Raddall, J.
A icle
Unde s anding human alues: The key o o ganiza ional
e ec i eness
Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Raddall, J. (1984) : Unde s anding human alues: The key o o ganiza ional
e ec i eness, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online
Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 121-127,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 15i2.1115
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217860
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Unde s anding
human
alues
-The
key
o
:> ganiza ional
e ec i eness
J.
Raddall
a ional
Building Resea ch Ins i u e, P e o ia
he dicho omy aced by managemen
o
inding ways o in e -
'ace heo y and echnology on he one hand wi h he idiosyn-
; acies o human beha iou on he o he can
be
likened o he
Nell known concep
o
Ca esian dualism - he spli o he
,uman being
in o
mind and body.
In
any o ganiza ion managemen is aced by he same p o-
Jlem. Implemen a ion o sound a ional ideas is o en ob-
usca ed by he appa en ly i a ional human elemen .
This a icle a emp s
o
ind his 'missing link'
in
he chain
be ween he mind and body
o
he o ganiza ion. h ough an
analysis o human alues and hei in luence
on
pe sonal, in-
e pe sonal and o ganiza ional beha iou .
Se e al hypo heses ela ing alues
o
o ganiza ional
beha iou a e conside ed and a p elimina y empi ical s udy
unde aken
o
es hese hypo heses is discussed.
S.
A .
J.
Bus. Mgm . 1984.
15:
121
-127
Die weedeling wa 'n bes uu e aa by die in eg asie
an
eo ie en egnologie ene syds, me eienaa dighede
an
menslike ged ag ande syds. is e gelykbaa me die bekende
konsep an Ca esiaanse dualisme -die e deling
an
die
menslike wese
in
gees en liggaam.
In
enige o ganisasie kom die bes uu oo diesel de p o-
bleem
e
s aan. Die oepassing an gesonde asionele idees
wo d dikwels e wa deu die klaa blyklik i asionele menslike
elemen .
Daa wo d in die a ikel gepoog om hie die · e mis e skakel'
in
die ke ing ussen die gees en die liggaam
an
die o gani-
sasie
e
ind deu
'n
on leding an menslike waa des.
en
die
in loed daa an op pe soonlike. in e pe soonlike
en
o ganisa o-
iese ged ag.
Ve skeie hipo eses waa deu waa des in e band geb ing
wo d me o ganisa o iese ged ag wo d oo weeg, en 'n
oo lopige empi iese s udie wa onde neem is om hie die
hipo eses e oe s. wo d besp eek.
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984.
15:
121
-127
J.
Raddall
Na ional Building Resea ch Ins i u e,
P
.0.
Box
395, P e o ia 0001, Republic
o
Sou h A ica
Accep ed Ma ch
1984
In oduc ion
'Bu a e all, wha
is
goodness? Answe me ha , Alex-
ey. Goodness
is
one hing wi h me and ano he wi h
a Chinaman, so i s a ela i e hing.
O
isn' i ? Is
i
no ela i e? A eache ous ques ion! You won' laugh
i I
ell
you i 's kep me awake wo nigh s. I only wonde
now how people can li e
and
hink no hing
o
i .
Vani y!'
Fyodo Dos oe sky,
The
B o he s ka amazo .
Dos oye sky has ouched on some hing which could be he
key o unde s anding and imp o ing managemen and o gani-
za ional e ec i enes
in
he eigh ies. Whene e someone
is
aced
wi h a decision he
is
also aced wi h al e na i es, some
o
which
may be igh ; o he s may be w ong.
To
a la ge ex en his deci-
sion
will
be based on his belie s, a i udes and alues.
The
iew
is
held
in
his a icle ha alues cons i u e a co e
concep which dic a es a i udes
and
beha iou pa e ns in-
he en
in
all
o
he social sciences. (Figu e l
).
I
is
conside ed
o
be he majo dependen a iable
in
he s udy
o
socie y,
cul u e and pe sonali y and he majo independen a iable
in
he s udy
o
social a i udes and beha iou . The impo ance
o
managemen
is
an unde s anding
o
how he decision-
making p ocess can be a ec ed
by
indi idual alue sys ems
and he e ec his can ha e on he o ganiza ion.
D1A6RA1111A
TICALL
Y ·
VALUES
Figu e
I In luence
o
alues on decision-making
Al
TERNATIVE
OWSIONS
The implica ion he e
is
ha companies which con inue
o
slo indi iduals in o posi ions based pu ely on p e ious ex-
pe ience and skills do so a hei pe il
i
hey igno e he
ele ance
o
di e ing alues.
The ques ion
o
wha
is
' igh '
o
'w ong', o 'good'
o
'bad'
has been a cen al ea u e
o
philosophical deba e since he
dawn
o
human consciousness.
Howe e un il ecen imes
i
could be a gued ha he
-__.II
122
ele ance
o
he issue was academic. E en a hund ed yea s
ago people a elled compa a i ely li le
and
communica ion
was
es.sen ially by wo d
o
mou h. This mean ha indi iduals
we e igh ly kni in o small communi ies whe e accep able
alues we e easily iden i ied.
An
Englishman eally did no need
o
conce n himsel
abou
he ac ha a Chinaman may no
ha e sha ed his alue sys em.
Technological ad ances
o
he wen ie h cen u y ha e en-
su ed he exponen ial g ow h
o
communica ion
and
mobili y
esul ing in a ela i ely u bulen
and
dynamic ma ke place
whe e o ganiza ional
and
indi idual alue sys ems mee
on
an
e e expanding ma ix.
I
is
only h ough
an
unde s anding
o
hese di e ing alue
sys ems
o
'p o iles' ha managemen can hope
o
become
mo e e ec i e.
Objec i es
The
p inciple objec i e
is
o
de elop
an
unde s anding
o
he
in e ac ion
o
o ganiza ional pe onnance
and
he alues held
by he indi iduals wi hin he o ganiza ion.
E hics
and
alues
E hics
No
wo k
on
business e hics
and
human
alues would
be
com-
ple e wi hou a b ie discussion
on
e hics in gene al
o
de e -
mine he ele an in e dependencies.
E hics
is
a
majo
b anch
o
philosophy
and
conce ns i sel
wi h human decisions ela ed
o
'good'
o
'bad',
o
' igh '
and
'w ong'. The G eeks p o ided a miscellany
o
ques ions (B en-
nan,
1973:9)
wo housand i e hund ed yea s ago which
a e
s ill ele an oday:
(a) Is he e a highes good,
o
which all o he goods
a e
subo dina e?
(b)
Wha
makes a good li e?
(c)
Wha
makes a
man
good
o
bad?
(d)
Wha
makes
an
ac ion jus
o
unjus ?
(e)
Wha
so
o
ules
o
guidelines a e he e o igh ac ion?
(0
Can
ha which makes a good
man
good
be
augh ?
(g)
Fo
wha ends
o
pu poses should we aim?
Manage s
a e
cons an ly o ced
o
make e hical judgemen s
in answe
o
ques ions such as he abo e whe e hei beha iou
is
no de e mined by law. In his case whe e hei beha iou
is
po en ially ha m ul bu s ill 'legal' hei conduc
is
conside ed
'une hical'. Figu e 2 demons a es his oge he wi h
an
a ea
o
o e lap.
LEGAL
LEGAL
I
I
<N.Y
I
l
PIIRAL
IBUs iS
ETIICSI
-----------------
LEGAL
MORAL
AND
ONLY
MORAL
I
---- ---------------~
la• e
2 In e ela ionship be ween business e hics and he
law
The
dis inc ion, howe e ,
o
ha which
is
'e hical'
and
ha
which
is
·~ne hical' is seldom simple
o
ini e
and
depends
on
many
anables,
one
o
he mos impo an being
human
alues.
Mos manage s make mo al decisions based
on
common-
sense e hics
..
Howe e one canno s op he e as wo manage s
om w~ di e en cul u es
may
ha e diame ically opposed
alues wi h ega d
o
a gi en si ua ion esul ing in a o ally
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1984,
15(2)
di e en wo k e hic.
Two
main
e hical concep s
a e
exp essed by he wo ds
'good'
and
'ough ',
(o
'du y')
(Ewing, 1975).
'Good'
can be an am-
biguous e m.
Fo
example should you ha e gang ene in one
leg i would
be
'good'
o
ha e i
ampu a ed
in
o de
ha you
may
su i e. Howe e ha ing
an
ope a ion
and
losing a limb
canno
be
desc ibed as
'good'
as
an
end in i sel . The e o e
i
is
impo an
o
dis inguish be ween
'good'
as
an
end and
'good' as a means.
People,
and
hence manage s, can
be
said
o
all in o h ee
basic ca ego ies.
The i s e med 'egois ic hedonis s'
is
ha
g oup
which s i es
o i s own pleasu e
o
happiness as
an
end
goal.
Tha
which
achie es his end
is
'good' o he indi idual, bu no necessa ily
o he socie y.
Subsequen
o
'egois ic
hedonism'
is 'uni e salis ic
Hedonism'
o
'u ili a ianism'.
He e
he
logic
is
as ollows:
I
happiness
is
he
only hing, by gene al consensus, ha
is
good
in i sel , hen i seems i a ional
o
hold
ha
i makes
any di e ence
o
i s goodness
who
enjoys he happiness. I
seems easonable
o
hold ha i
is
ou
du y
o
p oduce as much
good as possible
and
ha
i is w ong
o
neglec
any
oppo -
uni ies
o
do
so.
He e hen he e hic
is
one
o
s i ing o
he
gene al happiness
a he
han
he
indi idual happiness.
The
hi d ca ego y
is
a
he
opposi e
end
o
he e hics scale
and
conce ns he heo y
o
he g ea
Ge man
philosophe Kan
(1724 -
1803).
His e hics was
o
a la ge ex en mo i a ed
by
a eac ion agains hedonism
and
his heo y
ook
he
onn
ha
he p ima y aspec
o
conside is
no
he
happiness
o
unhap-
piness p oduced by
an
ac ion,
o
indeed
any
o
i s conse-
quences, bu he na u e
o
he ac ion i sel . Cen al
o
his e hics
is
he concep
o
'good
will'. By his he means
no
good will
in he sense
o
kindly eeling,
bu
doing
one's
du y,
o
as he
pu i ,
'ou
o
espec o he
mo al
law'. (Ewing, 1975:51).
Kan always s o e
o
achie e ha which was uni e sally igh
h ough
man's
doing his
du y
o
wha he
'ough '
o
do. Fu -
he mo e,
o
Kan ,
ha
which was uni e sally igh
had
o
anscend poli ical
and
eligious ideologies.
To
Kan he end
ne e jus i ied he means.
I
i
is
w ong
o
lie
hen
i
is
always
w ong
o
lie.
The
abo e sec ion
on
e hics se es,
no
as a p ime in
philosophy,
bu
a he
o
highligh
he
e y co ne s one
o
human
beha iou in gene al,
and
managemen
and
business
beha iou in pa icula . Conside ing
he
ele ance
o
e hics in
he business wo ld
and
i s ele ance
o
he
e y su i al
o
he
ee en e p ise sys em in he long
e m
is
i
no
inc edible ha
ou
business schools in
Sou h
A ica i ually igno e he sub-
jec ?
One
can only deduce om his omission
ha
business
academia pe cei e he ole
o
managemen
o
be
one
o
Da -
winian su i al in
one
glo ious, uni e sal o gy
o
'egois ic
hedonism'!
Values
To
achie e a g ea e unde s anding
o
mankind
in his e hical
wo ld i
is
necessa y
o
unde s and his alues
and
he way in
which hey can in luence his beha iou .
The
wo k
o
Rokeach
on
human
alues has been used ex ensi ely in his a icle wi h
pa icula ega d
o
he es ing p ocedu e
adop ed
in he em-
pi ical wo k. Fi e assump ions
abou
he
na u e
o
human
alu~
ha e
been
used:
(a) he o al
numbe
o
alues
ha
a pe son possesses
is
ela i ely
small;
s.
A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2)
(b)
all
men
e e ywhe e possess he same
alues
o di e en
deg ees;
(c)
alues
a e o ganized in o
alue
sys ems;
(d)
he
an eceden s
o
human
alues
can
be
aced o cul u e,
socie y
and
i s
ins i u ions, and pe sonali y;
(e)
he
consequences
o
human
alues
will
be
mani es ed
in
i ually
all
phenomena ha
social
scien is s
migh
con-
side
wo h in es iga ing and unde s anding. (Rokeach,
1973:3).
In
his
case
he
ield
has
been
es ic ed
o
manage-
men
and o ganiza ional pe o mance.
By
de ini ion a
alue
is
an
endu ing belie ha a
speci ic
mode
o conduc o end-s a e
o
exis ence
is
pe sonally o
socially
p e e able
o
an
opposi e o
con e se
mode
o
conduc o
end-
s a e
o
exis ence.
(Rokeach,
1973:5).
A
alue
sys em
is
an
en-
du ing
o ganiza ion
o
belie s
conce ning p e e able
modes
o
conduc
o end-s a es
o
exis ence
along
a con inuwn o
ela i e
impo ance.
(Rokeach,
1973:5).
I
has
been
ound ha human
alues
end o
be
endu ing bu unde ce ain ci cums ances a e
liable
o
change.
The
endu ing quali y
o
alues may a ise ini ially
om
he
absolu e
manne
in
which
hey a e augh . Fo
example
child en
a e
old
ha
i
is
good o
be
hones o no o
ell
lies.
They
a e
no
augh ha hey do no
always
ha e
o
be
comple ely
hones
o ha ce ain end s a es
such
as
a com o able
li e
can
be
bo h
desi able
and undesi able.
Howe e
i
is
an
unde s and-
ing
o
his
ela i e quali y
o
alues
which
is
essen ial
o
managemen ,
and he manne
in
which
hey
can change and
e-in eg a e.
Fo example
in
a
gi en
epa ee
you
may
ha e
wo
choices
in
a
eply
o a
close
iend. The
i s
is
mo e
hones
bu
less
poli e. The second
will
no hu you iend's
eelings
bu
you
will
ha e o
be
less
hones . You
alue
bo h hones y
and
poli eness
bu i
you
a e no o
be
s uck dumb
you
will
be
o ced
o ank you alues
in
o de
o
impo ance.
I
is
his
ela i e
concep
o
alues
which
is
impo an
in
he
wo k
done
by
Rokeach. This aspec
will
be
highligh ed
when
ac ual
da a a e analysed.
A
alue
as a belie
A
alue
is
conside ed o
be
a p esc ip i e o p osc ip i e
belie .
'A
alue
is
a belie upon
which
man ac s
by
p e e ence'.
(Rokeach,
1973:7).
Like
all
belie s,
alues
ha e
h ee
com-
ponen s;
cogni i e,
whe eby
a man
is
said
o
consciously
know
how
o
beha e
o wha end-s a e o s i e
o ;
a ec i e,
in
he
sense
ha man can expe ience emo ion abou a
alue
and
eac
o
people
who
show posi i e o nega i e beha iou owa ds
a
gi en
alue;
and beha iou al
in
ha a
alue
can
be
an
in-
dependen
a iable ha can lead o ac ion
when
igge ed.
A
alue
e e s o a mode
o
conduc
o
end-s a e
o
exis ence
A
human
alue
is
seen
o
be
ei he ins umen al, de ining a
mode
o conduc , o e minal
which
de ines
desi able
end-s a es
o
exis ence.
(Rokeach,
1973
:7).
I
is
impo an o sepa a e
he
wo
alue
ypes
as
he e
is
a unc ional ela ionship
be ween
enninal
and
ins umen al
alues.
This will
be
discussed
unde
he
empi ical
s udy.
Te minal alues: pe sonal
and
social
One
impo an me hod
o
classi ying e minal
alues
is
in o
wo
ca ego ies;
sel -cen ed o socie y-cen ed.
Such
end-s a es
as
sal a ion and peace
o
mind a e
sel -
cen ed
o
in ape sonal whe eas wo ld a peace and
b o he hood a e socie y-cen ed o in e pe sonal.
123
Ins umen al alues: mo al alues and compe ence
alues
Mo al
~ues
a e
na owe
in
con ex
and
e e
mainly
o
modes
o
beha 10u
and do
no
necessa ily
include
alues
ha
con-
ce n
end-s a es.o
exis ence.
Fu he
hese
alues
e e
only
o
hose
ypes
o ins umen al
alues
ha
ha e
an
in e pe sonal
ocus
which
when
iola ed a ouse
eelings
o
guil
o
w ong-
doing.
The
o he ins umen al
alues
called
compe ence o
sel -
ac ualiza ion
alues
ha e
a pe sonal
ocus
and a e no
con-
ce ned
p ima ily
wi h
mo ali y. Failu e
he e
leads
o
shame
abou inadequacy a he han mo al
guil .
Fo
example,
hones and esponsible beha iou
would
lead
o
eelings
o mo al beha iou
whe eas
ac ing
logically,
in-
elligen ly
o
imagina i ely
leads
o a
eeling
o
compe ence.
A
pe son
may
also
expe ience
con lic
be ween
wo
mo al
alues,
wo
compe ence
alues
and
be ween
a mo al and a
compe ence
alue.
Co ela ion be ween e minal and ins umen al alues
Fi s
imp essions
o
he
wo
alue
ypes
may
sugges
a
co -
ela ion
be ween
social
alues
and mo al
alues
and
also
be-
ween
pe sonal
and
compe ence
alues,
based
on
ea lie
discus-
sion
o in ape sonal o in e pe sonal o ien a ion.
In
p ac ice
Rokeach
has
ound
his
no o
be
he
case
and
in
explana ion
has
sugges ed
ha ,
o
example,
a pe son
who
is
mo e
o ien ed owa d pe sonal end-s a es
may
de ensi ely
place
a
highe
p io i y
on
mo al beha iou .
Possible double s anda ds
I
i
can
be
assumed
ha a
alue
is
some hing
desi able,
as
pe cei ed
by
an
indi idual,
hen
o
whom
is
his
seen
as
desi able,
he
indi idual
o
socie y?
Fo
example
a
pe son
may
a e
hones y
igh a
he
op
o
his
alue
p o ile.
In
his
home
and
social
en i onmen
he
may
be
hones y pe soni ied bu a
wo k
his
deg ee
o
hones y
may
be
highly
ques ionable.
This
Jekyll
and
Hyde
app oach
has
ye
o
ind
a o ally
sa is ac o y explana ion bu
he
u h
may
lie
somewhe e
in
g oup
dynamics
whe eby
people's beha iou al e s
depending
on
he
pee
g oup
in
which
hey
ind
hemsel es.
The
con ic ion
is
ha
in
such
a
case
he
alues
do
no
change
bu
he
beha iou
does,
leading
o
such
o he ac o s
as
highe
s ess
whe e
he
indi idual
is
o ced
o
adop
an
a i ude
o eign
o
his
inhe en
alue
sys em.
Numbe
o
e minal and ins umen al alues
Yea s
o
empi ical
wo k
has
lead
Rokeach
(1973)
o he
con-
clusion
ha
he
numbe o
alues
possessed
by
human!>
is
ela i ely
small.
He
es ima es
he
o al numbe
o
e minal
alues
o
an
adul
a
abou a
dozen
and a
hal ,
and ins umen-
al
alues
a
be ween
six y
and
se en y.
Func ions
o
alues
and
alue
sys ems
Values
can
be
conside ed
as
s anda ds ha
guide
ongoing
ac-
i i ies,
and
alue
sys ems
as
bluep in s
used
o
esol e
con-
lic s
and o make
decisions.
Ano he al e na i e
is
o hink
o
alues
as
gi ing
exp ession
o human
needs.
As s anda ds,
alues
can
guide
beha iou
in
a numbe
o
ways:
(a)
hey
di ec
indi iduals
in
suppo ing
ce ain
social
issues;
(b) hey
p edispose
us
o a ou one
poli ical
o
eligious
ideology
o e
ano he ;
124
(c)
hey guide people
in
he
way
hey p ojec
hemsel es
o
o he s;
(d)
o e alua e pe o mance, good o bad,
in
compa ing sel
wi h
o he s;
(e)
hey
a e
used
by
indi iduals o pe suade and in luence
o he s;
( )
inally
hey
each
indi iduals
how
o
a ionaliz.e
any
belie s,
a i udes, and ac ions ha
would
o he wise
be
pe sonally
o
socially
unaccep able
so
ha
he
indi idual may main-
ain
posi i e
eelings
o
mo ali y and compe ence, bo h
essen ial
ing edien s
o
he
main enenace and enhance-
men
o
sel -es eem.
The
mo e
long
ange
unc ions
o
alues
a e o
gi e
exp es-
sion
o
basic
human
needs.
Values
also
ha e
s ong mo i a-
ional con en .
Fo
example,
ins umen al
alues
a e mo i a ing
in
ha
hey
a e
seen
o
be
ins umen al
in
a aining
desi ed
end-goals o
e minal
alues.
Te minal
alues
a e mo i a ing
in
ha hey
ep esen he supe o dina e
goals
beyond immedia e,
biologi-
cally
u gen
goals.
This
leads
o he
sugges ion
ha human
alues
may bea -
anged
hie a chically
om
lowe
o highe o de . This ela es
o Maslow's hie a chy
o
needs.
(Figu e
3).
A gene aliza ion
om
a managemen poin
o
iew
is
ha one
would
expec
good op
managemen
in
an
o ganiza ion
o
be
mo e
conce ned
wi h
sel -es eem
and sel -ac ualiza ion, assuming he lowe
needs
o
be
al eady sa is ied, and one
would
he e o e
expec
alues
which
ela e
closely
o
hese
highe
le el
needs
o ank
acco dingly.
SELF-ESTEEM
LOVE
SECURITY
SAFETY
Flaa e
3 Maslow's hie a chy and human alue sys ems
Empi ical
In es iga ion
HUHAN
VALUE
SYSTEHS
Using
a
sys ems
app oach o o ganiza ional analysis and he
ollowing
simpli ied
o ganiza ional pa adigm
i.e.
O ganiza ional con ex + O ganiza ional
p ocesses
+
Manage ial ac ion = O ganiza ional pe o mance
se e al
hypo heses
we e
de eloped.
Examples
a e:
(a)
The e
is
a
posi i e
co ela ion
be ween
alue
p o iles and
hie a chical posi ion.
(b)
Con lic
occu s
mo e
equen ly
and
is
esol ed
wi h
g ea e
di icul y,
he
g ea e
he
alue
di e ences
among pa ies.
(c)
Leade ship
e ec i eness
is
di ec ly ela ed o he
deg ee
o
alue
consensus
be ween
leade and
ollowe s.
(d)
The e
is
a
ela ionship
be ween
o ganiza ional pe o mance
and he managemen
alue
p o ile, and/ o he wo ke
alue
p o ile.
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1984,
15(2)
In
o de o
es
hese
and o he hypo heses an empi ical
in es i-
ga ion
was
unde aken. A esea ch o ganiza ion
was
used
as
'guinea pig'.
A sample
o
i y eigh people, almos
all
o
whom
ha e
e ia y educa ion,
was
chosen. A o al
o
i y- ou
eplies
was
ecei ed.
The
lis s
o
alues
used
we e
di ided in o
wo
se s
o
eigh een
alues,
e minal and ins umen al,
as
de eloped
by
Rokeach. Responden s
we e
asked o ank o de
each
se
o
alues
om mos impo an o
leas
impo an ,
in
o de
o
impo ance o hem,
as
guiding p inciples
in
hei
li es.
Resul s
o
su ey
Tables
1 and 2
show
he e minal and ins umen al
alue
ank-
ings
o he
i y
ou esponden s. The las column
shows
he
ankings o Ame ican scien is s. (Rokeach,
1979:63).
Ce ain ac o s eme ge om hese ables
which
a e
o
signi i-
can in e es .
Table 1 Te minal alues -a e age and composi e
ank o de N =
54
Ame ican
Value A e age Rank o de scien is s
I. A com o able li e 13,54
16
13
2.
An exci ing li e 9,83
10
12
3. A sense
o
accom-
plishmen 6,62 3 4
4. A wo ld a peace
ll,95
12
5
5.
A wo ld
o
beau y 16,17
18
7
6.
Equali y 13,08
IS
6
7. Family secu i y
7,31
4 9
8. F eedom 7,50 6 2
9. Happiness 7,85 8
11
10.
Inne ha mony 6,42 2 8
11.
Ma u e lo e 7,72 7
15
12.
Na ional Secu i y 12,02
13
16
13.
Pleasu e 14,10
17
17
14.
Sal a ion 8,79 9
18
IS.
Sel - espec 7,42 s 3
16.
Social ecogni ion 12,90
14 10
17.
T ue iendship 9,94
11
14
18.
Wisdom 4,66
Bo h he es g oup and he Ame ican scien is s ag ee ha
wisdom
is
he mos impo an end-s a e.
Howe e a e
wisdom
he Ame icans a ed
eedom,
sel -
espec ,
a
sense
o
accomplishmen ,
a
wo ld
a
peace
and
equali y.
The main hemes he e
seem
o
be
a pe sonal
s i ing
h ough he pe sonal alues o g ow h, unde s anding and
sel - ealiza ion on he one hand and
social
s i ings o a
peace ul, libe a ian and egali a ian wo ld on he o he hand.
The es g oup hough sha es he pe sonal
alues
bu he e
he
simila i y
ends.
The
i s
social
alue
o
be
anked
is
a
wo ld
a
peace
a numbe
wel e.
This means ha he
i s
ele en
alues
a e
all
pe sonal
alues
implying ha he es g oup
has
an ex emely egocen ic
iew
o
li e and a aches a
ela i ely
low
le el
o impo ance o o he people and he
wo ld
a ound.
Fo example, a
wo ld
o
beau y
is
anked eigh een. Ano he
signi ican ac o
is
he ela i e posi ions
o
sal a ion
and
equali y.
Ame ican scien is s anked
sal a ion
eigh een and
equali y
numbe
six.
In
he es g oup he e e se occu ed.
Sal a ion
anked nin h and
equali y
i een h.
Besides
being
mo e
eligious
as
a g oup,
sal a ion
may
ha e
anked highe
as
i
is
a pe sonal alue and
as
has been s a ed,

S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2)
Table 2 Ins umen al alues -a e age and com-
posi e ank o de N =
54
Ame ican
Value A e age Rank o de scien is s
I. Ambi ious 9,77
IO
9
2.
B oadminded 9,65 8 7
3. Capable 6,54 3 2
4. Chee ul 10,79
13
15
5.
Clean 13,00
17 17
6.
Cou ageous 9,78 II II
7.
Fo gi ing 10,15
12 14
8. Help ul 10,98
14
IO
9. Hones 5,23 3
10.
Imagina i e 9,58 7 5
11.
Independen 9,52 6 6
12.
In ellec ual 7,98 4 I
13.
Logical 9,25 5 8
14.
Lo ing 9,75 9
13
15.
Obedien 13,92
18
18
16.
Poli e 11,16
15 16
17.
Responsible 5,69 2 4
18.
Sel -con olled 11,77
16
12
his g oup has a p e e ence o pe sonal alues o e social
alues; howe e he e
is
one incong ui y wi h he alue
equali y.
Equali y
is
a eligious alue
and
has conno a ions
o
he Ch is-
ian e hic
o
lo ing
one's
neighbou . As such one could
ex-
pec his alue
o
be anked high along wi h sal a ion.
This sugges s
one
o
wo hings:
(a) esponden s conside he pe sonal ac
o
sal a ion
o
be
mo e impo an
han
he
ac
o
main aining a Ch is ian
e hic;
(b)
mo e kindly, pe haps, esponden s in e p e ed he wo d
equali y
o
mean some hing else o he han a eligious
alue.
Looking a Table 2,
he
ins umen al alues, a mo e con-
sis en image appea s whe e a close co ela ion also exis s be-
ween he es
g oup
and
he Ame ican scien is s. The mos
impo an alues a e hones ,
esponsible,
capable,
in ellec ual,
imagina i e
and
independen , wi h
logical
and b oadminded
no a behind.
Two
hemes sugges ed by his alue pa e n
a e a demand o compe ence, in e wined wi h a demand o
mo ali y.
A
he o he end
o
he scale obedien anked las
in
bo h cases. A possible cause o conce n
o
managemen
is
he eigh een h anking posi ion gi en
o
a
wo ld
o
beau( .
I could be a gued ha
he
p ima y objec i e
o
a Resea ch
O ganiz.a ion
is
o
p o ide
ou pu
which
will
ha e a posi i e
e ec
on
he wo ld in which i inds i sel , hope ully con-
ibu ing
in
some way
o
i s beau y.
Hypo hesis
es ing
The ollowing a e selec ed esul s om he hypo heses es ed.
Hypo hesis
-Value o ien a ions a y sys ema ically wi h
hie a chical posi ion.
Th ee
le els
we e used, namely, di ec o a e, di ision head and
esea ch o ice .
I
was ound ha ins ead
o
a sys ema ic a ia-
ion
he e was conside able alue cong uence be ween he di ec-
o a e and he esea ch o ice s which
in
u n was no sha ed
by
he di ision heads. This las
g oup's
(middle managemen )
alue p o ile di e ed in
ha
alues such as
accomplishmen ,
an
exci ing
li e
and
wo ld
a
peace,
anked conside ably lowe
han he Di ec o a e
and
Resea ch O ice p o iles and
pe -
125
sonal alues such as amily
secu i y,
happiness,
ma u e lo e
and
sal a ion
anked highe .
. This could poin
o
a s uc u al p oblem wi hin he o ganiza-
ion and could be indica i e
o
a posi ion which lacks s imula-
ion, challenge and adequa e oppo uni ies o sel -ac uali-
z.a ion, esul ing
in
he indi idual eo ganizing his alue sys em
whe eby his pe sonal li e begins
o
ecei e g ea e emphasis
han he o ganiz.a ion esul ing
in
a shi
o
in e es om he
wo k place o he p i a e wo ld ou side he o ganiz.a ion.
Hypo hesis
-Leade ship e ec i eness
is
di ec ly ela ed
o
he deg ee
o
alue consensus.
To
es his, wo g oups A and B we e selec ed. Un o una e-
ly
in
a esea ch o ganiz.a ion he measu emen
o
he e ec-
i eness
o
ou pu ends o be subjec i e.
Be
his as
i
may g oup
A
was
chosen because
o
i s
s ong leade ship and cohesi eness.
Also his g oup ends o be a mo e conce ned abou esea ch
implemen a ion and in e ac s wi h he ou side en i onmen a
mo e han g oup
B.
The me hod used o e alua ion was as ollows:
Using he leade 's alue p o ile as a base he a ia ions
o
each
membe
o
his g oup was measu ed.
Fo
example:
Value
A
com o able
li e
Leade
12
Ranking
G oup membe s
I 2 3 4
12
II II
17
Va ia ion
( -
I)
+ ( -
I)
and ( +
5)
=
-2+5
The o als
o
bo h se s
o
alues o bo h leade s we e
calcula ed wi h he ollowing esul s:
Tenninal
alues
Leade
G oup
A
Leade
G oup
B
To al
1-126
+
1261
1-156
+
1681
Ins umen al
alues
Leade
G oup
A
Leade
G oup
B
To al
1-206+2101
-154
+
102
[
Eme ging om his analysis
is
he ac ha on e minal alues
leade A sco es be e (mo e consis en ,
less
a ia ion) han
leade B whe eas he e e se applies on he ins umen al alues.
To
esol e his dicho omy
i
mus be emembe ed ha e -
minal alues a e end-s a es
o
goals. Ins umen al alues a e
hose ha people use o achie e hese end-s a es.
I
is
he e o e
sugges ed ha goal consensus
in
a wo k en i onmen
is
mo e
impo an han means consensus, i.e., he e
is
mo e han one
way o
kill
a ca .
To
con inue he logic
i
is
also in ui i ely appealing and con-
sis en wi h managemen heo y ha goal consensus be ween
employees, manage s and he o ganiz.a ion
is
an impo an in-
g edien
in
o ganiz.a ional e iciency and e ec i eness.
Ano he poin
is
ha leade
A's
alue p o ile
is
a he cen-
e
o
he g oup's alues. (The e
is
an equal weigh ing
o
alues
anked abo e and below his alues). Leade B
on
he o he
126
hand
ends o
be
o one
side
o
cen e o bo h
alue
se s.
On
i s
own
his
may
be
insu icien
e idence
o
poin
!owa ds
be e
leade ship.
Howe e
i
one
examines
he
ma e m
e ms
o
ex emes
i
would
seem
o be p e e able
o
a g oup o
ha e
a leade
whose
alue
p o ile ends owa ds he cen e
o
he
g oup a he han o one o o he
o
he
ex emes.
Fo example:
Al e na i e A
Value
Ambi ious
Al e na i e B
Value
Ambi ious
G oup
membe s
A 8
Leade
C D
1 5
10
5
18
G oup
membe s
A 8 C D Leade
1 5
10
15
18
I
is
sugges ed
ha Al e na i e A
is
p e e able o B
in
ha he
leade
is
mo e
likely
o
be
able o
ela e
o he o he g oup
membe s
when
he
is
posi ioned
be ween
he
wo
ex emes.
Al e na i e B could
well
lead
o con lic
be ween
he leade
and
g oup membe s A and
B.
Summa y o empi ical in es iga ion
Using
he
wo
se s
o
alues
de eloped
by
Rokeach he
sam-
ple
alue
su ey
has highligh ed he
ollowing:
(a)
Value
consensus
exis s
be ween
he Di ec o a e and
Resea ch
S a . Howe e some a ia ions
we e
ound a
Di ision
Head
le el
whe e
he e
was
an appa en
lack
o
mo i a ion and
goal
consensus
wi h
he Di ec o a e.
The explana ion o
his
was
ound o
be
one
o
o ganiza-
ional s uc u e
which
ended o p omo e demo i a ion a
his
le el
o
managemen .
(b) A
all
le els
(less
so
wi h
he Di ec o a e) he e
was
ound
o
be
a
high
deg ee
o
in e naliz.a ion,
con i med
by
he
consis en ly
high
ankings
o
pe sonal
alues
and he
ela i e
low
ankings
gi en
o
social
alues.
This mani es ed i sel
in
an 'i o y owe ' app oach
whe e
pe sonal
wo k
sa is ac ion
had
become
c i ical
and almos
o ally di o ced om he economic eali y
o
he ou side
wo ld.
This
was
u he ein o ced
by
he
low
p io i y
gi en
o
implemen a ion
o
esea ch
wo k.
This sepa a ion
o
wha
is
conside ed an in eg a ed in e dependen unc ion
is
ein-
o ced
by
he
exis ence
o
a bounda y spanning
di ision
which
i
was
el
was
no he co ec agen o ce ain
im-
po an aspec s
o
esea ch
implemen a ion.
A
Resea ch
O ice and
Di ision
Head
le el
implemen a-
ion appea ed o
be
an i ele an concep . A Di ec o a e
le el
he e
was
a g ea e awa eness
o
i s
impo ance bu
he e
we e
signs
ha his may
be
no
mo e han
lip
se ice
o wha
is
ecogniz.ed
in ui i ely
as
a sound managemen
p inciple.
A
Resea ch
O ice
le el
he 'i o y owe ' synd ome
was
u he con i med
as
a eali y h ough
se e al
indi idual
es
cases
whe e
esea che s
we e
qui e
unawa e
o
de elop-
men s ou side he Ins i u e
which
could
ha e
a di ec
in-
luence
on hei
own
esea ch
wo k.
(c)
Based
on analysis
o
g oup and indi idual
alue
p o iles
i
was
ound ha membe s
o
g oups
who
had a g ea e
deg ee
o
alue
co ela ion
be ween
hemsel es
and hei
leade appea ed o
be
mo e mo i a ed, en husias ic and
e ec i e.
The e
seemed
o
be
close
co ela ion be ween
g oup
alue
consensus and leade ship
e ec i eness.
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1984,
15(2)
(
d)
No me hod
was
de ised o measu e he abili y o
he
o ganiza ion o espond o en i onmen al o
in e nal
change.
Howe e , based on he o ganiza ional alue p o ile
whe e
he ou side wo ld and he en i onmen anked
e y
low
i could
be
a gued ha he o ganiz.a ion
is
likely
o
be
ex-
emely un esponsi e o en i onmen al change, i
o
no
o he eason han ha
i
is
unlikely o
be
awa e o
any
change
in
he
i s
place.
(e)
Na u ally he a i ude ou lined abo e would no
help
a
company
in
he p i a e sec o o
be
any hing o he
han
an ea ly casuali y. This has highligh ed he
need
o a
e i-
sion
o
he o ganiza ional s uc u e and he ewa d sys em.
Based
on he Di ec o a e
alue
p o ile
such
changes
would
be
suppo ed
by
op managemen .
A
me hod
o
changing
alue
sys ems
-
Implica ions
o
managemen
Ha ing analysed indi idual and o ganiza ional p o iles
he
ques ion
now
a ises
as
o
how
managemen
can
u ilize
he
p o-
cess
o imp o e o ganiza ional e ec i eness. The e a e
wo
ela ed aspec s o conside . The i s
is
cogni i e change, i.e.,
indi iduals change he ank o de
o
hei alue p o ile;
he
second and mo e impo an
is
beha iou al change induced
by
any cogni i e change.
Me hod
The
ollowing
a e s eps o conside :
(a)
Expose he indi idual o
his
own alue p o ile and
discuss
he implica ions
o
any inconsis encies.
An
analogy
can
be
d awn om a gol p o essional a a
eaching
clinic.
A ce ain pupil may ha e a ben le
elbow
a he op
o
his
backswing which
is
helping o p omo e
a heal hy spec um
o
andom hooks and
slices.
No
amoun
o
cajoling
om he gol p o essional will
elimina e
his aul . Howe e when
he
uses
a ideo came a o
ilm
his
pupil
in
ac ion and la e eplays he ilm o he
pupil
i
is
easy o him o
see
and analyse
his
own aul s
in
de ail,
pa icula ly i his
is
ein o ced
by
a second ilm
showing
say
Johny
Mille
in
ac ion.
(b) The essen ial
ace s
o
he abo e scena io a e:
(i)
e ealing
he implica ions
o
a alue p o ile o
an
indi idual;
(i ) compa ing he indi idual p o ile o ano he
model
p o ile;
(iii) es ablishing a s a e
o
sel -dissa is ac ion
in
he
in-
di idual, i.e., he mus
now
wan o change o
each
a
new
s a e
o
equilib ium. Wi hou inducing
dissa is-
ac ion
in
he indi idual, change
is
unlikely.
Rokeach
has
ound ha induced alue changes do indeed
lead
o beha iou al changes (Rokeach,
1973:210)
So
a
in
his in es iga ion i has been implied ha
all
wo k
ela ed o
alue
change
is
conduc ed
be ween
expe imen e
and
esponden s. Rokeach
howe e
has
success ully
aken
his
ap-
p oach one s ep u he (Rokeach,
1973:210).
Using compu e
eedback
he
has
achie ed simila esul s
as
desc ibed
abo e.
In
his
case
esponden s a e placed
in
on
o
a e minal,
asked
o comple e and ank hei wo alue se s and a e hen
pe -
mi ed o
ecall
in o ma ion conce ning o he g oup
alue
p o-
iles
o compa e
wi h
hei own. Re es s showed alue
changes
in
acco d wi h ea lie discussion, i.e., people end o
mo e
owa ds mo e desi able g oup alue
sys ems
and away om
he
less
desi able. The exci ing implica ion he e
is
ha
such
S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2)
me hods could be de eloped and e ined o educa ional
pu poses.
Business
schools, o example, could in oduce such me hods
a hei ins i u ions o bo h lec u e s and s uden s o se e wo
pu poses:
(a) o assis indi iduals wi h sel -e alua ion;
(b) o assis wi h he posi i e de elopmen
o
alue p o iles
o u u e business leade s.
Conclusions
This s udy has highligh ed he ollowing:
(a) The impo ance
o
e hics in he business wo ld and i s
po en ial ele ance
a
business schools.
(b) Indi iduals, g oups
and
e en o ganiza ions can be iden-
i ied by hei alue p o iles; i.e., he way
in
which hei
alues a e anked in o de
o
impo ance.
(c)
Th ough empi ical in es iga ion ce ain hypo heses we e
es ed. Rela ionships we e ound be ween alues and
o ganiza ional
con ex ,
o ganiza ional
p ocesses,
manage ial ac ion,
and
o ganiza ional pe o mance.
These ela ionships we e shown
o
be impo an in
e alua ing employee, managemen and o ganiza ional
e ec i eness.
(d) Ways
o
in luencing alue p o iles we e conside ed using
bo h ace- o- ace
and
compu e me hods. Bo h me hods
we e ound
o
be use ul managemen ools.
Recommenda ions
(a) Business schools place g ea e emphasis
on
e hics and he
I_
- -
----
- - -
----
- - -
----
- - -
----
- -
127
ele ance
o
alue sys ems.
I
is
el
ha good managemen
is
a blend
o
echnical
com-
pe ence and an unde s anding
o
human beha iou .
To
igno e alue sys ems
is
o igno e he e y co ne s one
o
all human beha iou .
(b) As a ma e
o
p io i y, esea ch
in
his a ea should be con-
inued. Fo some eason li le
o
no wo k has
been
done
wo ldwide on he subjec
o
ela ing o ganiza ional
e
ec-
i eness o human alue sys ems.
In Sou h A ica,
wi h
i s
black/whi e social p oblems he e
is
pe haps e en g ea e u gency in s udying wo ke alues
han in, say, Eu ope.
(c)
Top managemen
in
he p i a e and public sec o , a he
app op ia e ime, should be exposed o he po en ial
o
he managemen ools ou lined
in
his s udy and encou ag-
ed o apply hem
in
hei own en i onmen s.
Acknowledgemen
The au ho acknowledges wi h g a i ude he posi i e co-
ope a ion
o
he Di ec o a e
o
he Na ional Building Resea ch
Ins i u e o allowing his s udy o be unde aken wi hin he
o ganiza ion.
Re e ences
B ennan, J.G.,
1973.
E hics and mo als,
New
Yo k: Ha pe and
Row.
Ewing, A.C.,
1975.
E hics, Su olk: The English Uni e si ies P ess,
L d.
Rokeach,
M.
1973.
The na u e
o
human alues,
New
Yo k: The F ee
P ess.
Rokeach,
M.
1979.
Unde s anding human alues,
New
Yo k: The
F ee P ess.