Quality circles: A managerial response to the productivity problem

Smalley, L. J.; Bocke , H. J. A icle Quali y ci cles: A manage ial esponse o he p oduc i i y p oblem Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Smalley, L. J.; Bocke , H. J. (1982) : Quali y ci cles: A manage ial esponse o he p oduc i i y p oblem, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, pp. 10-17, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 13i1.1165 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217785 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. 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Bocke Depa men o Business Economics, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, P e o ia and School o Business and Economics, Wil ed Lau ie Uni e si y, Canada The pu pose o his a icle is o ou line he de elopmen o he quali y ci cle (QC) philosophy, i s bene i s and p oblem a eas in which i can be applied, wi h e e ence o bo h heo y and p ac ical applica ion. The QC o ganiza ional s uc u e and special unc ions o he g oups, indi iduals and commi ees in ol ed in he p ocess a e also discussed. The g oups com- p ise he membe s, leade s, s a o echnical suppo , acili a o s (o coo dina o s), middle and op managemen , s ee ing and ad iso y commi ees and union o icials. A p o- cess low diag am is used o ep esen a model o he QC low o one comple e ope a ing cycle. I shows he a ious in- e dependencies o all he g oups in ol ed and how his sys em ac ually unc ions. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1982, 13: 10-17 Die doel an hie die a ikel is om 'n oo sig e gee an die on - wikkeling an die kwali ei si kel- iloso ie, asook die oo dele daa an en p obleemgebiede waa di! oegepas kan wo d, me e wysing na sowel eo ie as p ak iese oepassing. Die o ganisasies uk uu an kwali ei si kels, asook besonde e unksies an die g oepe indi idue en komi ees wa by die p o- ses be okke is, wo d ook besp eek. Die g oepe bes aan ui lede, leie s, egniese onde s euningspe soneel, koO - dinee de s, middel- en opbes uu , bes uu s- en ad- ieskomi ees en akbondamp ena e. 'n P oses loeidiag am wo d geb uik om 'n model an die kwali ei si kel- loei i een oile bed y siklus ui le beeld. Di! loon die e skeie in e - a hanklikhede an alle g oepe wa be okke is, asook hoe die s elsel unksionee . S.·A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982, 13: 10- 17 L.1. Smalley* Senio Lec u e , Depa men o Business Economics, Uni e si y o Sou h A i- ca, P.O. Box 392, P e o ia 0001, Republic o Sou h A ica .I. Bocke ~a~e P o esso , School o Business and Economics, Wil ed Lau ie Um e s11y, Wa e loo, On a io, Canada .,.o whom co espondence should be add essed Accep ed No embe 1981 In oduc ion One o he mos ou s anding and ascina ing de elop- men s o e he pas wo decades on he in e na ional p o- duc ion scene has been he es ablishmen and apid g ow h o quali y ci cles. This concep was de eloped as a di ec esponse o poo quali y and low p oduc i i y pe - o mance o he Japanese manu ac u ing indus y du ing he ea ly 1960s. Quali y ci cles (QCs) comp ise pe manen ly es ablished g oups o olun ee wo ke s (size: 4 - 20), commonly om he same wo k a eas, wi h access o esou ces wi hin he wo k sys em, ha ing he suppo o managemen and ade unions (including echnical assis ance and aining p og ammes) and mee ing on a egula , scheduled basis du ing company ime o discuss wo k- ela ed p oblems speci ied by hemsel es. Each g oup will in es iga e causes o p oblems and ecommend possible solu ions o he decision-making body wi hin hei wo k sys em. The de elopmen o he quali y ci cle mo emen Acco ding o G ege man, 1 he i s con olled expe imen designed o mo i a e he wo ke h ough ac i e pa icipa- ion in he decision-making p ocess, was conduc ed du- ing he la e 1920s and he ea ly 1930s a Wes e n Elec- ic's Haw ho ne Wo ks in he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica (USA). I was ea ly in he 1950s when he Japanese in i ed D . W.E. Deming and D . J.M. Ju an, wo leading expe s in he ields o s a is ics and quali y con ol, o isi Japan. The pu pose, o adap and ansla e he USA concep ( o- ge he wi h o he Wes e n Eu opean ideas) o con o m o he Japanese philosophical, cul u al and indus ial back- g ound. This objec i e was success ully achie ed by Tokyo's P o . K. Ishikawa, and he i s Japanese quali y ci cles we e in oduced in 1962, o o emen and enginee s only. Figu e 1 shows he de elopmen o he quali y ci cle mo emen . The bene i s o quali y ci cles 'The Japanese a e coming.' Typically, Wes e n eac ions o s a emen s like his a y be ween admi a ion, indi e- ence, en y and ea . The Japanese h ea o many Wes e n companies, indus ial sec o s and/o whole economies is e y eal. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982, 13(1) Job sa is ac; ion (He zbe g) 1950s L---1_96_2 =:=J Mid 1960s Mid 1970s 1978 1979 1980 1981 Wes e n inpu o ideas and concep s in o he QC app oach==i To al quali· y con ol (Ju an) Japanese con ibu ion, inpu s and implemen a ion Fi s QCs o med in Japan (Fo emen and enginee s) Ex ension o QC concep (including wo ke s, lea ning he a ea o quali y con ol, c ossing depa men al and unc ional lines) 75 000 QCs in Japan wi h 750 000 egis e ed membe s; in oduc ion o concep o USA and Eu ope In e na ional associa ion o QCs ounded in Cali o nia Fi s in e na ional QC con e ence; London Second in e na ional QC con e ence; San F ancisco 1 010 000 QCs in Japan, 8 500 000 egis e ed and 1 000 000 un egis e ed membe s; 450 companies in USA and 200 in Wes e n Eu ope implemen ed he concep ; 40 000 QCs in Ko ea, wi h 300 000 membe s; 1 200 QCs in Taiwan; 30 000 QCs in B azil. Change o QC concep de ini ion. •oe eloped o e almos a cen u y Figu e I The de elopmen o he quali y ci cle mo emen Wo k s udy (Taylo / Gilb e h) 11 In he la e summe o 1980 he wo ld- amous Swiss wa ch indus y was o ced o apply o go e nmen sub- sidies, suppo and p o ec ion. Fo he i s ime in his o y, Japanese wa chmake s had ou -pe o med he Swiss. A he same ime, Ge man mo o ca manu ac- u e s join ly announced a i e-yea plan calling o in- es men s o gigan ic p opo ions in o de o compe e wi h he Japanese. Wo ld ma ke s, especially he luc a i e USA ma ke , had in a sho pe iod become a Japanese p ese e -lea - ing li le oom o highe -p iced compe i o s whose p o- duc s o en we e o in e io quali y. bene i s o hei ac i i ies, well awa e o he ac ha he la ges , mos aluable, un apped esou ce is he human mind. And QCs we e he in aluable aid in eleasing his esou ce. Exploi a ion o his uni e sal esou ce, combin- ed wi h ha d and e icien wo k, diligence, loyal y and willingness o lea n and o pa icipa e, se ee p oduc i e o ces which indeed c ea ed a challenge o he es o he Wes e n wo ld. Such esul s, howe e , did no come o e nigh and necessi a ed conside able changes. Meanwhile, a home, he Japanese silen ly enjoyed he The success o Japanese de elopmen , as shown in Table 1, seems o be almos unpa alleled. An example o a de elopmen wi h a - eaching consequences can be obse ed in he a ea o ' hinking machines' o ' obo s'. 12 These obo s, oge he wi h he mode n mic op ocesso , pe o m he mos complex and delica e p oduc ion asks a cos s way below, and a speeds a exceeding he bes wo ke o eam. Thei in oduc ion pa es he pa h o o al au oma ion o p oduc ion p ocesses a inc edibly low uni cos s. Acco ding o a ecen a icle in he P e o ia News2 i was s a ed ha o Rl5 million, a ully au oma ed and unmanned ac o y ha would no mally equi e 250 wo ke s, could be made a ailable o clien s all o e he wo ld. The ac o y which manu ac u es la hes and machine ools is equipped wi h obo s and con olled by six compu e s. In ano he newspape a icle3, Hi achi, a big name in he elec onics indus y, eleased a s a emen ha wi hin i e yea s 'blue colla ' wo ke s will disappea en i ely om hei assembly lines. Fac o ies will be manned only by cle ical s a and main enance echnicians. The wo k o ce, se ee his way, is e ained o highe -paid, mo e in e es ing so wa e jobs. The e a e no unemploy- men p oblems. Ca e ul conside a ion and close coope a- ion by wo ke s is essen ial o in oduce such changes and new de elopmen s wi hou dis up ion -and he e again he quali y ci cle is a use ul aid. The abo e ep esen a ew examples o Japanese suc- cess in he a ea o p oduc ion and ope a ions manage- men . The conclusion o be d awn by manage s should be ob ious: he indus ies o he Wes (especially he USA) a e in u gen need o e i aliza ion, chie ly based on in- no a ion. I should be bo ne in mind ha echnology is he p oduc o man's c ea i e hough , which is a ' ee' esou ce. Bu sys ems and app oaches a e needed which can help o elease and u ilize his esou ce. Table 1 Annual a e age pe capi a income in Japan be ween 1945 and 1981 Yea Annual a e age pe capi a income in US dolla s 1945 $20 1956 $300, app oxima ely Thi d Wo ld le el 1967 $1 000, equalling B azil 1970 $1 800, a e he i s oil c isis 1974 $3 600, a e he second oil c isis 1979 $10 000, a e he hi d oil c isis, equal o he Wes 1981 $12- 13 000 (p ojec ion), o e aking many Wes e n coun ies A majo ac o in he Japanese success s o y is he QC app oach, o which he ollowing a e some o he majo bene i s: U iliza ion o ideas and insigh s o wo ke s ega dless o le el in o ganiza ion. P omo ion o c ea i i y and p oblem-sol ing abili y. P omo ion o eam wo k and eam spi i . Commi men and mo i a ion because o in ol e- men in decision-making. Unde s anding o p oblems o colleagues in o he unc ions and o he depa men s h ough equen con ac , and c oss- unc ional exposu e and ex- pe ience. No d as ic change in exis ing sys ems equi ed - can be in oduced in s ages. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982, 13(1) P oblem a eas o which he quali y ci cle app oach has been applied The Ame ican Socie y o Quali y Con ol has es ablished a ypical dis ibu ion o he possible p oblem a eas and pe cen ages o quali y ci cle ac i i ies. 1 · · 12 As can be seen om Table 2, he a en ion, p e iously ocussed en i ely on he quali y aspec , has been di e ed o a numbe o o he a eas such as e iciency, cos s, mo ale, e c. Table 2 P oblem a eas and pe cen ages o QC ac- i i ies P oblem A ea Pe cen age o QC a..: i i y Quali y 22% E iciency 12% Cos s 11 OJo Mo ale 10% Equipmen 10% P ocess con ol 9% Absen eeism 8% Sa e y 4% Lea ning 3% O he s• 11% "This includes o he aspec s ela ing o he p oduc i i y concep . The quali y ci cle sys em, layou and o ganiza- . ional s uc u e The s uc u e o a QC sys em can bes be depic ed in g aphical o m as ep esen ed by Figu e 2. The iangula shape is an indica ion o he inc easing o dec easing im- po ance/signi icance o he a ious g oups in ol ed as well as hei con ibu ion in e ms o inpu . O cou se, he p esence and coope a ion o all g oups is an absolu e necessi y. No g oup is 'unimpo an ' and none could be omi ed om he sys em wi hou impai ing he o e all success. The uppe wo g oups (QC membe s and leade s) ep esen he a ea 'whe e he ac ion is' ( ha is whe e acu e p oblems will be a acked and sol ed). The emain- ing ou g oups, by con as , play a mo e suppo i e ole in a descending o de o di ec in ol emen in his p o- cess o p oblem-sol ing. In addi ion o he six g oups in- ol ed, he e a e also wo commi ees, a s ee ing commi - ee and an ad iso y commi ee. Union o icials a e also included o p o ide o e all suppo and o make ecom- menda ions and sugges ions whene e necessa y. Special unc ions o he g oups, Indi iduals and commi ees in ol ed In he quali y ci cle p ocess Quali y ci cle membe s (g oup J) Quali y ci cle (QC) membe s a e usually olun ee wo ke s om he same p oblem- ela ed a ea o he p o- duc ion p ocess. Mee ings a e held du ing company ime on a egula basis, a leas once a week. Each mee ing las s o app oxima ely one hou and comp ises he ollowing i e sec ions: 5-minu es opening, in oduc ion o new membe s, news o a gene al na u e and o ganiza ional aspec s; 5-minu es e iewing he p e ious week's ac i i ies; 25-minu es lea ning new skills and ma e ial; S. A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982, 13(1) QC membe s (1) Wo ke s, employees (unionized and/o non-unionized) Iden i y, selec and analyse p oblem a eas, sol e p oblems, ecommend and implemen solu ions, moni o esul s QC leade s (2) Fi s -line supe iso s, o eman, shop s ewa ds Schedule and coo dina e QC mee ings, ain (new) membe s in QC echniques, acili a e g oup ac i i ies, keep non-ci cle membe s in o med. S a o echnical suppo (3) Technicians, enginee s, specialis s, expe s P o ide echnical in o ma ion, da a and suppo Facili a o s o coo dina o s (4) Shephe d unc ion o QC mo emen - emo e obs acles, clea oad blocks, p o ide QC aining, coo dina e ac i i ies o a ious QCs Fl1u e 2 Quali y ci cle o ganiza ional s uc u e Middle managemen (S) Respond o QCs' needs and wan s, make sugges ions, p o ide ongoing suppo , e iew, make ecommenda ions Top managemen (6) P o ide o e all suppo , and e iew majo ecommenda- ions BOARD 13 14 20-minu es applying new skills and knowledge o p ac ical p oblems; and 5-minu es summa y and e iew o wha has been achie ed. Minu es a e aken a each mee ing and passed on o he QC leade , who, in u n, coo dina es hem wi h he agen- das, schedules and ac i i ies o o he QCs. I should be no ed ha e o s and esul s a e no ela ed in a linea way. Typically 50% o o al ene gy and e o migh sol e only 85% o he pa icula p oblem. The emaining 50% will con ibu e only ma ginally, by pe haps 10%, o he o al solu ion. The same is ue when compa ing one p oblem wi h ano he . The i s migh make a e y subs an ial con ibu ion o he depa men 's o company's pe o mance, he second almos none, o a gi en e o in bo h cases. The e o e, he QC should be ained in pa e o analysis which would enable hem o e mina e a pa icula p oblem and mo e o ano he , because he bene i s gained by con inuing wi h he i s one ha e become ma ginal. Solu ions a e p esen ed by he QCs o middle managemen , and in cases whe e ma- jo ecommenda ions a e necessa y, o op managemen . The esul s o b ains o ming, analyses and calcula ions by membe s o he QCs ha e o be pu oge he and p esen ed wi h a ce ain minimum le el o p esen a ion skills. O dina ily, his would include o e head p ojec- ions, lip cha s, his og ams, equency diag ams, g aphs, logging check shee s, and pa e o and alue analysis. An ad anced le el o p esen a ion would, in ad- di ion, make use o slides, ilms, a ious quali y con ol cha s, sca e g ams, p obabili y dis ibu ions, s a i ica- ion, eg ession analysis, o ecas ing and o he echni- ques. Quali y ci cle leade s (g oup 2) In o de o make decisions e ec i e, he QC leade will make su e ha hey a e aken by consensus. This ace is impo an since any ansg ession o his ule will end o us a e and aliena e QC membe s, esul ing in a possi- ble QC b eakup. The Japanese men ali y, endowed wi h a lo o pa ience, is p obably be e sui ed o his pu - pose han i s USA and Wes e n Eu opean coun e pa s. Acco ding o Nosow4, QC leade s need specialized aining, including aspec s such as pa icipa o y leade - ship as well as g oup p ocess skills, QCs' esponsibili ies, o ganiza ion and unde lying p inciples, ( o example, he axioma ic belie ha he answe s o he p oblems a e unknown), da a ga he ing, p oblem-sol ing skills, as well as ce ain echniques o win he coope a ion o op managemen , unions and non-membe wo ke s. The ex en o he aining will enable he QC leade o pass his o he skills on o he QC membe s. The ini ial aining is a he basic bu as i ad ances, he p ocess o passing i on o he membe s also in ol es mo e complex p ocedu es. This con inuous subsequen lea ning p ocess p o ides he basis o con inuing g oup en husiasm. Hu - chins5 men ions ha Wes e n QC obse e s a e o en su - p ised o ind ha Japanese QC leade s a e capable o ap- plying high-le el s a is ical echniques. S a o echnical suppo (g oup 3) This suppo g oup comp ises he echnical expe s who may be called upon o assis he QC in p oblem-sol ing. S.-A . Ty<lsk . Bed y ,l. 1982, 13(1) They may o e di ec o indi ec assis ance and a e o en p esen a QC mee ings. Facili a o o coo dina o (g oup 4) Bo h e ms, acili a o o coo dina o a e used synony- mously. Small o medium-sized i ms may ha e only one acili a o , la ge ones ha ing wo o mo e, depending on he numbe o depa men s, di isions, he complexi y and a ie y o p oblems o be sol ed. The ole o he acili a o (o coo dina o ) is o coo dina e se e al in- dependen QCs and o be an o ganiza ional liaison be- ween he QCs and managemen . The acili a o (o co- o dina o ) will o ien a e company pe sonnel, implemen he p og amme, ins uc and de elop QC leade s, p o ide aining and educa ion o membe s and leade s, en- cou age non-membe s o join and, inally, moni o and measu e esul s. Facili a o s, as well as QC leade s, ha e o be chosen ca e ully. They may come om any depa men , and should be well ained, be in e es ed in people, ha e c edible pe sonali ies and s ongly belie e in he p o- g amme. Wi hou hese a ibu es, hey could easily be pe cei ed as 'managemen pa sies'. They should no be o e loaded wi h o he du ies, which could p e en hem om picking up all he sub le messages om he QC. Middle managemen (g oup 5) The middle-managemen le el, a e ha ing been b ie ed abou he QC concep , should espond o he wan s and needs o he QCs. Manage s can be app oached di ec ly by he QC leade , and/ o , mo e indi ec ly, by he acili a- o (o coo dina o ). Ongoing suppo by middle managemen is an indispensable componen o QC suc- cess. Top managemen (g oup 6) The coope a ion and o al suppo o op managemen has o be secu ed p io o he o mula ion o he QC con- cep wi hin he company. Consul an s ying o in oduce his concep should spend mo e han hal o hei o al e - o and ime in pe suading, con incing, o simply p epa ing he company's leade s o his new app oach. Wi hou hei o al accep ance any u he s eps a e ou o he ques ion. I manage s a e an agonis ic owa ds he p og amme, hei subo dina es will be demo i a ed and would no ca e, 'because he boss does no ca e'. Demo i- a ion would also be he esul when ( op o middle) managemen ejec s solu ions wi hou e y ca e ully and ho oughly mo i a ing hei disag eemen . Yage 6 men ions wo app oaches which ha e been suc- cess ully used o con ince his g oup o he bene i s o be ob ained om he QC concep . The i s app oach cen- es on he ac ha QCs do no equi e any d as ic changes o o he sys ems by which he i m ope a es. The e a e, o example, no new inancial bu dens o ewa d sys ems, job en ichmen , o a ion o enla ge- men , no ea angemen o ac o ies, and, mos impo - an , no la ge capi al in es men . The second app oach is ha he QC concep should be implemen ed on a pilo -line basis. This implies ha a single QC is in oduced and de eloped o i s ull po en- ial. The isks a e hus kep o an absolu e minimum, since he e is no g andiose company-wide scheme o S. A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982, 13(1) 'mas e plan'. A e he ini ial success, he QC p o- g amme can g ow o i s own acco d. In gene al, op managemen should be made awa e o he basic di e ences in employee ela ions be ween Japan and mos Wes e n coun ies, in o de o e ec i ely apply his concep . The di e ences a e b ie ly summa ized in Table 3. The i s ou poin s a e gene ally ou side he a ea o in luence and con ol o op managemen . The di e ing cha ac e is ics o poin s 5 o 12, howe e , can well be changed a ou ably owa d Japanese condi ions, pa icula ly wi h he applica ion o he QC concep . Table 3 Basic di e ences be ween Japanese and Wes e n employee backg ounds and ela ionships wi h managemen Japan Wes e n coun ies I. Homogeneous cul u e in a Usually no so homogeneous, small coun y wi h almos no and mos ly la ge coun ies na u al e~ou ces wi h mo e esou ces, pa - icula ly in he case o he USA 2. Deeply ing ained sense o Mo e indi idualis ic a i ude hie a chy, place, and obe- dience o au ho i y 3. P e alence o an e hic o A i udes and habi s o conse a ion esul ing in was ing, illusions o 'abun- c ea ing much om li le7 dance' 4. Gua an eed li e ime employ- No such gua an ees men o mos wo ke s 8 5. High wo k e hic, as ising Lowe wo k e hic wi h sagging p oduc i i y9 p oduc i i y 6. Ex ensi e p e- and pos - Ve y li le o no o ien a ion employmen o ien a ion p o- g ammes 10 7. Emphasis is on quali y 11 Emphasis is on cos s 8. Dis inc ion be ween labou G ea dis inc ion be ween and managemen less im- managemen and labou , li le po an , because o excessi e o no employee aining ' op- o-bo om' c oss and de elopmen , he e o e aining; job exchange and manage s a e mo e likely o ca ee de elopmen planning see hemsel es as eli e co ps a e he no m, closing he o decision-make s gap be ween managemen and labou 9. Decisions eached h ough Decisions made by elying consensus and pa icipa ion on 'o de s om au ho i y', mos ly excluding indi idual c ea i e hinking 12 10. QC p og ammes a e pe - QC p og ammes a e a 'new cei ed as a na u al ex ension echnique', iewed wi h o aining and educa ion scep icism and suspicion 11. Eage ly seeking wo ke s' Res ic ing inpu o ideas sugges ions 13 om loo le el 12. Belie in capaci y o e- Belie in lack o esponsi- sponsibili y o he wo ke , bili y, ini ia i e and c ea i i y who seeks challenges and o wo ke , who 's ongly exe cises sel -di ec ion and needs ou e di ec ion' sel -con ol S ee ing commi ee (g oup 7) The QC concep includes a s ee ing commi ee comp is- ing ep esen a i es om all le els o managemen , whose unc ion i is o es ablish QC policies (i.e. he ype o p o- blems QCs should conside analysing). The commi ee membe s could be desc ibed as 'policy specialis s' who in- 15 i ia e and la e main ain he suppo o he o ganiza ion. Ad iso y commi ee (g oup 8) The eigh h g oup wi hin he QC concep is he ad iso y commi ee. In b ie , i comp ises a g oup o echnical ex- pe s, in con as o he se en h g oup which ep esen s a g oup o policy specialis s. This ad iso y body consul s on all echnical ma e s encoun e ed by he QCs. I mus ha e an o e iew, o enable i o coo dina e and ad ise indi idual QCs wo king on simila echnical p oblems, o using iden ical echnical componen s. Pa s o solu ions o 's epping s ones' including echnical da a om one QC may well be used by ano he QC, hus a oiding dupli- ca ion o echnically- ela ed wo k. The commi ee membe s o igina e om all le els o echnical manage- men , including specialis s om a ious depa men s wi hin he company, such as cos -analysis expe s, alue- enginee ing specialis s, s a is ical expe s and enginee s. Union o icials (g oup 9) The nin h g oup, union o icials, like managemen , has o be con inced ha he QC concep will bene i e e yone in he company. The e is no poin in in oducing a QC p og amme i he union shows an agonism. Union o - icials should be in i ed o pa icipa e ac i ely in he QC p og amme. The e seem o be indica ions ha labou ela ions in he USA a e becoming much mo e collabo- a i e. Many op union leade s see he u u e o collec i e ba gaining mo e in he quali y o wo kli e a he han jus in highe wages. A p ocess low diag am (model) o he quali y ci cle sys em The closed cycle o a QC sys em is shown in Figu e 3. I ep esen s a model o he QC p ocess low o one com- ple e cycle. This model can be ex emely use ul since i shows he a ious in e dependencies o all he g oups in- ol ed (wi h he acili a o and s ee ing commi ee in a cen al posi ion) and how he QC sys em ac ually wo ks. I can also be used as a ool o consul an s o middle managemen du ing he p ocess o p epa ing op managemen o he QC concep , acili a ing he unde s anding o he p ocess du ing he in oduc o y phase (whe e he ole o be played by each g oup is clea ly indica ed) and inally, he changes ha would ha e o be in oduced i ce ain p oblems a ise. Use o his model will show he e ec s hese p oblems (o changes) will ha e on ce ain g oups, and he esul ing in e ac ions can be easily demons a ed and/o e i ied. A e a managemen decision o in oduce he QC sys em has been made, he i s s ep o he p ocess low hen would be a ecommenda ion o p oblems o he QC wi h inpu om se en sou ces o g oups and om he QC membe s hemsel es. A e he ac ual p oblem is selec ed, a ho ough analysis ollows, suppo ed by echnical s a and he ad iso y commi ee's echnical ex- pe s (o specialis s). The solu ion is hen 'ma ke ed' in a p esen a ion o managemen , which is as b ie , well- o ganized and as comp ehensi e as possible. The ecom- menda ions a e hen e iewed and e alua ed by middle managemen . Only unde special ci cums ances (highly signi ican solu ions), in ol ing majo changes in capi al 16 @8:~Top - I ' P oblem iden 1 1ca Klll (selecllOl'I) P oblem analysis Recommend solu ions in p esen a ions S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1982, 13(1) Re iew and e alua ion o · ou ine' p oblems/solu ions 8 111 ' QC membe s & leade s QC membe s & leade s QC membe s & leade s Middle Managemen ' ' ' ' I ' ', '' 8 '~la o cyc~ I Recommend po en ial --1 p oblem a,ea(s) -and/o spec,hc p oblems , mainly QC membe s / IITlp O II! implemen a ion II ,' and/o go o new ( ela ed o un ela ed) p oblems --- 0 ;,/4 I I 1--------, --- -- -- -- -- ---- Moni o and imp ol,'ll implemen a ion -~- -- -- Implemen a ion o solu ion -- Re iew and e alua ion o highly signi ican solu- ions wi h majo changes in capi al o p ocess ex- pendi u es. Top Managemen Decision o go ahead wi h sugges ed solu ion 00-·- QC membe s & leade s QC membe s & leade s, echnical suppo s a , and o he s, i needed legend@. . G oups i wolW!d (see Figu e 2) Ac i i yl()pe a ion g oup pe o ming P ocess Flow Coope a ional ac i i ies, ad ice, ecommei lda ions .._. Flga e 3 The closed-cycle model o a QC p ocess low o p ocess expendi u es, is he QC p esen a ion made o op managemen . This is no mally ollowed by a decision o p oceed as sugges ed, possibly wi h he inclusion o a ew modi ica ions o al e a ions. The o iginal o modi- ied sugges ion is hen implemen ed, moni o ed and im- p o ed, i necessa y. The cycle is closed wi h he selec ion o a new p oblem, o e y a ely, he econside a ion o a solu ion e u ned o imp o emen o change. The ci cles in Figu e 3 indica e he a ious g oups in- ol ed wi h some inpu (see Figu e 2), and he squa es ep esen he ac i i ies/ope a ions o be pe o med du- ing he QC p ocess cycle. The solid o do ed a ows show he di ec ion o he p ocess low and ha o he ad- iso y, ecommenda ional o coope a ional inpu s om he a ious g oups o he QCs. Concludlng ema ks The success ul implemen a ion o QCs in a company can only ake place i middle and op managemen ully unde s and he condi ions necessa y o he success o he QC p og amme. The bes -known Wes e n companies ha ha e bene- i ed om his philosophy a e Lockheed, Rolls-Royce, Hewle -Packa d, Fo d and IBM. Fo d s ongly belie e ha hei QC sys em was one o he mos impo an easons o hei being able o inc ease hei abili y o compe e wi h he Japanese. In Sou h A ica, o ganiza ions such as A msco and Sou he n C oss S eel a e al eady implemen ing simila sys ems. Acco ding o Spoels a 14 he e is also eason o belie e ha he a ious sys ems ha used o be 'Japanese only' a e e en be e sui ed in Sou h A ica, owing o he cul u al make-up o i s human esou ces, han in many o he Wes e n coun ies, and ha hese could be im- plemen ed wi h g ea success he e. Blbllog aphy I. GREGERMAN, 1.8. 'In oduc ion o Quali y Ci cles -An App oach o Pa icipa i e P oblem-Sol ing.' Ind. Manage., Sep embe /Oc obe , 1979, 21(5), p.21. 2. Anonymous. 'Japan o Sell Robo Fac o ies.' P e o ia News, Oc obe 29, 1981. 3. MURRAY, G. 'Robo s Can Se You F ee, Claim Japanese.' P e o ia News, No embe 3, 1981. 4. NOSOW, S. 'The Fi s -Line Supe iso , he Linchpin in he Japanese Quali y Con ol Ci cle.' Ind. Manage., Janua y/Feb ua y 1981, 23(1), p.19. S. HUTCHINS, D. 'QC Ci cles, An In oduc ion.' Ind. Comme . T aining, (UK), Janua y 1980, 12(1), p.11. 6. YAGER, E. 'Examining The Quali y Con ol Ci cles.' Pe son- S. A . J. Bus. Mgm 1982, 13(1) ne , Oc obe 1979, 58(10), p.682. 7. Anonymous. 'O ganizing o P oduc i i y.' Indus y Week, Feb ua y 1981, 20(3), p.45. 8. DRUCKER, P.F. 'The P ice o Success, Japan Re isi ed.' Ac oss he Boa d, Augus 1978, p.30. 9. HODGESON, J.D. 'The Wond ous Wo ld o Japan.' Ame ican En e p ise Ins i u e, Washing on, D.C., 1978. JO. TANAKA, H. 'The Japanese Me hod o P epa ing Today's G adua e o Become Tomo ow's Manage ,' Pe sonnel, Feb ua y 1980, p.109. 11. Anonymous. 'Japan's Manage s Tell How Thei Sys em Wo ks.' Fo une, No embe 1977, p.127. 17 12. ALBERT, R.G.'The C ea i e Mind.'lns i u e Fo C ea i e P o- blem Sol ing, S a e Uni e si y College, Bu alo, N. Y., 1980, p.19. 13. WERTHER, W.B. 'P oduc i i y Imp o emen Th ough People'. A iz. Bus., Feb ua y 1981, 28(2), p.14. 14. SPOELSTRA, H.1.J. Kul u ele De e minan e an O ganisa o iese Doel e endheid in Suid-A ika en Japan. Ongepublisee de D.Com.-p oe sk i , RAU, 1980, p.213.