e ials by he mo o ming, o example, is discussed, along wi h an o e iew o inno a i e esin sys ems specially designed o ecyclabili y and eusabili y. Finally, he challenges and u u e p ospec s a e b ie ly summa ised. Keywo ds: ci cula i y; he mose composi es; ecycling; euse; he mo o ming 1. In oduc ion The use o he mose composi e ma e ials is inc easing ac oss a g owing numbe o indus ies, such as a ia ion/ae ospace, au omo i e, and wind ene gy. These ma e ials, which consis o a he mose polyme ma ix ein o ced wi h ib e, a e ou s anding due o hei abili y o p o ide di ec ional ein o cemen , hei high s i ness, and speci ic s eng h, in addi ion o hei low densi y, low p oduc ion cos , ailo ed mechanical p ope ies, and co osion esis ance [ 1 – 4 ]. Despi e all he a o emen ioned ad an ages, he main eason o hei use in he e e ed sec o s is based on i s s uc u al weigh educ ion capaci y. In ai c a manu ac u ing, o example, a weigh educ ion o 20% has been achie ed compa ed o adi ional ma e ials, esul ing in an annual sa ing o 12 ons o CO2[1]. The mose composi e ma e ials, as p e iously men ioned, a e o med by a he mose polyme ma ix, such as epoxy, polyes e , phenolic, o inyl es e esins, which a e chemi- cally c oss-linked h ough a cu ing p ocess. Due o his c oss-linked s uc u e, he mose polyme ma ices canno be mel ed o ep ocessed, making hem di icul o ecycle. These ma ices a e combined wi h ein o cemen s, usually in he o m o ib es, ei he con inuous o discon inuous, esul ing in high-pe o mance ma e ials. These ein o cemen s can be classi ied in o wo ca ego ies acco ding o hei o igin: na u al ib es, such as ju e o lax ib e, and syn he ic ib es, which include glass, ca bon, o a amid ib es. The he mose ma ix p o ides load ans e , ein o cemen p o ec ion, and geome ic in eg i y, while he ein o cemen mainly con ibu es o he s eng h and s i ness o he composi e ma e ial [ 5 ]. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/jcs9120682 J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 2 o 23 The inc easing end in he use o he mose composi e ma e ials is e lec ed in he global ma ke , in which he olume g ew om 13 million onnes in 2023 o 14 million onnes in 2024 [ 6 , 7 ]. In he wind ene gy sec o , o example, he demand o gene a e mo e powe has d i en he ma ke g ow h, wi h composi e ma e ials being used in blade lamina es, ein o cemen s, and access s uc u es. The annual g ow h a e o composi e ma e ials in he wind ene gy ma ke is expec ed o be 10% be ween 2023 and 2028 [ 1 , 8 ]. In he au omo i e indus y, con e sely, uel sa ing is signi ican ly linked o weigh sa ing, which ansla es in o g ea e au onomy and lowe emissions. The implemen a ion o composi e ma e ials, capable o achie ing up o 40% weigh sa ing, is expec ed o each 16.4 billion eu os in 2032 compa ed o 7.4 billion eu os in 2022 in his indus y [9]. In his con ex Eu ope is expec ed o gene a e 683 million onnes o new composi e was e in 2025, while he annual global ecycling capaci y is only 100 million onnes, which is no mo e han 15% o he gene a ed was e [ 10 , 11 ]. The ene gy sec o accoun s o 14% o he composi e indus y, whe e i is essen ial o he de elopmen o wind u bine blades. This sec o is he main d i e behind he de elopmen o euse and ecycling p ocesses, owing o he signi ican olume o was e gene a ed. In 2024, a o al o 1.3 GW o wind powe capaci y was decommissioned in Eu ope, wi h Ge many, Spain, and I aly accoun ing o o e 90% o his capaci y [ 12 ]. Addi ionally, a signi ican po ion o Eu ope’s ins alled onsho e wind powe capaci y is app oaching i s end-o -li e (app oxima ely 20 yea s). By 2030, i is expec ed ha 57 GW o ins alled capaci y will exceed his pe iod, esul ing in an es ima ed 684 onnes o was e (1 MW = 12 onne scena io). The e o e, in iew o he inc easing was e gene a ion, i s managemen is becoming a majo conce n. Acco ding o he Eu opean Was e F amewo k Di ec i e (2018/851) was e managemen is s uc u ed ollowing he was e hie a chy diag am (Figu e 1) [ 13 – 15 ], which p io i ises p e en ion as he mos p e e ed al e na i e while disposal ep esen s, he leas desi ed op ion. Figu e 1. Was e managemen hie a chy. The ollowing sec ion add ess each le el o he was e hie a chy in de ail, s a ing wi h p e en ion: • P e en ion. Se e al s a egies ha e been used o inc ease he p e en ion o composi e was e gene a ion [ 16 – 18 ]. These include he design o composi es wi h a longe se ice li e by dec easing he ailu e a e, using componen s ha acili a e ecycling, imp o ing he sepa a ion o componen s and ma e ials o e en op imising and educing he amoun o ma e ial equi ed, esul ing in less ma e ial o ecycle [8,19]. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 3 o 23 • Reuse/Repu pose. Reuse o epu posing is based on using he end-o -li e compos- i e was e o an applica ion wi h ewe equi emen s h ough econdi ioning [ 20 ]. Di e en me hods o composi e was e euse a e p esen ed in Sec ion 3. • Recycling. The e a e se e al echniques p oposed and cu en ly used o he ecycling o composi e ma e ials. These echniques a e ypically ca ego ised in o h ee main g oups: mechanical ecycling, chemical ecycling, and he mal ecycling. A mo e de ailed o e iew o hese me hods can be ound in Sec ion 2. • Reco e y. Hea o ene gy eco e y is one way o manage composi e was e. The e a e di e en eco e y me hods, such as hea eco e y by incine a ion o he use o he eco e ed polyme ac ion in co-p ocessing as uel. • Disposal. In his ca ego y, he lowes in he hie a chy diag am, land illing and incine - a ion wi hou hea eco e y a e conside ed. Despi e he e o s o he Eu opean Commission o p omo e sus ainabili y and he ci cula economy h ough he di e en op ions o he was e hie a chy, in p ac ice, he h ee main ou es cu en ly applied o composi e was e a e: land illing, incine a ion, and ecycling (see Figu e 2) [ 21 ]. The Eu opean Composi e Indus y Associa ion (EuCIA) es i- ma es, o example, ha up o 70% o composi e was e is cu en ly land illed o incine a ed wi hou ene gy eco e y [22]. Figu e 2. End-o -li e scena ios. Land illing is he cheapes and mos common echnique despi e i s la ge nega i e impac on he en i onmen [ 21 , 23 ]. Land illing is p og essi ely es ic ed in he EU, wi h some coun ies al eady implemen ing bans and Di ec i e 2018/850 se ing a limi o 10% o municipal was e by 2035 [ 19 , 24 ]. Incine a ion can pa ially o se disposal by enabling ene gy eco e y, al hough a signi ican ac ion o ash s ill ends up in land ills [ 25 – 28 ]. In con as , ecycling emains he mos desi able op ion, ye i aces majo challenges due o he di icul y o sepa a ing he ein o cemen om he ma ix in c oss-linked composi es. The e o e, he e iew i s examines he mos de eloped ecycling me hods (mechan- ical, chemical, and he mal), ollowed by incipien s a egies s ill in he esea ch phase bu wi h exci ing po en ial o he u u e. Subsequen ly, he e iew explo es he concep o composi e ma e ial epu posing, highligh ing he di e en app oaches ha con ibu e o he ci cula i y. Finally, i examines inno a ions in he o mula ion o esins speci ically designed o acili a e ecycling, as well as he po en ial o he mo o ming as a me hod o eusing composi e ma e ial. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 4 o 23 2. Recycling Me hods The e a e se e al ecycling me hods cu en ly p oposed, esea ched, and de eloped o he ecycling o he mose ma ix composi es and which a e conside ed easible al e na i es o incine a ion and land illing [ 3 ]. The mos de eloped ecycling me hods can be di ided in o h ee main g oups: mechanical comminu ion echniques, chemical p ocesses, and he mal p ocesses (see Figu e 2) [4,21,29]. 2.1. Chemical Recycling In he chemical ecycling p ocess (see Figu e 3), he ma ix and ein o cemen a e sepa a ed by decomposing he ma ix in a chemical solu ion [ 30 ]. The selec ed solu ion depends on he na u e o he polyme ic s uc u e. In he ma ix decomposi ion, he c oss- linked ne wo k is decomposed by chemical me hods, esul ing in a complex mix u e o monome s, oligome s, and o he low molecula weigh compounds [ 23 , 31 ]. These p oduc s can subsequen ly be p ocessed o eco e aluable chemicals o used as building blocks o he syn hesis o new ma e ials. In some cases, he eco e ed compounds can e en be eused o he p epa a ion o he s a ing ma e ial, hus closing he cycle [ 31 , 32 ]. A e depolyme ising he ma ix, he ib es a e cleaned o emo e possible small esidues, esul ing in long ib es wi h high mechanical p ope ies [ 8 ]. The ene gy demand o he chemical ecycling me hod is app oxima ely 21–91 MJ/kg [21]. Figu e 3. Gene ic chemical ecycling diag am. Fo he mose composi es, chemical ecycling is p edominan ly based on sol oly- sis [ 18 ]. The e a e wo main ypes o sol olysis: low- empe a u e sol olysis and sub- supe c i ical sol olysis. Low- empe a u e sol olysis is usually pe o med a empe a u es below 200 ◦ C and a a mosphe ic p essu e, p o iding g ea e con ol o e he chemical eac ion and a oiding he occu ence o a seconda y chemical eac ion [ 23 , 33 ]. I is usually ca ied ou wi h an acid medium o sol en s including wa e , alcohol, ammonia, o ni ic acid. The wo k o Guadagno e al. [ 34 ], o example, ocuses on he chemical ecycling o a bio-based epoxy esin by a mix u e o sus ainable sol en s composed o ace ic acid and hyd ogen pe oxide. Among he s udied empe a u es, he mos e icien was 90 ◦ C, wi h a depolyme isa ion yield o 81.3%. The empe a u e o 90 ◦ C co esponds o he glass ansi ion empe a u e (Tg) o he esin sys em. Spec oscopic es s indica ed ha he chem- ical bonds we e b oken by selec i ely b eaking he C-N bonds in he c oss-linked ma ix s uc u e, allowing he ein o cemen o be eco e ed along wi h he oligome s/monome s in he ma ix. The esea ch highligh s he abili y o ecycle he mose composi es using low-impac sol en s and he need o in es iga e en i onmen ally iendly and e icien ecycling p ocesses. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 5 o 23 On he o he hand, sub-supe c i ical sol olysis is based on he use o supe c i ical luids. This ecycling me hod has gained popula i y due o he p ope ies and being mo e en i onmen ally iendly [ 23 , 33 ]. The use o supe c i ical luids p o ides op imal condi ions o he decomposi ion o polyme s esul ing in a conside ably as chemical esponse. Tempe a u e and p essu e equi emen can be educed by using al e na i e sol en s such as me hanol, e hanol, p opanol, and ace one oge he wi h wa e [ 23 ]. Souza e al. [35] p oposed a g een echnology o GF- ein o ced polyes e composi es wi h sho eac ion imes (45–60 min) using D-limonene a sub-supe c i ical o supe c i ical condi ions in he absence o ca alys s. Almos 100% o he GF is eco e ed main aining i s ensile s eng h a 64–85% compa ed o i gin ib es. These esul s p esen an inno a i e eco- iendly echnology o his kind o ma e ial. 2.2. Mechanical Recycling Mechanical ecycling is conside ed he mos widesp ead me hod because i does no equi e complex p ocess empe a u es o chemical agen s. The p ocess leads o he agmen a ion o he composi e ma e ial in o small pieces, in some cases e en eaching he dimensions o powde , whe e he a e age leng h o he eco e ed ib es anges is be ween app oxima ely 2 mm and 5 mm [ 26 , 36 , 37 ]. I is also commonly used as a p e- ea men p ocess o o he ecycling/ eusing echniques such as he mal ecycling o epu posing in cemen i ious ma e ial [33]. 2.2.1. Mechanical G inding This p ocess is based on he use o one o mo e pai s o coun e - o a ing sha s equipped wi h blades causing he ma e ial o pass h ough he o e lapping blades (see Figu e 4) [ 38 ]. In an ini ial phase, he esidue is sh edded in o 50–100 mm pieces o acili a e he emo al o embedded inse s. Once he in alid pa has been emo ed, he olume is educed o 10 mm–50 µ m agmen s by means o g inde s. The e a e di e en ypes o g inde s, each wi h i s own speci ic p ope ies; cu ing g inde s achie e a mo e uni o m leng h dis ibu ion while hamme mills do no equi e sha pening o he blades, which inc ease p oduc i i y. In he las s ep, he agmen s a e sepa a ed acco ding o size and con en [ 26 ]. This ecycling me hod does no equi e high ene gy inpu , wi h ene gy consump ion anging be ween 0.1 and 4.8 MJ/kg [21]. Figu e 4. Gene ic mechanical g inding diag am. In his ecycling p ocess, he en i e was e p oduc is educed in size, esul ing in small agmen s consis ing o a mix u e o polyme , ib e, and ille s. Despi e he signi ican loss o mechanical p ope ies o he ein o cemen due o i s size educ ion, se e al companies J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 6 o 23 ha e ocused hei e o s on he indus ialisa ion o mechanical g inding. The p oposed solu ions o he u ilisa ion o he ma e ial ob ained a e he mechanical g inding ha e been based on bulk moulding compound (BMC) and shee moulding compound (SMC). These compounds ypically consis o he mose esins combined wi h p opo ions o ille , commonly calcium ca bona e o i e- e a dan alumina ihyd a e. The ecycled ma e ial is inco po a ed o subs i u e he calcium ca bona e, which has a highe densi y, hus ob aining a ligh e ma e ial han using only calcium ca bona e. Howe e , mo e han 10% o ecycled ma e ial is no ecommended due o he educ ion in mechanical p ope ies, in addi ion o p ocessing p oblems [39]. 2.2.2. Elec o agmen a ion Elec o agmen a ion was ini ially applied in he mining ield o disin eg a e ock in o pa s in o de o ex ac aluable mine als and c ys als using epe i i e discha ge o elec ical pulses in a dielec ic en i onmen [ 26 , 40 ]. This high ol age (100–200 kV) elec ical discha ge causes he ensile s eng h o he ma e ial in oduced in o he dielec ic luid o become lowe han he b eaking s eng h o he dielec ic luid (see Figu e 5). The discha ge gene a es a spa k channel ha adhe es o in e nal bounda ies and ex e nal in e aces. As his channel p opaga es, i gene a es a high-p essu e and high- empe a u e shock wa e. These shocks gene a e in e nal s esses which, as hey exceed he ensile s eng h o he ma e ial, cause agmen a ion o he ma e ial. Figu e 5. Gene ic elec o agmen a ion diag am. This echnique has been examined in se e al s udies [ 41 – 43 ]. Diani e al. [ 44 ], o example, demons a ed he easibili y o ecycling EoL wind blades using High-Vol age F agmen a ion (HVF). In hei expe imen al es s, hey success ully ob ained clean ib es and sepa a ed impu i ies, con i ming he po en ial o his echnology as a p e- ea men s ep. Howe e , moni o ing he ene gy consump ion is c ucial, as he main d awback o elec o agmen a ion lies in i s high ene gy demand, wi h alues o 17.1 MJ/kg, 35.6 MJ/kg, 60 MJ/kg, and 89.1 MJ/kg o 500, 100, 1500, and 2000 elec ical pulses, espec i ely [26]. 2.3. The mal Recycling The mal ecycling me hods mainly include py olysis and luidized bed py olysis [ 45 , 46 ]. 2.3.1. Py olysis Py olysis, he mos s udied he mal ecycling p ocess, is based on hea ing in he absence o oxygen. As a esul o he decomposi ion o o ganic molecules in an ine a mosphe e wi hin a empe a u e ange o 450 ◦ C o 700 ◦ C, oil and gases a e p oduced, while solid p oduc s such as ib es e ain hei s uc u al in eg i y (see Figu e 6) [ 23 , 29 , 45 ]. Howe e , due o he high empe a u es o which he sample is exposed, he ein o ce- men ib es can su e a signi ican dec ease in i s mechanical p ope ies, consequen ly educing conside ably i s ensile s eng h. Due o he po en ial signi ican dec ease in hei J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 7 o 23 mechanical p ope ies, he whole p ocess mus be ca e ully designed, as he beha iou o he ecycled ib e depends on he p ocess a iables. Wi h op imal adjus men o hese pa ame e s, i is possible o achie e ca bon ib es o up o 90% o he s eng h o i gin ib es [ 33 ]. In con as o he good pe o mance o ca bon ib e, glass ib e ecycled by py olysis unde goes ex ensi e deg ada ion, eaching be ween 40% and 50% educ ion in ensile s eng h [47,48]. Figu e 6. Gene ic py olysis ecycle diag am. While nume ous s udies ha e in es iga ed he in luence o he pa ame e s on esin decomposi ion and he loss o mechanical p ope ies, he e a e ew s udies ha ha e ocused on he eco e ed componen s [ 49 ]. The solid pa is eco e ed in he highes pe cen age, anging om 50% o wo- hi ds by weigh . The liquid p oduc s a e be ween 0 and 50% by weigh , while he gaseous p oduc s cons i u e be ween 5% and 15% by weigh [ 26 ]. The main componen s o he eco e ed gases a e H 2 , CH 4 , CO, and CO 2 . The ob ained amoun o each o hem depends on he py olysis mode (slow o as ), py olysis empe a u e, and esidence ime [50]. Finally, he ob ained oil shows mainly a oma ic na u e, in which s y ene, benzene, oluene, e hylbenzene, and p-xylene a e usually iden i ied as he main componen s o he o ganic ac ion. In addi ion o a oma ic compounds, oxygena ed species a e also p esen such us ph halic acid o benzoic acid [ 51 ]. These oils a e o en used in boile combus ion, engine and ubula uels, ans o ma ion in o anspo a ion uels, o as enewable eeds ock o chemicals and ma e ials [ 52 ]. In addi ion, o imp o e he ene gy e iciency o he py olysis p ocess, esea ch is being conduc ed on he eci cula ion o he oil and gas ob ained a e py olysis o hea supply. This s udy has demons a ed ha he ene gy e iciency o py olysis can be signi ican ly imp o ed. I has also been shown ha excess hea can be s o ed using mol en sal wi h a high speci ic hea capaci y [49]. Howe e , one o he d awbacks o he py olysis p ocess is ha i equi es an addi- ional pos -py olysis p ocedu e o emo e he ca bonised su ace ma e ial o med by he decomposi ion o he ma ix [ 36 ]. In o de o a oid mul iple eac ion s eps, Xu e al. [ 53 ] conduc ed as py olysis o was e om wind u bine blades a 500 ◦ C in h ee di e en a mosphe es (100% N 2 , 80% N 2 + 20% CO 2 , and 80% N 2 + 20% H 2 O). The s udy obse ed ha , compa ed o a pu e N 2 a mosphe e, H 2 O ac s as a gasi ying agen , accele a ing bond b eakage. Fu he mo e, he in oduc ion o H 2 O educes he p oduc ion o ca bon in a single s ep. 2.3.2. Fluidised Bed P ocess The luidised bed p ocess also enables he he mal decomposi ion o he ma ix [ 54 ]. Bu on he con a y, his uses a ho ai low cu en o ans e he hea o a silica sand J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 8 o 23 ba h whe e he was e is placed, leading o he he mal deg ada ion o he ma ix. The empe a u e anges a ound 400 ◦C. The ma ix is decomposed in he p e iously luidised bed and subsequen ly he ib es and ille s a e sepa a ed om he gas s eam in a cyclone de ice ha sepa a es solid pa icles om gas using he cen i ugal o ce (see Figu e 7). The ola ilized polyme passes in o a seconda y combus ion chambe o hea eco e y [ 55 ]. As a esul o his p ocess, he loss o mechanical p ope ies o he ib es is e iden . S.J. Picke ing [ 56 ] s udied he loss o mechanical p ope ies o glass ib e, a 450 ◦ C he ensile s eng h is educed by 50%, while a 550 ◦ C and 650 ◦ C i is educed by 80% and 90%, espec i ely. Howe e , Hyde e al. [ 57 ] obse ed ha wi h ca bon ib e a 450 ◦ C he deg ada ion is less signi ican , om abou 25% loss in ensile s eng h. Al hough his p ocess causes mo e damage o he ein o cemen ib es compa ed o con en ional py olysis and does no allow o he eco e y o esin-de i ed p oduc s o he han gases [ 29 ], i should be no ed ha i ope a es a lowe empe a u es, esul ing in highe ene gy e iciency. Figu e 7. Gene ic diag am o luidised bed ecycling p ocess. Table 1summa ises he s a us o each o he ecycling echnologies men ioned abo e. Table 1. Summa y o ecycling me hods. Recycling Me hods P os Cons Chemical ecycling Sol olysis - Ob ained monome s o oligome s can be used - Mechanical p ope ies o he ein o cemen a e p ope ly p ese ed - High ope a ing cos due o high ene gy demand (21–91 MJ/kg) - Gene a ion o seconda y chemical was e Mechanical ecycling Mechanical g inding - No high empe a u e o chemical agen - Low ene gy consump ion (0.1–4.8 MJ/kg) -Low cos and easy o implemen - La ge loss in alue o ecycled ma e ial Elec o agmen a ion - Good sepa a ion o he componen s ( esin and ib e) - High ene gy consump ion (17.1–89 MJ/kg) The mal ecycling Py olysis - Decomposes he esin - In addi ion o ein o cemen , oils and gases a e eco e ed - Loss o mechanical p ope ies - High ope a ing cos s due o low ene gy e iciency Fluidised bed - Good pe o mance in he sepa a ion o ma e ials - Good ene gy e iciency - Reco e y o mo e damaged ein o cemen han py olysis - Only gases eco e ed om esin by-p oduc s J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 9 o 23 The e a e only a limi ed numbe o indus ial-scale plan s ha ca y ou hese ecy- cling p ocesses. This is due o he a o emen ioned disad an ages, such as high ene gy and low echnical and economic iabili y esul ing om he loss o mechanical p ope - ies, pa icula ly in he case o chemical ecycling, which has no ye been indus ialised. Despi e hei limi ed p esence, i is wo h men ioning he Fai ma and he Was e2Fibe ® plan s p omo ed by ACCIONA, based on mechanical ecycling and he mal ecycling, espec i ely. Fai ma is able o eco e up o 90% o he ma e ial wi h 10 imes ewe CO 2 emissions h ough an au oma ed and obo ised mechanical ecycling p ocess [ 58 ]. In con as , Was e2Fibe ® uses he mal ea men o ecycle 6000 onnes o ma e ial om wind u bine blades each yea [ 59 ]. These indus ial plan s a e pionee s in he scaling-up o hei espec i e echnologies, con ibu ing o he de elopmen o ci cula i y and sus ainabili y. 2.4. Incipien Recycling Me hods Beyond he ecycling me hods p e iously men ioned, se e al new me hods a e cu - en ly eme ging. These can be based on combining di e en phases o he ecycling me hods desc ibed abo e o using o he ways o b eaking he chemical bonds p esen in he he mose ma e ials. These include, among o he s, mic owa e-assis ed ecycling, enzyma ic ecycling, elec ochemical ecycling, supe hea ed s eam ecycling, and ul asonic ecycling [60]. 2.4.1. Mic owa e-Assis ed Recycling Mic owa e-assis ed ecycling is a mo e ene gy e icien he mal ecycling p ocess as i uses mic owa e ene gy o selec i i y hea he ma e ial ma ix, enabling he ma ix o decom- pose [ 60 ]. Compa ed o he con en ional py olysis p ocess which equi es 24–30 MJ/kg , mic owa e-assis ed ecycling consumes 5–10 MJ/kg [ 21 ]. Howe e , i should be consid- e ed ha he e ec i eness o his echnology is limi ed when applied o ma e ials wi h low dielec ic cons an s, as hese abso b mic owa es poo ly [61]. Addi ionally, he mechanical p ope ies o he eco e ed ib es a e compa able o hose ob ained om he con en ional py olysis p ocess [ 62 ]. I is impo an o no e, howe e , ha hese app oaches ocused exclusi ely on ca bon ib e eco e y. In con as , Ca a o e al. [ 63 ] de eloped an op imised Mic owa e-Assis ed Chemical Recycling (MACR) p ocess o epoxy esin ma ices employing eco- iendly eagen s, such as hyd ogen pe oxide and a a ic acid, o eco e no only he ib e bu also he polyme ma ix. Addi ionally, LCA has indica ed ha he ene gy cos o MACR is 16 imes and 30 imes lowe han ha o chemical and py olysis, espec i ely [60,64]. Cu en ly, his ecycling me hod has a e y limi ed exis ence, e en a he pilo scale. Despi e e o s by se e al uni e si ies and esea ch ins i u ions, success ul implemen a ion has no ye been achie ed [ 21 , 46 ]. This is due o challenges such as he high cos and complexi y o he equipmen , dielec ic p ope y-dependen in e ac ions wi h ma e ials, di icul y in op imising he p ocess, and limi a ions in he pene a ion and ea men o hick ma e ials [65,66]. 2.4.2. Enzyma ic Recycling Al hough ew s udies ha e been ca ied ou , he po en ial o enzyma ic deg ada ion using oxida i e enzymes such as ligninase enzymes o b eak down he mos able composi es is being explo ed. Addi ionally, by means o p o ein enginee ing, he enzymes ha e been molecula ly modi ied o enable he eco e y o he he mose esin and gi e hem a second li e [ 67 ]. This ecycling me hod is conside ed o be a sus ainable and en i onmen ally iendly solu ion [60]. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 16 o 23 ageing o leaching o he ca alys s, long- e m ins abili y o oxida ion o hyd olysis, he mal deg ada ion du ing ep ocessing, low mechanical p ope ies, scalabili y and cos , e c. [ 104 ]. 5. The mo o ming o Cu ed Composi e Polyme ic Ma e ials The mo o ming o he moplas ic ma e ials is a well-es ablished p ocess in which he ma e ial is hea ed abo e he Tg o he polyme , allowing he ma e ial o ake he desi ed shape. This manu ac u ing o epu posing echnique o e s se e al ad an ages, including sho cycle imes, low ooling cos , and ela i ely clean ope a ion. Howe e , he main limi a ion o he p ocess is ha he ma e ial’s pe o mance s ongly depends on i s duc ili y, as well as on speci ic pa ame e s o he inal geome y, such as dep h o he d aw and bending adius [110]. When wo king wi h cu ed composi e ma e ials, due o he high c oss-linking deg ee o he ma ix, he po en ial delamina ion o he laye s, is almos ine i able. The e o e, he he mo o ming s a egy is undamen al o mi iga e he isk o such delamina ion. The iden i ied key ac o s in luencing he he mo o ming p ocess a e as ollows [110,111]: •Hea ing ime and he mal amp a e; •Mould empe a u e; •The mo o ming eloci y; •Cooling a e. These pa ame e s ha e a signi ican impac on he inal p oduc , so a p elimina y cha ac e isa ion s udy o he he mo o ming condi ions is necessa y o de ine he op imal p ocessing pa ame e s. Fini e elemen analysis (FEA) enables he e alua ion o ma e ial de o ma ion h ough nume ical simula ions [110]. 5.1. The moplas ic Resin Composi es Fo he no el he moplas ic esins desc ibed in Sec ion 4.1, he e a e ew s udies suppo ing his p ope y in ein o ced composi es [ 48 ]. Acco ding o he la es esea ch by Obande e al. [ 89 ], wo king wi h Elium ® 180 (A kema—Colombes, F ance) and polyme ised wi h dibenzoyl pe oxide ini ia o (BT-50-FT), a low- empe a u e high- alue euse h ough emoulding is achie able. The lamina es used in he s udy we e composed o ou laye s o a glass ib e ab ic wi h a quasi-unidi ec ional con igu a ion. The lamina es o be he mo o med we e L-shaped lamina es manu ac u ed by in usion. The p oposed me hod consis ed o a dynamic closu e o he p ess a 120 ◦ C in which e e y 5 min he closu e was inc eased un il he lamina e was comple ely la . The empe a u e was main ained o 5 min wi h a comple e closu e a 11 ba . A e his ime, he lamina e was cooled by main aining he acuum un il i eached 40 ◦C. The lexu al es and TGA and DMTA es s showed ha he mal eshaping did no damage he lamina e. In addi ion, he Tg is main ained a 125 ◦ C. I was p edic ed, based on he mass loss gi en in he cycles pe o med, ha he mo o ming can be pe o med up o 10 cycles wi hou signi ican change in mass. 5.2. Dynamic C oss-Linked The mose Resin Composi es As men ioned ea lie , CANs allow eshaping h ough he applica ion o an ex e nal s imulus. Depending on whe he he exchange is associa i e o dissocia i e, he ep o- cessing echniques o co alen adap i e ne wo k composi es di e . This is because s ess elaxa ion and iscosi y educ ion a e mo e p onounced in dissocia i e ne wo ks, en- abling he use o liquid-s a e p ocessing echniques. Con e sely, o associa i e exchange chemis y, he applica ion o ex e nal s ess is equi ed o acili a e ma ix low, making comp ession moulding he mos sui able echnique [112]. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 17 o 23 Weidmann e al. [ 113 ] compa ed he he mo o mabili y o ca bon ib e- ein o ced epoxy i ime composi es, based on disulphide c oss-links, wi h ha o he moplas ic- CFRPC (Ca bon Fib e-Rein o ced Polyme Composi e). The s udy was pe o med by a 3-poin bending es on specimens wi h dimensions o 18 mm × 50 mm. The bending speed o he es was 1 mm/s wi h an applied load o 50 N. In he es , he specimens we e i s hea ed o he se empe a u e. The hea is main ained o 300 s o homogenise he hea ing o he specimen. A e his ime, he specimen is he mo o med o 9.5 mm and held o 300 s wi h he applied o ce and he specimen is cooled. Viscosi y measu emen s wi h a o sion clamp heome e a di e en empe a u es show ha he iscosi y o he i ime epoxy esin dec eases a empe a u e abo e Tg. Despi e he dec ease in esin iscosi y, he i ime epoxy esin s ill shows a highe iscosi y compa ed o he he moplas ic esin, he e o e he i ime -CFRP composi es do no low, which p esen s a challenge in he mo o ming. Simila ly, A anbe i e al. [ 99 ] s udied he he mo o mabili y o a dynamic epoxy sys em based on he e e sible exchange o a oma ic disulphides. In he s udy, a pul- uded CFRP was ab ica ed and he mo o med by applying hea and p essu e. A shee o he p o ile wi h dimensions 120 × 100 × 3 mm was p ehea ed a 190 ◦ C o 10 min ( Tg = 136.2 ◦C ). A s eel zig zag mould was used o p ess i a 100 ba o ob ain a wa y 3D composi e. The e o e, he signi ican esul o his s udy is he de elopmen o an epoxy esin o manu ac u e ecyclable and eshapable CFRP by pul usion. 5.3. Con en ional The mose Resins As p e iously men ioned, con en ional he mose polyme s a e ypically conside ed as non- he mo o mable due o he chemical i e e sibili y o c oss-linking. Howe e , ecen s udies sugges he possibili y o de eloping a new p ocess o eusing he mose composi es by he mo o ming [111]. The assump ion o he mo o mabili y o he mose ma ices is mainly based on shape memo y polyme s (SMPs), which, when hea ed abo e hei glass ansi ion empe a u e by applying a conside ably low s ess, can de o m empo a ily. This de o ma ion is main ained by cooling he ma e ial below i s Tg. When he ma e ial is hea ed again, a apid eco e y occu s, hus es o ing he chains equilib ium [114]. In he case o con en ional he mose polyme s, when hey a e hea ed o empe - a u es highe han hei Tg, he elas ic modulus dec eases sha ply and hei de o ma- ion a ac u es inc eases conside ably [ 115 ]. This beha iou sugges s he possibili y o he mo o ming. 6. Fu u e Pe spec i es This e iew has p esen ed ad an ages ela ed o he ci cula i y o he mose composi e ma e ials. Despi e hese ad an ages, he e is s ill a long way o go o achie e sus ainabili y, e iciency, and cos -e ec i eness in he ci cula i y o he mose composi e ma e ials. When discussing chemical ecycling, i is essen ial o con inue de eloping ecycling me hods ha a e mo e sui able in e ms o sa e y, ene gy sa ings, and en i onmen al impac . Fu he mo e, conside ing ha many o he cu en es ic ions on ecycling a e due o he chemical s uc u e o he esin, ano he imp o emen s a egy is based on designing he chemical s uc u e o be ecyclable, ei he by adding dynamic co alen bonds o by eplacing con en ional he mose ing esins wi h he moplas ic esins ha a e speci ically designed o eplica e hei p ope ies. The p ocessing o he manu ac u e o composi es inco po a ing he a o emen ioned he moplas ic esins is s ill an a ea ha equi es imp o emen due o he ola iles. Con e sely, esins wi h dynamic co alen bonds ace challenges such as s abili y agains oxida ion o hyd olysis, con olled deg ada ion unde mild condi ions, and biocompa ibili y. J. Compos. Sci. 2025,9, 682 18 o 23 In he case o he epu posing in cemen i ious ma e ials, he mose composi es mus be so ed and p ocessed o comply wi h cons uc ion equi emen s. The e o e, Kazemi e al. [65] p oposes he c ea ion o an in as uc u e dedica ed o so ing ma e- ial ha can be use ul o cons uc ion om hose ha canno . In addi ion, he use o a ax incen i e is p oposed o encou age he indus y o use hese ma e ials. Finally, he he mo o ming o he mose ma e ials, as men ioned abo e, is based on shape memo y polyme s, bu his echnology is s ill a e y low TRLs. The e o e, a s udy is needed o con i m ha he indings o hose ew s udies ha ha e been conduc ed a e accu a e, and ha he mo o ming can be a me hod o epu pose. 7. Conclusions The inc easing demand o he mose composi es in a ious indus ial sec o s is leading o an accumula ion o end-o -li e ma e ials, p esen ing a signi ican challenge. Cu en ly, mos was e ends up in land ills o he incine a o . Despi e egula o y e o s, cu en da a indica es ha up o 70% o composi e was e is s ill land illed o incine a ed wi hou ene gy eco e y. The cu en s a e o was e managemen highligh s he u gen need o he de elopmen o inno a i e and economically iable ecycling and euse echnologies. Despi e he p og ess made o e he las ew yea s, cu en ecycling me hods p esen signi ican challenges, pa icula ly wi h glass ib e- ein o ced composi e ma e ials. The main disad an ages o hese me hods include high ene gy cos s and mechanical deg ada ion o he ib es. The epu posing o he mose composi e ma e ials, ei he o s uc u al applica ions o in cemen i ious ma e ials, ep esen s a solu ion o educe was e managemen p oblems and ex end hei se ice li e. Despi e he en i onmen al bene i s, he e a e also se e al challenges ela ed o he alue o he eused ma e ial, he a iabili y o he composi ion o he eco e ed ma e ial and he inc easing olume o was e expec ed o be gene a ed in he coming yea s. No el ecyclable and eusable esins ep esen a signi ican ad ancemen in he sus- ainabili y o composi e ma e ials. The moplas ic esins enable euse h ough mechanical, chemical, and he mal ecycling p ocesses, as well as he mo o ming. Complemen a y, he mose esin sys ems wi h co alen adap i e ne wo ks (CAN) such as i ime s, o e signi ican ad an ages by enabling he epai abili y, ep ocessabili y, and ecyclabili y o he composi e ma e ials manu ac u ed wi h hem. Ad ances in esea ch on he he mo o ming no el esins, pa icula ly he moplas ic esins and he mose esins based on CANs, high- ligh he po en ial o he mo o ming as a iable echnique o composi e ma e ial euse. Addi ionally, de elopmen s based on shape memo y polyme s (SMPs) sugges possibili ies o he mo o ming ein o ced he mose ma e ials. Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.C.-I. and L.G.; o mal analysis, A.I. and R.S.-R.; in es i- ga ion, M.C.-I. and A-I.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, M.C.-I.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, M.C.-I. and A.I.; isualiza ion A.I. and R.S.-R.; supe ision, R.S.-R. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No new da a we e c ea ed o analyzed in his s udy. Con lic s o In e es : Au ho s Ma a Camacho-Iglesias, Lo ena Ge mán, Ai zibe I u mendi we e employed by he company GAIKER Technology Cen e, Basque Resea ch and Technology Alliance (BRTA). The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could be cons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es . J. Compos. 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