Understanding human values: The key to organizational effectiveness

Raddall, J. A icle Unde s anding human alues: The key o o ganiza ional e ec i eness Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Raddall, J. (1984) : Unde s anding human alues: The key o o ganiza ional e ec i eness, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 121-127, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 15i2.1115 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217860 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Unde s anding human alues -The key o :> ganiza ional e ec i eness J. Raddall a ional Building Resea ch Ins i u e, P e o ia he dicho omy aced by managemen o inding ways o in e - 'ace heo y and echnology on he one hand wi h he idiosyn- ; acies o human beha iou on he o he can be likened o he Nell known concep o Ca esian dualism - he spli o he ,uman being in o mind and body. In any o ganiza ion managemen is aced by he same p o- Jlem. Implemen a ion o sound a ional ideas is o en ob- usca ed by he appa en ly i a ional human elemen . This a icle a emp s o ind his 'missing link' in he chain be ween he mind and body o he o ganiza ion. h ough an analysis o human alues and hei in luence on pe sonal, in- e pe sonal and o ganiza ional beha iou . Se e al hypo heses ela ing alues o o ganiza ional beha iou a e conside ed and a p elimina y empi ical s udy unde aken o es hese hypo heses is discussed. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984. 15: 121 -127 Die weedeling wa 'n bes uu e aa by die in eg asie an eo ie en egnologie ene syds, me eienaa dighede an menslike ged ag ande syds. is e gelykbaa me die bekende konsep an Ca esiaanse dualisme -die e deling an die menslike wese in gees en liggaam. In enige o ganisasie kom die bes uu oo diesel de p o- bleem e s aan. Die oepassing an gesonde asionele idees wo d dikwels e wa deu die klaa blyklik i asionele menslike elemen . Daa wo d in die a ikel gepoog om hie die · e mis e skakel' in die ke ing ussen die gees en die liggaam an die o gani- sasie e ind deu 'n on leding an menslike waa des. en die in loed daa an op pe soonlike. in e pe soonlike en o ganisa o- iese ged ag. Ve skeie hipo eses waa deu waa des in e band geb ing wo d me o ganisa o iese ged ag wo d oo weeg, en 'n oo lopige empi iese s udie wa onde neem is om hie die hipo eses e oe s. wo d besp eek. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984. 15: 121 -127 J. Raddall Na ional Building Resea ch Ins i u e, P .0. Box 395, P e o ia 0001, Republic o Sou h A ica Accep ed Ma ch 1984 In oduc ion 'Bu a e all, wha is goodness? Answe me ha , Alex- ey. Goodness is one hing wi h me and ano he wi h a Chinaman, so i s a ela i e hing. O isn' i ? Is i no ela i e? A eache ous ques ion! You won' laugh i I ell you i 's kep me awake wo nigh s. I only wonde now how people can li e and hink no hing o i . Vani y!' Fyodo Dos oe sky, The B o he s ka amazo . Dos oye sky has ouched on some hing which could be he key o unde s anding and imp o ing managemen and o gani- za ional e ec i enes in he eigh ies. Whene e someone is aced wi h a decision he is also aced wi h al e na i es, some o which may be igh ; o he s may be w ong. To a la ge ex en his deci- sion will be based on his belie s, a i udes and alues. The iew is held in his a icle ha alues cons i u e a co e concep which dic a es a i udes and beha iou pa e ns in- he en in all o he social sciences. (Figu e l ). I is conside ed o be he majo dependen a iable in he s udy o socie y, cul u e and pe sonali y and he majo independen a iable in he s udy o social a i udes and beha iou . The impo ance o managemen is an unde s anding o how he decision- making p ocess can be a ec ed by indi idual alue sys ems and he e ec his can ha e on he o ganiza ion. D1A6RA1111A TICALL Y · VALUES Figu e I In luence o alues on decision-making Al TERNATIVE OWSIONS The implica ion he e is ha companies which con inue o slo indi iduals in o posi ions based pu ely on p e ious ex- pe ience and skills do so a hei pe il i hey igno e he ele ance o di e ing alues. The ques ion o wha is ' igh ' o 'w ong', o 'good' o 'bad' has been a cen al ea u e o philosophical deba e since he dawn o human consciousness. Howe e un il ecen imes i could be a gued ha he -__.II 122 ele ance o he issue was academic. E en a hund ed yea s ago people a elled compa a i ely li le and communica ion was es.sen ially by wo d o mou h. This mean ha indi iduals we e igh ly kni in o small communi ies whe e accep able alues we e easily iden i ied. An Englishman eally did no need o conce n himsel abou he ac ha a Chinaman may no ha e sha ed his alue sys em. Technological ad ances o he wen ie h cen u y ha e en- su ed he exponen ial g ow h o communica ion and mobili y esul ing in a ela i ely u bulen and dynamic ma ke place whe e o ganiza ional and indi idual alue sys ems mee on an e e expanding ma ix. I is only h ough an unde s anding o hese di e ing alue sys ems o 'p o iles' ha managemen can hope o become mo e e ec i e. Objec i es The p inciple objec i e is o de elop an unde s anding o he in e ac ion o o ganiza ional pe onnance and he alues held by he indi iduals wi hin he o ganiza ion. E hics and alues E hics No wo k on business e hics and human alues would be com- ple e wi hou a b ie discussion on e hics in gene al o de e - mine he ele an in e dependencies. E hics is a majo b anch o philosophy and conce ns i sel wi h human decisions ela ed o 'good' o 'bad', o ' igh ' and 'w ong'. The G eeks p o ided a miscellany o ques ions (B en- nan, 1973:9) wo housand i e hund ed yea s ago which a e s ill ele an oday: (a) Is he e a highes good, o which all o he goods a e subo dina e? (b) Wha makes a good li e? (c) Wha makes a man good o bad? (d) Wha makes an ac ion jus o unjus ? (e) Wha so o ules o guidelines a e he e o igh ac ion? (0 Can ha which makes a good man good be augh ? (g) Fo wha ends o pu poses should we aim? Manage s a e cons an ly o ced o make e hical judgemen s in answe o ques ions such as he abo e whe e hei beha iou is no de e mined by law. In his case whe e hei beha iou is po en ially ha m ul bu s ill 'legal' hei conduc is conside ed 'une hical'. Figu e 2 demons a es his oge he wi h an a ea o o e lap. LEGAL LEGAL I I <N.Y I l PIIRAL IBUs iS ETIICSI ----------------- LEGAL MORAL AND ONLY MORAL I ---- ---------------~ la• e 2 In e ela ionship be ween business e hics and he law The dis inc ion, howe e , o ha which is 'e hical' and ha which is ·~ne hical' is seldom simple o ini e and depends on many anables, one o he mos impo an being human alues. Mos manage s make mo al decisions based on common- sense e hics .. Howe e one canno s op he e as wo manage s om w~ di e en cul u es may ha e diame ically opposed alues wi h ega d o a gi en si ua ion esul ing in a o ally S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15(2) di e en wo k e hic. Two main e hical concep s a e exp essed by he wo ds 'good' and 'ough ', (o 'du y') (Ewing, 1975). 'Good' can be an am- biguous e m. Fo example should you ha e gang ene in one leg i would be 'good' o ha e i ampu a ed in o de ha you may su i e. Howe e ha ing an ope a ion and losing a limb canno be desc ibed as 'good' as an end in i sel . The e o e i is impo an o dis inguish be ween 'good' as an end and 'good' as a means. People, and hence manage s, can be said o all in o h ee basic ca ego ies. The i s e med 'egois ic hedonis s' is ha g oup which s i es o i s own pleasu e o happiness as an end goal. Tha which achie es his end is 'good' o he indi idual, bu no necessa ily o he socie y. Subsequen o 'egois ic hedonism' is 'uni e salis ic Hedonism' o 'u ili a ianism'. He e he logic is as ollows: I happiness is he only hing, by gene al consensus, ha is good in i sel , hen i seems i a ional o hold ha i makes any di e ence o i s goodness who enjoys he happiness. I seems easonable o hold ha i is ou du y o p oduce as much good as possible and ha i is w ong o neglec any oppo - uni ies o do so. He e hen he e hic is one o s i ing o he gene al happiness a he han he indi idual happiness. The hi d ca ego y is a he opposi e end o he e hics scale and conce ns he heo y o he g ea Ge man philosophe Kan (1724 - 1803). His e hics was o a la ge ex en mo i a ed by a eac ion agains hedonism and his heo y ook he onn ha he p ima y aspec o conside is no he happiness o unhap- piness p oduced by an ac ion, o indeed any o i s conse- quences, bu he na u e o he ac ion i sel . Cen al o his e hics is he concep o 'good will'. By his he means no good will in he sense o kindly eeling, bu doing one's du y, o as he pu i , 'ou o espec o he mo al law'. (Ewing, 1975:51). Kan always s o e o achie e ha which was uni e sally igh h ough man's doing his du y o wha he 'ough ' o do. Fu - he mo e, o Kan , ha which was uni e sally igh had o anscend poli ical and eligious ideologies. To Kan he end ne e jus i ied he means. I i is w ong o lie hen i is always w ong o lie. The abo e sec ion on e hics se es, no as a p ime in philosophy, bu a he o highligh he e y co ne s one o human beha iou in gene al, and managemen and business beha iou in pa icula . Conside ing he ele ance o e hics in he business wo ld and i s ele ance o he e y su i al o he ee en e p ise sys em in he long e m is i no inc edible ha ou business schools in Sou h A ica i ually igno e he sub- jec ? One can only deduce om his omission ha business academia pe cei e he ole o managemen o be one o Da - winian su i al in one glo ious, uni e sal o gy o 'egois ic hedonism'! Values To achie e a g ea e unde s anding o mankind in his e hical wo ld i is necessa y o unde s and his alues and he way in which hey can in luence his beha iou . The wo k o Rokeach on human alues has been used ex ensi ely in his a icle wi h pa icula ega d o he es ing p ocedu e adop ed in he em- pi ical wo k. Fi e assump ions abou he na u e o human alu~ ha e been used: (a) he o al numbe o alues ha a pe son possesses is ela i ely small; s. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2) (b) all men e e ywhe e possess he same alues o di e en deg ees; (c) alues a e o ganized in o alue sys ems; (d) he an eceden s o human alues can be aced o cul u e, socie y and i s ins i u ions, and pe sonali y; (e) he consequences o human alues will be mani es ed in i ually all phenomena ha social scien is s migh con- side wo h in es iga ing and unde s anding. (Rokeach, 1973:3). In his case he ield has been es ic ed o manage- men and o ganiza ional pe o mance. By de ini ion a alue is an endu ing belie ha a speci ic mode o conduc o end-s a e o exis ence is pe sonally o socially p e e able o an opposi e o con e se mode o conduc o end- s a e o exis ence. (Rokeach, 1973:5). A alue sys em is an en- du ing o ganiza ion o belie s conce ning p e e able modes o conduc o end-s a es o exis ence along a con inuwn o ela i e impo ance. (Rokeach, 1973:5). I has been ound ha human alues end o be endu ing bu unde ce ain ci cums ances a e liable o change. The endu ing quali y o alues may a ise ini ially om he absolu e manne in which hey a e augh . Fo example child en a e old ha i is good o be hones o no o ell lies. They a e no augh ha hey do no always ha e o be comple ely hones o ha ce ain end s a es such as a com o able li e can be bo h desi able and undesi able. Howe e i is an unde s and- ing o his ela i e quali y o alues which is essen ial o managemen , and he manne in which hey can change and e-in eg a e. Fo example in a gi en epa ee you may ha e wo choices in a eply o a close iend. The i s is mo e hones bu less poli e. The second will no hu you iend's eelings bu you will ha e o be less hones . You alue bo h hones y and poli eness bu i you a e no o be s uck dumb you will be o ced o ank you alues in o de o impo ance. I is his ela i e concep o alues which is impo an in he wo k done by Rokeach. This aspec will be highligh ed when ac ual da a a e analysed. A alue as a belie A alue is conside ed o be a p esc ip i e o p osc ip i e belie . 'A alue is a belie upon which man ac s by p e e ence'. (Rokeach, 1973:7). Like all belie s, alues ha e h ee com- ponen s; cogni i e, whe eby a man is said o consciously know how o beha e o wha end-s a e o s i e o ; a ec i e, in he sense ha man can expe ience emo ion abou a alue and eac o people who show posi i e o nega i e beha iou owa ds a gi en alue; and beha iou al in ha a alue can be an in- dependen a iable ha can lead o ac ion when igge ed. A alue e e s o a mode o conduc o end-s a e o exis ence A human alue is seen o be ei he ins umen al, de ining a mode o conduc , o e minal which de ines desi able end-s a es o exis ence. (Rokeach, 1973 :7). I is impo an o sepa a e he wo alue ypes as he e is a unc ional ela ionship be ween enninal and ins umen al alues. This will be discussed unde he empi ical s udy. Te minal alues: pe sonal and social One impo an me hod o classi ying e minal alues is in o wo ca ego ies; sel -cen ed o socie y-cen ed. Such end-s a es as sal a ion and peace o mind a e sel - cen ed o in ape sonal whe eas wo ld a peace and b o he hood a e socie y-cen ed o in e pe sonal. 123 Ins umen al alues: mo al alues and compe ence alues Mo al ~ues a e na owe in con ex and e e mainly o modes o beha 10u and do no necessa ily include alues ha con- ce n end-s a es.o exis ence. Fu he hese alues e e only o hose ypes o ins umen al alues ha ha e an in e pe sonal ocus which when iola ed a ouse eelings o guil o w ong- doing. The o he ins umen al alues called compe ence o sel - ac ualiza ion alues ha e a pe sonal ocus and a e no con- ce ned p ima ily wi h mo ali y. Failu e he e leads o shame abou inadequacy a he han mo al guil . Fo example, hones and esponsible beha iou would lead o eelings o mo al beha iou whe eas ac ing logically, in- elligen ly o imagina i ely leads o a eeling o compe ence. A pe son may also expe ience con lic be ween wo mo al alues, wo compe ence alues and be ween a mo al and a compe ence alue. Co ela ion be ween e minal and ins umen al alues Fi s imp essions o he wo alue ypes may sugges a co - ela ion be ween social alues and mo al alues and also be- ween pe sonal and compe ence alues, based on ea lie discus- sion o in ape sonal o in e pe sonal o ien a ion. In p ac ice Rokeach has ound his no o be he case and in explana ion has sugges ed ha , o example, a pe son who is mo e o ien ed owa d pe sonal end-s a es may de ensi ely place a highe p io i y on mo al beha iou . Possible double s anda ds I i can be assumed ha a alue is some hing desi able, as pe cei ed by an indi idual, hen o whom is his seen as desi able, he indi idual o socie y? Fo example a pe son may a e hones y igh a he op o his alue p o ile. In his home and social en i onmen he may be hones y pe soni ied bu a wo k his deg ee o hones y may be highly ques ionable. This Jekyll and Hyde app oach has ye o ind a o ally sa is ac o y explana ion bu he u h may lie somewhe e in g oup dynamics whe eby people's beha iou al e s depending on he pee g oup in which hey ind hemsel es. The con ic ion is ha in such a case he alues do no change bu he beha iou does, leading o such o he ac o s as highe s ess whe e he indi idual is o ced o adop an a i ude o eign o his inhe en alue sys em. Numbe o e minal and ins umen al alues Yea s o empi ical wo k has lead Rokeach (1973) o he con- clusion ha he numbe o alues possessed by human!> is ela i ely small. He es ima es he o al numbe o e minal alues o an adul a abou a dozen and a hal , and ins umen- al alues a be ween six y and se en y. Func ions o alues and alue sys ems Values can be conside ed as s anda ds ha guide ongoing ac- i i ies, and alue sys ems as bluep in s used o esol e con- lic s and o make decisions. Ano he al e na i e is o hink o alues as gi ing exp ession o human needs. As s anda ds, alues can guide beha iou in a numbe o ways: (a) hey di ec indi iduals in suppo ing ce ain social issues; (b) hey p edispose us o a ou one poli ical o eligious ideology o e ano he ; 124 (c) hey guide people in he way hey p ojec hemsel es o o he s; (d) o e alua e pe o mance, good o bad, in compa ing sel wi h o he s; (e) hey a e used by indi iduals o pe suade and in luence o he s; ( ) inally hey each indi iduals how o a ionaliz.e any belie s, a i udes, and ac ions ha would o he wise be pe sonally o socially unaccep able so ha he indi idual may main- ain posi i e eelings o mo ali y and compe ence, bo h essen ial ing edien s o he main enenace and enhance- men o sel -es eem. The mo e long ange unc ions o alues a e o gi e exp es- sion o basic human needs. Values also ha e s ong mo i a- ional con en . Fo example, ins umen al alues a e mo i a ing in ha hey a e seen o be ins umen al in a aining desi ed end-goals o e minal alues. Te minal alues a e mo i a ing in ha hey ep esen he supe o dina e goals beyond immedia e, biologi- cally u gen goals. This leads o he sugges ion ha human alues may bea - anged hie a chically om lowe o highe o de . This ela es o Maslow's hie a chy o needs. (Figu e 3). A gene aliza ion om a managemen poin o iew is ha one would expec good op managemen in an o ganiza ion o be mo e conce ned wi h sel -es eem and sel -ac ualiza ion, assuming he lowe needs o be al eady sa is ied, and one would he e o e expec alues which ela e closely o hese highe le el needs o ank acco dingly. SELF-ESTEEM LOVE SECURITY SAFETY Flaa e 3 Maslow's hie a chy and human alue sys ems Empi ical In es iga ion HUHAN VALUE SYSTEHS Using a sys ems app oach o o ganiza ional analysis and he ollowing simpli ied o ganiza ional pa adigm i.e. O ganiza ional con ex + O ganiza ional p ocesses + Manage ial ac ion = O ganiza ional pe o mance se e al hypo heses we e de eloped. Examples a e: (a) The e is a posi i e co ela ion be ween alue p o iles and hie a chical posi ion. (b) Con lic occu s mo e equen ly and is esol ed wi h g ea e di icul y, he g ea e he alue di e ences among pa ies. (c) Leade ship e ec i eness is di ec ly ela ed o he deg ee o alue consensus be ween leade and ollowe s. (d) The e is a ela ionship be ween o ganiza ional pe o mance and he managemen alue p o ile, and/ o he wo ke alue p o ile. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15(2) In o de o es hese and o he hypo heses an empi ical in es i- ga ion was unde aken. A esea ch o ganiza ion was used as 'guinea pig'. A sample o i y eigh people, almos all o whom ha e e ia y educa ion, was chosen. A o al o i y- ou eplies was ecei ed. The lis s o alues used we e di ided in o wo se s o eigh een alues, e minal and ins umen al, as de eloped by Rokeach. Responden s we e asked o ank o de each se o alues om mos impo an o leas impo an , in o de o impo ance o hem, as guiding p inciples in hei li es. Resul s o su ey Tables 1 and 2 show he e minal and ins umen al alue ank- ings o he i y ou esponden s. The las column shows he ankings o Ame ican scien is s. (Rokeach, 1979:63). Ce ain ac o s eme ge om hese ables which a e o signi i- can in e es . Table 1 Te minal alues -a e age and composi e ank o de N = 54 Ame ican Value A e age Rank o de scien is s I. A com o able li e 13,54 16 13 2. An exci ing li e 9,83 10 12 3. A sense o accom- plishmen 6,62 3 4 4. A wo ld a peace ll,95 12 5 5. A wo ld o beau y 16,17 18 7 6. Equali y 13,08 IS 6 7. Family secu i y 7,31 4 9 8. F eedom 7,50 6 2 9. Happiness 7,85 8 11 10. Inne ha mony 6,42 2 8 11. Ma u e lo e 7,72 7 15 12. Na ional Secu i y 12,02 13 16 13. Pleasu e 14,10 17 17 14. Sal a ion 8,79 9 18 IS. Sel - espec 7,42 s 3 16. Social ecogni ion 12,90 14 10 17. T ue iendship 9,94 11 14 18. Wisdom 4,66 Bo h he es g oup and he Ame ican scien is s ag ee ha wisdom is he mos impo an end-s a e. Howe e a e wisdom he Ame icans a ed eedom, sel - espec , a sense o accomplishmen , a wo ld a peace and equali y. The main hemes he e seem o be a pe sonal s i ing h ough he pe sonal alues o g ow h, unde s anding and sel - ealiza ion on he one hand and social s i ings o a peace ul, libe a ian and egali a ian wo ld on he o he hand. The es g oup hough sha es he pe sonal alues bu he e he simila i y ends. The i s social alue o be anked is a wo ld a peace a numbe wel e. This means ha he i s ele en alues a e all pe sonal alues implying ha he es g oup has an ex emely egocen ic iew o li e and a aches a ela i ely low le el o impo ance o o he people and he wo ld a ound. Fo example, a wo ld o beau y is anked eigh een. Ano he signi ican ac o is he ela i e posi ions o sal a ion and equali y. Ame ican scien is s anked sal a ion eigh een and equali y numbe six. In he es g oup he e e se occu ed. Sal a ion anked nin h and equali y i een h. Besides being mo e eligious as a g oup, sal a ion may ha e anked highe as i is a pe sonal alue and as has been s a ed, S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2) Table 2 Ins umen al alues -a e age and com- posi e ank o de N = 54 Ame ican Value A e age Rank o de scien is s I. Ambi ious 9,77 IO 9 2. B oadminded 9,65 8 7 3. Capable 6,54 3 2 4. Chee ul 10,79 13 15 5. Clean 13,00 17 17 6. Cou ageous 9,78 II II 7. Fo gi ing 10,15 12 14 8. Help ul 10,98 14 IO 9. Hones 5,23 3 10. Imagina i e 9,58 7 5 11. Independen 9,52 6 6 12. In ellec ual 7,98 4 I 13. Logical 9,25 5 8 14. Lo ing 9,75 9 13 15. Obedien 13,92 18 18 16. Poli e 11,16 15 16 17. Responsible 5,69 2 4 18. Sel -con olled 11,77 16 12 his g oup has a p e e ence o pe sonal alues o e social alues; howe e he e is one incong ui y wi h he alue equali y. Equali y is a eligious alue and has conno a ions o he Ch is- ian e hic o lo ing one's neighbou . As such one could ex- pec his alue o be anked high along wi h sal a ion. This sugges s one o wo hings: (a) esponden s conside he pe sonal ac o sal a ion o be mo e impo an han he ac o main aining a Ch is ian e hic; (b) mo e kindly, pe haps, esponden s in e p e ed he wo d equali y o mean some hing else o he han a eligious alue. Looking a Table 2, he ins umen al alues, a mo e con- sis en image appea s whe e a close co ela ion also exis s be- ween he es g oup and he Ame ican scien is s. The mos impo an alues a e hones , esponsible, capable, in ellec ual, imagina i e and independen , wi h logical and b oadminded no a behind. Two hemes sugges ed by his alue pa e n a e a demand o compe ence, in e wined wi h a demand o mo ali y. A he o he end o he scale obedien anked las in bo h cases. A possible cause o conce n o managemen is he eigh een h anking posi ion gi en o a wo ld o beau( . I could be a gued ha he p ima y objec i e o a Resea ch O ganiz.a ion is o p o ide ou pu which will ha e a posi i e e ec on he wo ld in which i inds i sel , hope ully con- ibu ing in some way o i s beau y. Hypo hesis es ing The ollowing a e selec ed esul s om he hypo heses es ed. Hypo hesis -Value o ien a ions a y sys ema ically wi h hie a chical posi ion. Th ee le els we e used, namely, di ec o a e, di ision head and esea ch o ice . I was ound ha ins ead o a sys ema ic a ia- ion he e was conside able alue cong uence be ween he di ec- o a e and he esea ch o ice s which in u n was no sha ed by he di ision heads. This las g oup's (middle managemen ) alue p o ile di e ed in ha alues such as accomplishmen , an exci ing li e and wo ld a peace, anked conside ably lowe han he Di ec o a e and Resea ch O ice p o iles and pe - 125 sonal alues such as amily secu i y, happiness, ma u e lo e and sal a ion anked highe . . This could poin o a s uc u al p oblem wi hin he o ganiza- ion and could be indica i e o a posi ion which lacks s imula- ion, challenge and adequa e oppo uni ies o sel -ac uali- z.a ion, esul ing in he indi idual eo ganizing his alue sys em whe eby his pe sonal li e begins o ecei e g ea e emphasis han he o ganiz.a ion esul ing in a shi o in e es om he wo k place o he p i a e wo ld ou side he o ganiz.a ion. Hypo hesis -Leade ship e ec i eness is di ec ly ela ed o he deg ee o alue consensus. To es his, wo g oups A and B we e selec ed. Un o una e- ly in a esea ch o ganiz.a ion he measu emen o he e ec- i eness o ou pu ends o be subjec i e. Be his as i may g oup A was chosen because o i s s ong leade ship and cohesi eness. Also his g oup ends o be a mo e conce ned abou esea ch implemen a ion and in e ac s wi h he ou side en i onmen a mo e han g oup B. The me hod used o e alua ion was as ollows: Using he leade 's alue p o ile as a base he a ia ions o each membe o his g oup was measu ed. Fo example: Value A com o able li e Leade 12 Ranking G oup membe s I 2 3 4 12 II II 17 Va ia ion ( - I) + ( - I) and ( + 5) = -2+5 The o als o bo h se s o alues o bo h leade s we e calcula ed wi h he ollowing esul s: Tenninal alues Leade G oup A Leade G oup B To al 1-126 + 1261 1-156 + 1681 Ins umen al alues Leade G oup A Leade G oup B To al 1-206+2101 -154 + 102 [ Eme ging om his analysis is he ac ha on e minal alues leade A sco es be e (mo e consis en , less a ia ion) han leade B whe eas he e e se applies on he ins umen al alues. To esol e his dicho omy i mus be emembe ed ha e - minal alues a e end-s a es o goals. Ins umen al alues a e hose ha people use o achie e hese end-s a es. I is he e o e sugges ed ha goal consensus in a wo k en i onmen is mo e impo an han means consensus, i.e., he e is mo e han one way o kill a ca . To con inue he logic i is also in ui i ely appealing and con- sis en wi h managemen heo y ha goal consensus be ween employees, manage s and he o ganiz.a ion is an impo an in- g edien in o ganiz.a ional e iciency and e ec i eness. Ano he poin is ha leade A's alue p o ile is a he cen- e o he g oup's alues. (The e is an equal weigh ing o alues anked abo e and below his alues). Leade B on he o he 126 hand ends o be o one side o cen e o bo h alue se s. On i s own his may be insu icien e idence o poin !owa ds be e leade ship. Howe e i one examines he ma e m e ms o ex emes i would seem o be p e e able o a g oup o ha e a leade whose alue p o ile ends owa ds he cen e o he g oup a he han o one o o he o he ex emes. Fo example: Al e na i e A Value Ambi ious Al e na i e B Value Ambi ious G oup membe s A 8 Leade C D 1 5 10 5 18 G oup membe s A 8 C D Leade 1 5 10 15 18 I is sugges ed ha Al e na i e A is p e e able o B in ha he leade is mo e likely o be able o ela e o he o he g oup membe s when he is posi ioned be ween he wo ex emes. Al e na i e B could well lead o con lic be ween he leade and g oup membe s A and B. Summa y o empi ical in es iga ion Using he wo se s o alues de eloped by Rokeach he sam- ple alue su ey has highligh ed he ollowing: (a) Value consensus exis s be ween he Di ec o a e and Resea ch S a . Howe e some a ia ions we e ound a Di ision Head le el whe e he e was an appa en lack o mo i a ion and goal consensus wi h he Di ec o a e. The explana ion o his was ound o be one o o ganiza- ional s uc u e which ended o p omo e demo i a ion a his le el o managemen . (b) A all le els (less so wi h he Di ec o a e) he e was ound o be a high deg ee o in e naliz.a ion, con i med by he consis en ly high ankings o pe sonal alues and he ela i e low ankings gi en o social alues. This mani es ed i sel in an 'i o y owe ' app oach whe e pe sonal wo k sa is ac ion had become c i ical and almos o ally di o ced om he economic eali y o he ou side wo ld. This was u he ein o ced by he low p io i y gi en o implemen a ion o esea ch wo k. This sepa a ion o wha is conside ed an in eg a ed in e dependen unc ion is ein- o ced by he exis ence o a bounda y spanning di ision which i was el was no he co ec agen o ce ain im- po an aspec s o esea ch implemen a ion. A Resea ch O ice and Di ision Head le el implemen a- ion appea ed o be an i ele an concep . A Di ec o a e le el he e was a g ea e awa eness o i s impo ance bu he e we e signs ha his may be no mo e han lip se ice o wha is ecogniz.ed in ui i ely as a sound managemen p inciple. A Resea ch O ice le el he 'i o y owe ' synd ome was u he con i med as a eali y h ough se e al indi idual es cases whe e esea che s we e qui e unawa e o de elop- men s ou side he Ins i u e which could ha e a di ec in- luence on hei own esea ch wo k. (c) Based on analysis o g oup and indi idual alue p o iles i was ound ha membe s o g oups who had a g ea e deg ee o alue co ela ion be ween hemsel es and hei leade appea ed o be mo e mo i a ed, en husias ic and e ec i e. The e seemed o be close co ela ion be ween g oup alue consensus and leade ship e ec i eness. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15(2) ( d) No me hod was de ised o measu e he abili y o he o ganiza ion o espond o en i onmen al o in e nal change. Howe e , based on he o ganiza ional alue p o ile whe e he ou side wo ld and he en i onmen anked e y low i could be a gued ha he o ganiz.a ion is likely o be ex- emely un esponsi e o en i onmen al change, i o no o he eason han ha i is unlikely o be awa e o any change in he i s place. (e) Na u ally he a i ude ou lined abo e would no help a company in he p i a e sec o o be any hing o he han an ea ly casuali y. This has highligh ed he need o a e i- sion o he o ganiza ional s uc u e and he ewa d sys em. Based on he Di ec o a e alue p o ile such changes would be suppo ed by op managemen . A me hod o changing alue sys ems - Implica ions o managemen Ha ing analysed indi idual and o ganiza ional p o iles he ques ion now a ises as o how managemen can u ilize he p o- cess o imp o e o ganiza ional e ec i eness. The e a e wo ela ed aspec s o conside . The i s is cogni i e change, i.e., indi iduals change he ank o de o hei alue p o ile; he second and mo e impo an is beha iou al change induced by any cogni i e change. Me hod The ollowing a e s eps o conside : (a) Expose he indi idual o his own alue p o ile and discuss he implica ions o any inconsis encies. An analogy can be d awn om a gol p o essional a a eaching clinic. A ce ain pupil may ha e a ben le elbow a he op o his backswing which is helping o p omo e a heal hy spec um o andom hooks and slices. No amoun o cajoling om he gol p o essional will elimina e his aul . Howe e when he uses a ideo came a o ilm his pupil in ac ion and la e eplays he ilm o he pupil i is easy o him o see and analyse his own aul s in de ail, pa icula ly i his is ein o ced by a second ilm showing say Johny Mille in ac ion. (b) The essen ial ace s o he abo e scena io a e: (i) e ealing he implica ions o a alue p o ile o an indi idual; (i ) compa ing he indi idual p o ile o ano he model p o ile; (iii) es ablishing a s a e o sel -dissa is ac ion in he in- di idual, i.e., he mus now wan o change o each a new s a e o equilib ium. Wi hou inducing dissa is- ac ion in he indi idual, change is unlikely. Rokeach has ound ha induced alue changes do indeed lead o beha iou al changes (Rokeach, 1973:210) So a in his in es iga ion i has been implied ha all wo k ela ed o alue change is conduc ed be ween expe imen e and esponden s. Rokeach howe e has success ully aken his ap- p oach one s ep u he (Rokeach, 1973:210). Using compu e eedback he has achie ed simila esul s as desc ibed abo e. In his case esponden s a e placed in on o a e minal, asked o comple e and ank hei wo alue se s and a e hen pe - mi ed o ecall in o ma ion conce ning o he g oup alue p o- iles o compa e wi h hei own. Re es s showed alue changes in acco d wi h ea lie discussion, i.e., people end o mo e owa ds mo e desi able g oup alue sys ems and away om he less desi able. The exci ing implica ion he e is ha such S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2) me hods could be de eloped and e ined o educa ional pu poses. Business schools, o example, could in oduce such me hods a hei ins i u ions o bo h lec u e s and s uden s o se e wo pu poses: (a) o assis indi iduals wi h sel -e alua ion; (b) o assis wi h he posi i e de elopmen o alue p o iles o u u e business leade s. Conclusions This s udy has highligh ed he ollowing: (a) The impo ance o e hics in he business wo ld and i s po en ial ele ance a business schools. (b) Indi iduals, g oups and e en o ganiza ions can be iden- i ied by hei alue p o iles; i.e., he way in which hei alues a e anked in o de o impo ance. (c) Th ough empi ical in es iga ion ce ain hypo heses we e es ed. Rela ionships we e ound be ween alues and o ganiza ional con ex , o ganiza ional p ocesses, manage ial ac ion, and o ganiza ional pe o mance. These ela ionships we e shown o be impo an in e alua ing employee, managemen and o ganiza ional e ec i eness. (d) Ways o in luencing alue p o iles we e conside ed using bo h ace- o- ace and compu e me hods. Bo h me hods we e ound o be use ul managemen ools. Recommenda ions (a) Business schools place g ea e emphasis on e hics and he I_ - - ---- - - - ---- - - - ---- - - - ---- - - 127 ele ance o alue sys ems. I is el ha good managemen is a blend o echnical com- pe ence and an unde s anding o human beha iou . To igno e alue sys ems is o igno e he e y co ne s one o all human beha iou . (b) As a ma e o p io i y, esea ch in his a ea should be con- inued. Fo some eason li le o no wo k has been done wo ldwide on he subjec o ela ing o ganiza ional e ec- i eness o human alue sys ems. In Sou h A ica, wi h i s black/whi e social p oblems he e is pe haps e en g ea e u gency in s udying wo ke alues han in, say, Eu ope. (c) Top managemen in he p i a e and public sec o , a he app op ia e ime, should be exposed o he po en ial o he managemen ools ou lined in his s udy and encou ag- ed o apply hem in hei own en i onmen s. Acknowledgemen The au ho acknowledges wi h g a i ude he posi i e co- ope a ion o he Di ec o a e o he Na ional Building Resea ch Ins i u e o allowing his s udy o be unde aken wi hin he o ganiza ion. Re e ences B ennan, J.G., 1973. E hics and mo als, New Yo k: Ha pe and Row. Ewing, A.C., 1975. E hics, Su olk: The English Uni e si ies P ess, L d. Rokeach, M. 1973. The na u e o human alues, New Yo k: The F ee P ess. Rokeach, M. 1979. Unde s anding human alues, New Yo k: The F ee P ess.