Smalley, L. J.; Bocke , H. J.
A icle
Quali y ci cles: A manage ial esponse o he p oduc i i y
p oblem
Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Smalley, L. J.; Bocke , H. J. (1982) : Quali y ci cles: A manage ial esponse o he
p oduc i i y p oblem, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican
Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, pp. 10-17,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 13i1.1165
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217785
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Quali y
ci cles
- a
manage ial
esponse
o
he
p oduc i i y
p oblem
LJ.
Smalley
and
H.J.
Bocke
Depa men o Business Economics, Uni e si y
o
Sou h A ica, P e o ia and School o Business
and
Economics, Wil ed Lau ie Uni e si y, Canada
The pu pose o his a icle is o ou line he de elopmen
o
he quali y ci cle
(QC)
philosophy, i s bene i s and p oblem
a eas
in which i can
be
applied, wi h e e ence o bo h heo y
and p ac ical applica ion.
The
QC
o ganiza ional s uc u e and
special unc ions o he g oups, indi iduals and commi ees
in ol ed
in
he p ocess a e also discussed.
The
g oups com-
p ise he membe s, leade s, s a o echnical suppo ,
acili a o s (o coo dina o s), middle and op managemen ,
s ee ing and ad iso y commi ees and union o icials. A p o-
cess low diag am is used o ep esen a model o he
QC
low o one comple e ope a ing cycle. I shows he a ious in-
e dependencies
o
all he g oups in ol ed and how his
sys em ac ually unc ions.
S.
A .
J.
Bus.
Mgm .
1982,
13:
10-17
Die doel
an
hie die a ikel is
om
'n oo sig e gee
an
die on -
wikkeling
an
die kwali ei si kel- iloso ie, asook die oo dele
daa an
en
p obleemgebiede waa
di!
oegepas kan wo d, me
e wysing na sowel eo ie
as
p ak iese oepassing. Die
o ganisasies uk uu
an
kwali ei si kels, asook besonde e
unksies
an
die g oepe indi idue
en
komi ees wa by die p o-
ses be okke is, wo d ook besp eek. Die g oepe bes aan ui
lede, leie s, egniese onde s euningspe soneel,
koO -
dinee de s, middel-
en
opbes uu , bes uu s-
en
ad-
ieskomi ees
en
akbondamp ena e. 'n P oses loeidiag am
wo d geb uik
om
'n model
an
die kwali ei si kel- loei i een
oile bed y siklus ui
le
beeld. Di! loon die e skeie in e -
a hanklikhede
an
alle g oepe wa be okke is, asook hoe die
s elsel unksionee .
S.·A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982,
13:
10-
17
L.1.
Smalley*
Senio
Lec u e ,
Depa men
o
Business
Economics,
Uni e si y
o
Sou h
A i-
ca,
P.O.
Box
392,
P e o ia
0001,
Republic
o
Sou h
A ica
.I.
Bocke
~a~e
P o esso ,
School
o
Business
and
Economics,
Wil ed
Lau ie
Um e s11y,
Wa e loo,
On a io, Canada
.,.o
whom
co espondence
should
be
add essed
Accep ed
No embe
1981
In oduc ion
One
o
he mos ou s anding
and
ascina ing de elop-
men s o e he pas wo decades
on
he in e na ional p o-
duc ion scene has been he es ablishmen and apid
g ow h
o
quali y ci cles. This concep was de eloped
as
a
di ec esponse o
poo
quali y
and
low p oduc i i y
pe -
o mance
o
he Japanese manu ac u ing indus y du ing
he ea ly 1960s.
Quali y ci cles (QCs) comp ise pe manen ly es ablished
g oups
o
olun ee wo ke s (size: 4 - 20), commonly
om he same wo k a eas, wi h access o esou ces wi hin
he wo k sys em, ha ing he suppo
o
managemen and
ade unions (including echnical assis ance
and
aining
p og ammes)
and
mee ing
on
a egula , scheduled
basis
du ing company ime o discuss wo k- ela ed p oblems
speci ied by hemsel es. Each g oup will in es iga e
causes
o
p oblems
and
ecommend possible solu ions o
he decision-making body wi hin hei wo k sys em.
The de elopmen o he quali y ci cle mo emen
Acco ding o G ege man, 1 he i s con olled expe imen
designed o mo i a e he wo ke h ough ac i e pa icipa-
ion in he decision-making p ocess, was conduc ed
du-
ing he la e
1920s
and
he ea ly 1930s
a
Wes e n
Elec-
ic's Haw ho ne Wo ks in he Uni ed S a es
o
Ame ica
(USA).
I
was ea ly in he 1950s when he Japanese in i ed
D .
W.E. Deming and D .
J.M.
Ju an,
wo leading expe s
in
he ields
o
s a is ics
and
quali y con ol, o isi Japan.
The pu pose, o adap
and
ansla e he USA concep
( o-
ge he wi h o he Wes e n Eu opean ideas) o con o m o
he Japanese philosophical, cul u al
and
indus ial back-
g ound.
This objec i e was success ully achie ed by Tokyo's
P o .
K.
Ishikawa, and he i s Japanese quali y ci cles
we e
in oduced in 1962, o o emen
and
enginee s only.
Figu e 1 shows he de elopmen
o
he quali y
ci cle
mo emen .
The bene i s o quali y ci cles
'The Japanese a e coming.' Typically, Wes e n eac ions
o s a emen s like his a y be ween admi a ion, indi e-
ence, en y and ea . The Japanese h ea o
many
Wes e n companies, indus ial sec o s
and/o
whole
economies
is
e y eal.
S.
A .
J. Bus.
Mgm
1982, 13(1)
Job
sa is ac; ion
(He zbe g)
1950s
L---1_96_2
=:=J
Mid
1960s
Mid 1970s
1978
1979
1980
1981
Wes e n
inpu
o ideas
and
concep s in o he
QC
app oach==i
To al quali·
y
con ol
(Ju an)
Japanese
con ibu ion,
inpu s
and
implemen a ion
Fi s QCs o med in Japan (Fo emen and enginee s)
Ex ension
o
QC
concep
(including wo ke s, lea ning he a ea
o
quali y
con ol,
c ossing depa men al and
unc ional
lines)
75
000 QCs in Japan
wi h
750 000 egis e ed membe s;
in oduc ion
o
concep
o
USA and Eu ope
In e na ional
associa ion
o
QCs ounded in
Cali o nia
Fi s in e na ional QC con e ence; London
Second in e na ional QC con e ence; San F ancisco
1
010
000
QCs
in
Japan, 8
500
000 egis e ed
and
1 000 000 un egis e ed membe s;
450
companies
in
USA
and
200
in
Wes e n Eu ope implemen ed he concep ;
40
000
QCs
in
Ko ea,
wi h
300
000 membe s;
1
200
QCs
in
Taiwan;
30
000
QCs
in
B azil. Change o
QC
concep de ini ion.
•oe eloped o e
almos
a
cen u y
Figu e
I The de elopmen
o
he quali y ci cle mo emen
Wo k
s udy
(Taylo /
Gilb e h)
11
In he la e summe
o
1980
he wo ld- amous Swiss
wa ch indus y was o ced
o
apply o go e nmen sub-
sidies, suppo and p o ec ion. Fo he i s ime in
his o y, Japanese wa chmake s had ou -pe o med he
Swiss. A he same ime, Ge man mo o ca manu ac-
u e s join ly announced a i e-yea plan calling o in-
es men s
o
gigan ic p opo ions in o de o compe e
wi h he Japanese.
Wo ld ma ke s, especially he luc a i e USA ma ke ,
had in a sho pe iod become a Japanese p ese e -lea -
ing li le oom o highe -p iced compe i o s whose p o-
duc s o en we e
o
in e io quali y.
bene i s
o
hei ac i i ies,
well
awa e
o
he ac ha he
la ges , mos aluable, un apped esou ce
is
he human
mind. And QCs we e he in aluable aid
in
eleasing his
esou ce. Exploi a ion
o
his uni e sal esou ce, combin-
ed wi h ha d and e icien wo k, diligence, loyal y and
willingness o lea n and o pa icipa e, se ee p oduc i e
o ces which indeed c ea ed a challenge
o
he es
o
he
Wes e n wo ld. Such esul s, howe e , did no come
o e nigh and necessi a ed conside able changes.
Meanwhile,
a
home, he Japanese silen ly enjoyed he
The success
o
Japanese de elopmen , as shown in
Table
1,
seems
o
be almos unpa alleled. An example
o
a de elopmen wi h a - eaching consequences can be
obse ed in he a ea
o
' hinking machines'
o
' obo s'.
12
These obo s, oge he wi h he mode n mic op ocesso ,
pe o m he mos complex and delica e p oduc ion asks
a cos s way below, and a speeds a exceeding he bes
wo ke o eam. Thei in oduc ion pa es he pa h o
o al au oma ion
o
p oduc ion p ocesses a inc edibly
low uni cos s. Acco ding o a ecen a icle in he
P e o ia News2
i
was s a ed ha o Rl5 million, a ully
au oma ed and unmanned ac o y ha would no mally
equi e 250 wo ke s, could
be
made a ailable o clien s all
o e he wo ld. The ac o y which manu ac u es la hes
and machine ools
is
equipped wi h obo s and con olled
by six compu e s.
In ano he newspape a icle3, Hi achi, a big name in
he elec onics indus y, eleased a s a emen ha wi hin
i e
yea s 'blue colla ' wo ke s
will
disappea en i ely
om hei assembly lines. Fac o ies
will
be manned only
by cle ical s a and main enance echnicians. The
wo k o ce,
se
ee his way,
is
e ained o highe -paid,
mo e in e es ing so wa e jobs. The e a e no unemploy-
men p oblems. Ca e ul conside a ion and close coope a-
ion by wo ke s
is
essen ial o in oduce such changes and
new
de elopmen s wi hou dis up ion -and he e again
he quali y ci cle
is
a use ul aid.
The abo e ep esen a
ew
examples
o
Japanese suc-
cess
in he a ea
o
p oduc ion and ope a ions manage-
men . The conclusion o
be
d awn
by
manage s should be
ob ious: he indus ies
o
he Wes (especially he USA)
a e
in
u gen need o e i aliza ion, chie ly based on in-
no a ion.
I
should
be
bo ne in mind ha echnology
is
he p oduc
o
man's c ea i e hough , which
is
a ' ee'
esou ce. Bu sys ems and app oaches a e needed which
can help o elease and u ilize his esou ce.
Table 1 Annual a e age pe capi a income in
Japan be ween
1945
and
1981
Yea Annual a e age pe capi a income
in
US
dolla s
1945
$20
1956
$300, app oxima ely Thi d Wo ld le el
1967
$1
000, equalling B azil
1970
$1
800,
a e he i s oil c isis
1974
$3
600, a e he second oil c isis
1979
$10 000, a e he hi d oil c isis, equal o he Wes
1981
$12-
13
000 (p ojec ion), o e aking many Wes e n coun ies
A
majo
ac o
in
he
Japanese
success
s o y
is
he
QC
app oach,
o
which
he
ollowing
a e
some
o
he majo
bene i s:
U iliza ion
o
ideas
and
insigh s
o
wo ke s
ega dless
o
le el
in
o ganiza ion.
P omo ion
o
c ea i i y
and
p oblem-sol ing
abili y.
P omo ion
o
eam
wo k
and
eam
spi i .
Commi men
and
mo i a ion
because
o
in ol e-
men
in
decision-making.
Unde s anding
o
p oblems
o
colleagues
in
o he
unc ions and o he
depa men s
h ough equen
con ac ,
and
c oss- unc ional
exposu e
and ex-
pe ience.
No
d as ic
change
in
exis ing
sys ems
equi ed
-
can
be
in oduced
in
s ages.
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982,
13(1)
P oblem a eas o which he quali y ci cle app oach
has been applied
The Ame ican Socie y
o
Quali y
Con ol
has es ablished
a ypical dis ibu ion
o
he possible p oblem a eas and
pe cen ages
o
quali y ci cle ac i i ies. 1
· ·
12
As can be seen
om Table 2, he a en ion, p e iously ocussed en i ely
on he quali y aspec , has been di e ed o a numbe
o
o he a eas such as e iciency, cos s, mo ale, e c.
Table 2 P oblem a eas and pe cen ages
o
QC
ac-
i i ies
P oblem A ea Pe cen age
o
QC
a..: i i y
Quali y 22%
E iciency 12%
Cos s
11
OJo
Mo ale 10%
Equipmen 10%
P ocess con ol
9%
Absen eeism
8%
Sa e y
4%
Lea ning
3%
O he s• 11%
"This includes o he aspec s ela ing o he p oduc i i y concep .
The quali y ci cle sys em, layou and o ganiza-
. ional s uc u e
The s uc u e
o
a QC sys em can bes be depic ed
in
g aphical o m as ep esen ed by Figu e 2. The iangula
shape
is
an indica ion
o
he inc easing
o
dec easing im-
po ance/signi icance
o
he a ious g oups in ol ed
as
well
as hei con ibu ion in e ms
o
inpu .
O
cou se,
he p esence and coope a ion
o
all g oups
is
an absolu e
necessi y. No g oup
is
'unimpo an '
and
none could
be
omi ed om he sys em wi hou impai ing he o e all
success.
The uppe wo g oups (QC membe s
and
leade s)
ep esen he a ea 'whe e he ac ion is' ( ha
is
whe e
acu e p oblems will be a acked and sol ed).
The
emain-
ing ou g oups, by con as , play a mo e suppo i e ole
in a descending o de
o
di ec in ol emen in his p o-
cess
o
p oblem-sol ing. In addi ion o he six g oups in-
ol ed, he e a e also wo commi ees, a s ee ing commi -
ee and an ad iso y commi ee. Union o icials a e also
included o p o ide o e all suppo
and
o
make ecom-
menda ions and sugges ions whene e necessa y.
Special unc ions o he g oups, Indi iduals
and
commi ees in ol ed
In
he quali y ci cle p ocess
Quali y ci cle membe s (g oup J)
Quali y ci cle (QC) membe s a e usually olun ee
wo ke s om he same p oblem- ela ed a ea
o
he p o-
duc ion p ocess. Mee ings a e held du ing company ime
on a egula basis, a leas once a
week.
Each mee ing
las s o app oxima ely one hou
and
comp ises he
ollowing i e sec ions:
5-minu es opening, in oduc ion
o
new membe s,
news
o
a gene al na u e and o ganiza ional aspec s;
5-minu es e iewing he p e ious week's ac i i ies;
25-minu es lea ning new skills
and
ma e ial;
S. A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982, 13(1)
QC membe s
(1)
Wo ke s, employees (unionized and/o non-unionized)
Iden i y, selec and analyse p oblem a eas, sol e p oblems, ecommend and
implemen solu ions, moni o esul s
QC leade s (2)
Fi s -line supe iso s, o eman, shop s ewa ds
Schedule and coo dina e
QC
mee ings, ain (new) membe s in
QC
echniques,
acili a e g oup ac i i ies, keep non-ci cle membe s in o med.
S a o echnical suppo
(3)
Technicians, enginee s, specialis s, expe s
P o ide echnical in o ma ion, da a and suppo
Facili a o s o coo dina o s (4)
Shephe d unc ion o
QC
mo emen - emo e
obs acles, clea oad blocks, p o ide
QC
aining,
coo dina e ac i i ies
o
a ious QCs
Fl1u e 2 Quali y
ci cle
o ganiza ional s uc u e
Middle managemen (S)
Respond
o
QCs' needs and wan s,
make sugges ions, p o ide
ongoing suppo , e iew, make
ecommenda ions
Top
managemen (6)
P o ide o e all
suppo , and
e iew majo
ecommenda-
ions
BOARD
13

14
20-minu es applying new skills
and
knowledge
o
p ac ical p oblems;
and
5-minu es summa y
and
e iew
o
wha has been
achie ed.
Minu es a e aken
a
each mee ing
and
passed
on
o
he
QC
leade , who, in u n, coo dina es hem wi h he agen-
das, schedules
and
ac i i ies
o
o he QCs.
I should be no ed ha e o s
and
esul s a e no
ela ed in a linea way. Typically 50%
o
o al ene gy
and
e o migh sol e only 85%
o
he pa icula p oblem.
The emaining 50% will con ibu e only ma ginally, by
pe haps 10%,
o
he o al solu ion.
The
same
is
ue
when
compa ing one p oblem wi h ano he .
The
i s migh
make a e y subs an ial con ibu ion
o
he
depa men 's
o
company's pe o mance, he second almos none, o
a gi en e o in bo h cases. The e o e, he
QC
should be
ained in pa e o analysis which would enable hem
o
e mina e a pa icula p oblem
and
mo e
o
ano he ,
because he bene i s gained by con inuing wi h he i s
one ha e become ma ginal. Solu ions a e p esen ed by
he QCs
o
middle managemen ,
and
in cases whe e ma-
jo
ecommenda ions a e necessa y,
o
op
managemen .
The esul s
o
b ains o ming, analyses
and
calcula ions
by membe s
o
he QCs ha e
o
be
pu
oge he
and
p esen ed wi h a ce ain minimum le el
o
p esen a ion
skills. O dina ily, his would include o e head p ojec-
ions, lip cha s, his og ams, equency diag ams,
g aphs, logging check shee s,
and
pa e o
and
alue
analysis. An ad anced le el
o
p esen a ion would, in ad-
di ion, make use
o
slides, ilms, a ious quali y
con ol
cha s, sca e g ams, p obabili y dis ibu ions, s a i ica-
ion, eg ession analysis, o ecas ing
and
o he
echni-
ques.
Quali y ci cle leade s (g oup
2)
In o de
o
make decisions e ec i e,
he
QC
leade will
make su e ha hey a e aken by consensus. This ace
is
impo an since any ansg ession
o
his ule will end
o
us a e
and
aliena e
QC
membe s, esul ing in a possi-
ble
QC
b eakup.
The
Japanese men ali y, endowed wi h
a lo
o
pa ience,
is
p obably be e sui ed o his
pu -
pose
han
i s USA
and
Wes e n
Eu opean
coun e pa s.
Acco ding
o
Nosow4,
QC
leade s need specialized
aining, including aspec s such as pa icipa o y leade -
ship as well as
g oup
p ocess skills,
QCs'
esponsibili ies,
o ganiza ion
and
unde lying p inciples,
( o
example,
he
axioma ic belie
ha
he answe s
o
he
p oblems
a e
unknown),
da a
ga he ing, p oblem-sol ing skills, as well
as ce ain echniques
o
win
he
coope a ion
o
op
managemen , unions
and
non-membe wo ke s.
The ex en
o
he
aining will enable he
QC
leade
o
pass his
o
he skills
on
o
he
QC
membe s.
The
ini ial
aining
is
a he basic
bu
as i ad ances,
he
p ocess
o
passing i
on
o
he
membe s also in ol es
mo e
complex
p ocedu es. This con inuous subsequen lea ning p ocess
p o ides he basis o con inuing
g oup
en husiasm.
Hu -
chins5 men ions
ha
Wes e n
QC
obse e s
a e
o en su -
p ised
o
ind
ha
Japanese
QC
leade s a e capable
o
ap-
plying high-le el s a is ical echniques.
S a
o
echnical suppo (g oup
3)
This
suppo
g oup
comp ises he echnical expe s who
may
be
called
upon
o
assis he
QC
in p oblem-sol ing.
S.-A .
Ty<lsk .
Bed y ,l.
1982,
13(1)
They
may
o e
di ec
o
indi ec assis ance
and
a e
o en
p esen
a
QC
mee ings.
Facili a o o coo dina o (g oup
4)
Bo h e ms, acili a o
o
coo dina o
a e
used synony-
mously. Small
o
medium-sized i ms
may
ha e only one
acili a o , la ge ones ha ing
wo
o
mo e,
depending on
he
numbe
o
depa men s,
di isions,
he
complexi y
and
a ie y
o
p oblems
o
be sol ed.
The
ole
o
he
acili a o
(o
coo dina o )
is
o
coo dina e
se e al in-
dependen
QCs
and
o
be
an
o ganiza ional
liaison be-
ween he
QCs
and
managemen .
The
acili a o (o co-
o dina o )
will
o ien a e
company
pe sonnel,
implemen
he
p og amme,
ins uc
and
de elop
QC
leade s, p o ide
aining
and
educa ion
o
membe s
and
leade s, en-
cou age
non-membe s
o
join
and,
inally,
moni o
and
measu e esul s.
Facili a o s, as well as
QC
leade s,
ha e
o
be chosen
ca e ully.
They
may
come
om
any
depa men ,
and
should be well
ained,
be in e es ed in people, ha e
c edible pe sonali ies
and
s ongly belie e in he p o-
g amme.
Wi hou
hese
a ibu es,
hey
could
easily be
pe cei ed as
'managemen
pa sies'.
They
should
no be
o e loaded
wi h
o he
du ies, which
could
p e en hem
om picking
up
all
he
sub le
messages
om
he
QC.
Middle managemen (g oup 5)
The
middle-managemen le el,
a e
ha ing been b ie ed
abou
he
QC
concep ,
should
espond
o
he
wan s and
needs
o
he
QCs.
Manage s
can
be
app oached
di ec ly
by
he
QC
leade ,
and/
o ,
mo e
indi ec ly, by
he
acili a-
o
(o
coo dina o ).
Ongoing
suppo
by
middle
managemen
is
an
indispensable
componen
o
QC
suc-
cess.
Top managemen (g oup
6)
The
coope a ion
and
o al
suppo
o
op
managemen
has
o
be secu ed
p io
o
he
o mula ion
o
he
QC
con-
cep wi hin
he
company.
Consul an s
ying
o
in oduce
his concep should
spend
mo e
han
hal
o
hei
o al
e -
o
and
ime in
pe suading,
con incing,
o
simply
p epa ing
he
company's
leade s
o
his
new
app oach.
Wi hou
hei
o al
accep ance
any
u he
s eps
a e
ou
o
he ques ion.
I
manage s
a e
an agonis ic
owa ds
he
p og amme,
hei
subo dina es
will
be
demo i a ed
and
would
no
ca e,
'because
he
boss does
no
ca e'.
Demo i-
a ion would also be
he
esul
when
( op
o
middle)
managemen ejec s solu ions
wi hou
e y ca e ully and
ho oughly mo i a ing
hei
disag eemen .
Yage 6 men ions
wo
app oaches
which
ha e
been suc-
cess ully used
o
con ince his
g oup
o
he
bene i s
o
be
ob ained
om
he
QC
concep .
The
i s
app oach
cen-
es
on
he
ac
ha
QCs
do
no
equi e
any
d as ic
changes
o
o he
sys ems by which
he
i m ope a es.
The e
a e,
o example,
no
new inancial
bu dens
o
ewa d sys ems,
job
en ichmen ,
o a ion
o
enla ge-
men ,
no
ea angemen
o
ac o ies,
and,
mos
impo -
an ,
no
la ge capi al in es men .
The
second
app oach
is
ha
he
QC
concep
should
be
implemen ed
on
a pilo -line basis.
This
implies
ha
a
single
QC
is
in oduced
and
de eloped
o
i s ull po en-
ial.
The
isks
a e
hus
kep
o
an
absolu e
minimum,
since he e is
no
g andiose
company-wide
scheme o
S.
A .
J. Bus.
Mgm
1982, 13(1)
'mas e plan'. A e he ini ial success, he QC p o-
g amme can g ow
o
i s own acco d.
In gene al,
op
managemen should be made awa e
o
he basic di e ences in employee ela ions be ween Japan
and mos Wes e n coun ies, in o de o e ec i ely apply
his concep . The di e ences a e b ie ly summa ized in
Table 3. The i s ou poin s a e gene ally ou side he
a ea
o
in luence and con ol
o
op managemen . The
di e ing cha ac e is ics
o
poin s 5 o
12,
howe e , can
well
be changed a ou ably owa d Japanese condi ions,
pa icula ly wi h he applica ion
o
he QC concep .
Table 3 Basic
di e ences
be ween Japanese and
Wes e n employee backg ounds and ela ionships
wi h managemen
Japan
Wes e n coun ies
I.
Homogeneous
cul u e
in a Usually
no
so homogeneous,
small
coun y
wi h
almos
no
and
mos ly la ge coun ies
na u al
e~ou ces wi h
mo e
esou ces, pa -
icula ly in
he
case
o
he
USA
2.
Deeply ing ained sense
o
Mo e
indi idualis ic
a i ude
hie a chy, place,
and
obe-
dience
o
au ho i y
3.
P e alence
o
an
e hic
o
A i udes
and
habi s
o
conse a ion
esul ing in was ing, illusions
o
'abun-
c ea ing
much
om
li le7
dance'
4.
Gua an eed
li e ime employ-
No
such
gua an ees
men
o
mos
wo ke s
8
5.
High
wo k
e hic, as ising
Lowe
wo k e hic wi h sagging
p oduc i i y9 p oduc i i y
6. Ex ensi e p e-
and
pos - Ve y li le
o
no
o ien a ion
employmen
o ien a ion
p o-
g ammes
10
7.
Emphasis
is
on
quali y
11
Emphasis is
on
cos s
8. Dis inc ion be ween
labou
G ea
dis inc ion be ween
and
managemen
less im-
managemen
and
labou ,
li le
po an ,
because
o
excessi e
o
no
employee aining
' op- o-bo om'
c oss
and
de elopmen , he e o e
aining;
job
exchange
and
manage s
a e
mo e
likely
o
ca ee de elopmen
planning
see hemsel es as eli e co ps
a e
he
no m,
closing
he
o
decision-make s
gap
be ween
managemen
and
labou
9.
Decisions eached
h ough
Decisions
made
by elying
consensus
and
pa icipa ion
on
'o de s
om
au ho i y',
mos ly excluding indi idual
c ea i e hinking
12
10.
QC
p og ammes
a e
pe -
QC
p og ammes
a e
a
'new
cei ed as a
na u al
ex ension
echnique',
iewed wi h
o
aining
and
educa ion
scep icism
and
suspicion
11.
Eage ly seeking
wo ke s'
Res ic ing inpu
o
ideas
sugges ions
13
om
loo le el
12.
Belie in
capaci y
o
e- Belie in lack
o
esponsi-
sponsibili y
o
he
wo ke ,
bili y, ini ia i e
and
c ea i i y
who seeks challenges
and
o
wo ke ,
who
's ongly
exe cises sel -di ec ion
and
needs
ou e
di ec ion'
sel -con ol
S ee ing commi ee (g oup
7)
The QC concep includes a s ee ing commi ee comp is-
ing ep esen a i es om all le els
o
managemen , whose
unc ion i
is
o es ablish
QC
policies (i.e. he ype
o
p o-
blems QCs should conside analysing). The commi ee
membe s could be desc ibed as 'policy specialis s' who in-
15
i ia e and la e main ain he suppo
o
he o ganiza ion.
Ad iso y commi ee (g oup
8)
The eigh h g oup wi hin he QC concep
is
he ad iso y
commi ee. In b ie ,
i
comp ises a g oup
o
echnical ex-
pe s, in con as o he se en h g oup which ep esen s a
g oup
o
policy specialis s. This ad iso y body consul s
on all echnical ma e s encoun e ed by he QCs.
I
mus
ha e an o e iew, o enable i o coo dina e and ad ise
indi idual QCs wo king on simila echnical p oblems,
o
using iden ical echnical componen s. Pa s
o
solu ions
o 's epping s ones' including echnical
da a
om one
QC may well be used by ano he
QC,
hus a oiding dupli-
ca ion
o
echnically- ela ed wo k. The commi ee
membe s o igina e om all le els
o
echnical manage-
men , including specialis s om a ious depa men s
wi hin he company, such as cos -analysis expe s, alue-
enginee ing specialis s, s a is ical expe s and enginee s.
Union o icials (g oup
9)
The nin h g oup, union o icials, like managemen , has
o be con inced ha he QC concep will bene i e e yone
in he company. The e
is
no poin in in oducing a QC
p og amme i he union shows an agonism. Union o -
icials should be in i ed o pa icipa e ac i ely in he
QC
p og amme. The e seem o be indica ions ha labou
ela ions in he USA a e becoming much mo e collabo-
a i e. Many
op
union leade s see he u u e
o
collec i e
ba gaining mo e in he quali y
o
wo kli e a he han
jus in highe wages.
A p ocess low diag am (model)
o
he quali y ci cle
sys em
The closed cycle
o
a QC sys em
is
shown in Figu e 3.
I
ep esen s a model
o
he QC p ocess low o one com-
ple e cycle. This model can be ex emely use ul since i
shows he a ious in e dependencies
o
all he g oups in-
ol ed (wi h he acili a o
and
s ee ing commi ee in a
cen al posi ion) and how he QC sys em ac ually wo ks.
I
can also be used as a ool o consul an s
o
middle
managemen du ing he p ocess
o
p epa ing
op
managemen o he QC concep , acili a ing he
unde s anding
o
he p ocess du ing he in oduc o y
phase (whe e he ole o be played by each g oup
is
clea ly
indica ed) and inally, he changes
ha
would ha e
o
be
in oduced i ce ain p oblems a ise. Use
o
his model
will show he e ec s hese p oblems (o changes) will
ha e
on
ce ain g oups, and he esul ing in e ac ions can
be easily demons a ed
and/o
e i ied.
A e a managemen decision o in oduce he
QC
sys em has been made, he i s s ep
o
he p ocess low
hen would be a ecommenda ion
o
p oblems o he
QC
wi h inpu om se en sou ces
o
g oups
and
om he QC
membe s hemsel es. A e he ac ual p oblem
is
selec ed, a ho ough analysis ollows, suppo ed by
echnical
s a
and he ad iso y commi ee's echnical ex-
pe s (o specialis s). The solu ion
is
hen
'ma ke ed'
in a
p esen a ion o managemen , which
is
as b ie , well-
o ganized and as comp ehensi e as possible. The ecom-
menda ions a e hen e iewed
and
e alua ed by middle
managemen . Only unde special ci cums ances (highly
signi ican solu ions), in ol ing
majo
changes in capi al
16
@8:~Top -
I '
P oblem
iden 1 1ca Klll
(selecllOl'I)
P oblem
analysis
Recommend
solu ions
in
p esen a ions
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982,
13(1)
Re iew
and e alua ion
o · ou ine'
p oblems/solu ions
8
111 '
QC
membe s & leade s
QC
membe s & leade s
QC
membe s & leade s Middle Managemen
' ' '
' I '
',
''
8
'~la o cyc~
I
Recommend
po en ial
--1
p oblem
a,ea(s)
-and/o spec,hc
p oblems
,
mainly
QC
membe s
/
IITlp O II!
implemen a ion
II
,'
and/o
go
o
new
( ela ed
o
un ela ed)
p oblems
---
0
;,/4
I I
1--------,
---
--
--
--
--
----
Moni o and
imp ol,'ll
implemen a ion
-~-
--
--
Implemen a ion
o
solu ion
--
Re iew
and e alua ion o
highly signi ican solu-
ions wi h majo changes
in
capi al o p ocess
ex-
pendi u es.
Top
Managemen
Decision
o go
ahead
wi h
sugges ed solu ion
00-·-
QC
membe s &
leade s
QC
membe s & leade s,
echnical suppo s a ,
and
o he s,
i
needed
legend@.
. G oups
i wolW!d
(see
Figu e
2)
Ac i i yl()pe a ion
g oup
pe o ming
P ocess
Flow
Coope a ional
ac i i ies,
ad ice,
ecommei lda ions
.._.
Flga e
3 The closed-cycle model
o
a
QC
p ocess low
o p ocess expendi u es,
is
he QC p esen a ion made o
op managemen . This
is
no mally ollowed by a decision
o p oceed
as
sugges ed, possibly wi h he inclusion
o
a
ew
modi ica ions o al e a ions. The o iginal o modi-
ied
sugges ion
is
hen implemen ed, moni o ed and im-
p o ed, i necessa y. The cycle
is
closed wi h he selec ion
o
a
new
p oblem, o e y a ely, he econside a ion
o
a
solu ion e u ned o imp o emen o change.
The ci cles
in
Figu e 3 indica e he a ious g oups in-
ol ed wi h some inpu
(see
Figu e 2), and he squa es
ep esen he ac i i ies/ope a ions o be pe o med du-
ing he QC p ocess cycle. The solid o do ed a ows
show he di ec ion
o
he p ocess low and ha
o
he ad-
iso y, ecommenda ional o coope a ional inpu s om
he a ious g oups o he QCs.
Concludlng
ema ks
The success ul implemen a ion
o
QCs in a company can
only ake place i middle and op managemen ully
unde s and he condi ions necessa y o he success
o
he
QC p og amme.
The bes -known Wes e n companies ha ha e bene-
i ed om his philosophy a e Lockheed, Rolls-Royce,
Hewle -Packa d, Fo d and
IBM.
Fo d s ongly belie e
ha hei QC sys em
was
one
o
he mos impo an
easons o hei being able o inc ease hei abili y
o
compe e wi h he Japanese.
In Sou h A ica, o ganiza ions such as A msco and
Sou he n C oss S eel a e al eady implemen ing simila
sys ems. Acco ding o Spoels a
14
he e
is
also eason
o
belie e ha he a ious sys ems ha used o be 'Japanese
only' a e e en be e sui ed in Sou h A ica, owing
o
he
cul u al make-up
o
i s human esou ces,
han
in many
o he Wes e n coun ies, and ha hese could be im-
plemen ed wi h g ea success he e.
Blbllog aphy
I. GREGERMAN, 1.8. 'In oduc ion o Quali y Ci cles -An
App oach o Pa icipa i e P oblem-Sol ing.'
Ind.
Manage.,
Sep embe /Oc obe ,
1979,
21(5),
p.21.
2.
Anonymous. 'Japan o Sell Robo Fac o ies.'
P e o ia
News,
Oc obe
29,
1981.
3.
MURRAY,
G.
'Robo s Can
Se
You
F ee, Claim Japanese.'
P e o ia
News,
No embe 3,
1981.
4.
NOSOW,
S.
'The Fi s -Line Supe iso , he Linchpin
in
he
Japanese Quali y Con ol Ci cle.'
Ind.
Manage.,
Janua y/Feb ua y
1981,
23(1), p.19.
S.
HUTCHINS,
D.
'QC Ci cles,
An
In oduc ion.'
Ind.
Comme .
T aining,
(UK), Janua y
1980,
12(1), p.11.
6.
YAGER,
E. 'Examining The Quali y Con ol Ci cles.'
Pe son-
S.
A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982, 13(1)
ne ,
Oc obe 1979, 58(10), p.682.
7.
Anonymous. 'O ganizing o P oduc i i y.' Indus y Week,
Feb ua y 1981, 20(3), p.45.
8.
DRUCKER,
P.F.
'The
P ice
o
Success, Japan Re isi ed.'
Ac oss he Boa d, Augus 1978, p.30.
9.
HODGESON,
J.D.
'The
Wond ous Wo ld
o
Japan.'
Ame ican
En e p ise Ins i u e, Washing on, D.C., 1978.
JO.
TANAKA,
H.
'The
Japanese Me hod
o
P epa ing Today's
G adua e o Become
Tomo ow's
Manage ,' Pe sonnel,
Feb ua y 1980, p.109.
11.
Anonymous.
'Japan's
Manage s Tell How Thei Sys em
Wo ks.' Fo une, No embe 1977, p.127.
17
12.
ALBERT,
R.G.'The
C ea i e
Mind.'lns i u e
Fo C ea i e P o-
blem Sol ing, S a e Uni e si y College, Bu alo,
N.
Y., 1980,
p.19.
13.
WERTHER, W.B. 'P oduc i i y Imp o emen Th ough
People'. A iz. Bus., Feb ua y 1981, 28(2), p.14.
14.
SPOELSTRA, H.1.J. Kul u ele De e minan e an
O ganisa o iese Doel e endheid
in
Suid-A ika en
Japan.
Ongepublisee de D.Com.-p oe sk i , RAU, 1980, p.213.