Academic Edi o : And eu
Case o-Ripollés
Recei ed: 20 Decembe 2024
Re ised: 9 Ma ch 2025
Accep ed: 12 Ma ch 2025
Published: 18 Ma ch 2025
Ci a ion: Rome o-Sa i ama, Jose
Miguel, Sand a Espinosa-Tapia, and
An onio Palacios-Rod íguez. 2025.
Using Wha sApp in Dis ance
Educa ion: Assessing he Impac on
Academic In e ac ion and In luencing
Fac o s. Social Sciences 14: 183.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
socsci14030183
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
Using Wha sApp in Dis ance Educa ion: Assessing he Impac on
Academic In e ac ion and In luencing Fac o s
Jose Miguel Rome o-Sa i ama 1, Sand a Espinosa-Tapia 2,* and An onio Palacios-Rod íguez 3,*
1Depa men o Biological and Ag icul u al Sciences, P i a e Technical Uni e si y o Loja,
Loja 110107, Ecuado ; jm ome [email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Chemis y, P i a e Technical Uni e si y o Loja, Loja 110107, Ecuado
3Depa men o Didac ics and Educa ional O ganiza ion, Uni e si y o Se ille, 41013 Se ille, Spain
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (S.E.-T.); [email p o ec ed] (A.P.-R.)
Abs ac : Wha sApp has gained ele ance in dis ance highe educa ion due o i s accessibil-
i y and ease o use, making i a aluable ool o academic suppo . This s udy analyzes he
use o Wha sApp in his con ex , conside ing sociodemog aphic a iables and ac o s such
as subjec and g oup size. The sample included 127 s uden s om an Ecuado ian uni e si y,
belonging o wo subjec s om di e en a eas. Wi h a mul i a ia e quan i a i e app oach,
his s udy e alua ed he dimensions o managemen , communica ion and in e ac ion, lea n-
ing, and he ele ance and bene i s o using Wha sApp. The da a we e analyzed using
Mann–Whi ney U and K uskal–Wallis es s and a K-means clus e ing analysis. The esul s
show a posi i e assessmen o he use o Wha sApp (mean o 4.48/5), highligh ing he
academic bene i s, especially i s inno a i e and p ac ical e ec . Smalle g oups p esen ed a
mo e a o able assessmen , and women epo ed a g ea e inclina ion owa ds some key
dimensions. The clus e ing analysis iden i ied h ee g oups o s uden s wi h di e en ia ed
assessmen s. These indings sugges ha Wha sApp, as a suppo ool in dis ance educa-
ion, no only acili a es academic in e ac ion, bu also esponds o he speci ic needs o
s uden s, i s e ec i eness being dependen on g oup size and o he s uden cha ac e is ics.
Keywo ds: online educa ion; academic communica ion; digi al lea ning ools; digi al
in e ac ion; echnological inno a ion; Wha sApp
1. In oduc ion
Dis ance educa ion is an educa ional modali y in which s uden s and eache s a e
physically and/o empo ally sepa a ed, in e ac ing h ough a ious echnological means
and esou ces o acili a e he eaching–lea ning p ocess (Ga cía 2021). This modali y has
helped educe geog aphical inequali y in access o highe educa ion, p o iding s uden s
wi h he oppo uni y o s udy wi hou ime o loca ion cons ain s. Addi ionally, i allows
hem o balance wo k, amily li e, and s udies (Ös lund 2009;Wii a aa a and Wida 2025).
Howe e , dis ance highe educa ion has shown a lowe e en ion a e compa ed o
ace- o- ace educa ion, leading o a ious economic and social challenges o bo h s uden s
and uni e si ies (Wii a aa a and Wida 2025).
The di icul ies ha s uden s ace in his modali y ha e been widely s udied. Al un
e al. (2021) a gue ha dis ance educa ion does no always gua an ee e ec i e lea ning,
while o he s udies ha e iden i ied issues such as di icul ies in ca ying ou g oup wo k
(Adnan and Anwa 2020;Boza lı 2021) and academic o e load due o he la ge numbe o
asks and ac i i ies o be comple ed (Nenakho a 2021). Mo eo e , s uden s may expe ience
a sense o abandonmen , especially when hey do no ecei e immedia e esponses om
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/socsci14030183
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 2 o 17
hei eache s. Added o his is he lack o digi al compe encies, which hinde s hei
in e ac ion in i ual academic pla o ms.
Despi e hese challenges, dis ance educa ion has expe ienced signi ican g ow h in
ecen yea s, d i en by he need o lexible access o lea ning and, mo e ecen ly, by he
COVID-19 pandemic (Masalimo a e al. 2022). Howe e , his g ow h poses new challenges,
especially in e ms o e ec i e communica ion, con inuous in e ac ion, and collabo a ion
be ween pa icipan s in he educa ional p ocess (Rome o-Sa i ama and Simaluiza 2022;
Ramí ez-Mon oya e al. 2024). In his con ex , i is essen ial o ha e lea ning en i on-
men s ha p omo e luid and accessible communica ion be ween s uden s and eache s,
as he lack o immedia e in e ac ion can nega i ely a ec he educa ional expe ience and
g oup cohesion.
Al hough o mal educa ional pla o ms such as Can as and Moodle exis , hese ools
ha e limi a ions when i comes o mee ing he demands o as and in o mal communica-
ion ha cha ac e ize dis ance lea ning en i onmen s. Access ba ie s, he o mal s uc u e
o hese pla o ms, and he lack o immediacy in in e ac ion can hinde he na u al low o
communica ion, limi ing hei e ec i eness in si ua ions whe e eal- ime collabo a ion is
c ucial (Lee e al. 2023;Ga cía Á ila and Camacho 2023).
O e he pas decade, ins an messaging pla o ms ha e signi ican ly ans o med he
way we in e ac in pe sonal and p o essional se ings, and hei impac on he educa ional
en i onmen has no been mino . Among hese pla o ms, Wha sApp has s ood ou o
i s ease o use, a ailabili y, and mass adop ion, bo h in social and academic con ex s.
As educa ional ins i u ions adop echnologies o acili a e dis ance lea ning, Wha sApp
has become a key ool o communica ion be ween s uden s and eache s, as well as
a pedagogical esou ce o he de elopmen o collabo a i e lea ning (Suá ez-Lan a ón
e al. 2022;Slakmon 2024). In his con ex , Wha sApp has eme ged as a as and e ec i e
communica ion pla o m ha , being p esen in he daily li es o mos s uden s, o e s
an accessible way o connec s uden s wi h each o he and wi h hei eache s in eal
ime (Hadiyana Fah u ozi and Fakh i 2024). The use o Wha sApp in educa ion has
been pa icula ly ele an du ing c isis si ua ions such as he COVID-19 pandemic, when
limi a ions on ace- o- ace con ac inc eased he demand o i ual communica ion ools
(Nkambule 2023).
One o he main ad an ages o Wha sApp in educa ional se ings is i s abili y o
acili a e synch onous and asynch onous lea ning, allowing eal- ime communica ion,
sending and ecei ing ex messages, images, audio messages, ideos, documen s, use
loca ions, con ac s, and he c ea ion o g oups whe e doub s can be esol ed, ma e ials
can be sha ed, and ac i i ies can be coo dina ed quickly and e icien ly (Suá ez-Lan a ón
e al. 2022;Nuuyoma e al. 2020). Fu he mo e, unlike o he mo e o mal educa ional
managemen pla o ms, Wha sApp does no equi e addi ional lea ning o use, as mos
s uden s a e al eady amilia wi h he applica ion in hei daily li es. This signi ican ly
educes echnological ba ie s, p omo ing g ea e pa icipa ion and accessibili y (Lee e al.
2023;Casillas-Ma ín e al. 2021).
P e ious esea ch has shown ha Wha sApp no only imp o es communica ion
be ween s uden s and eache s, bu also enhances collabo a i e lea ning by os e ing mo e
luid and cons an in e ac ion ou side he adi ional class oom en i onmen . S uden s can
sha e ideas, e lec ions, and s udy ma e ials in a mo e in o mal and elaxed en i onmen ,
con ibu ing o g ea e pa icipa ion and he de elopmen o sel -managemen skills in
lea ning (Nasu ion and Munanda 2023;Suá ez-Lan a ón e al. 2022;Palacios-Rod íguez
e al. 2025). This ype o in e ac ion, which blu s adi ional hie a chical ba ie s be ween
eache and s uden , is c ucial in dis ance educa ion en i onmen s, whe e s uden s may
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 3 o 17
expe ience isola ion o lack o eedback (Ja amillo-Se ano e al. 2023;Koma udin and
Suhe man 2024).
On he o he hand, i has also been poin ed ou ha he adop ion o Wha sApp in
educa ional se ings may a y depending on sociodemog aphic ac o s. Al hough some
s udies sugges ha younge s uden s a e mo e ecep i e o he use o mobile echnologies,
o he s indica e ha Wha sApp, being such a widely used pla o m, has managed o
o e come gene a ional gaps, being posi i ely alued by s uden s o di e en ages (Yu
and Mo lhabane 2022;Ga cía Á ila and Camacho 2023). Rega ding gende di e ences, i
has been documen ed ha women end o pa icipa e mo e ac i ely in i ual collabo a i e
en i onmen s, which could be e lec ed in a highe app ecia ion o he use o Wha sApp in
he educa ional con ex (Casillas-Ma ín e al. 2021).
Ano he impo an ea u e o Wha sApp is i s abili y o c ea e wo king g oups, which
has p o en o be pa icula ly e ec i e in os e ing close and mo e collabo a i e in e ac ion
be ween s uden s (Mo sidi e al. 2021). In his sense, Wha sApp no only ac s as an ins an
messaging pla o m bu also becomes a i ual space wi h a ying numbe s o pa icipan s
o he de elopmen o collec i e lea ning, aligned wi h he p inciples o connec i ism
exp essed by Siemens (2005), which emphasize ha lea ning is no longe an indi idual
p ocess bu occu s h ough connec ion and ne wo ked collabo a ion wi h o he people and
sou ces o in o ma ion.
Howe e , using Wha sApp is no wi hou i s challenges. Despi e i s nume ous ad an-
ages, some s udies ha e poin ed ou ha i s in o mal na u e can lead o dis ac ions o
blu he bounda ies be ween academic and pe sonal li e, a ec ing s uden s’ concen a ion
and abili y o main ain e ec i e ime managemen (Suá ez-Lan a ón e al. 2022). Fu he -
mo e, unlike educa ional managemen pla o ms such as Moodle o Can as, Wha sApp
is no speci ically designed o he s uc u ed o ganiza ion o academic con en , which
may limi i s use in mo e complex ac i i ies o in he deli e y o la ge-scale assignmen s
(Mo sidi e al. 2021).
Gi en he g owing impo ance o Wha sApp in he educa ional ield and he need o
explo e i s impac in dis ance educa ion con ex s, i is c ucial o conduc s udies ha analyze
how his pla o m is pe cei ed by s uden s and wha ac o s in luence i s e ec i eness as
an academic suppo ool in dis ance s udies. Wha sApp’s accessibili y, combined wi h i s
abili y o os e collabo a ion, in e ac ion, and sel -di ec ed lea ning, posi ions i as a ool
ha can signi ican ly con ibu e o imp o ing eaching and lea ning p ocesses in i ual
en i onmen s (Lee e al. 2023;Ven u ino and Hsu 2022).
Gi en he abo e, his s udy seeks o ill a gap in he li e a u e by analyzing no only
he gene al impac o Wha sApp on academic in e ac ion, bu also how a ious con ex ual
and sociodemog aphic a iables can in luence he pe cep ion and e ec i eness o his ool
in dis ance educa ion en i onmen s. Wi hin his amewo k, he p esen esea ch aims o
answe he ollowing ques ions:
1.
Wha a e he dimensions o Wha sApp’s use as an academic suppo ool ha a e
mos alued by s uden s, and wha ac o s in luence his assessmen ?
2.
How do s uden s pe cei e he use o Wha sApp as an academic suppo ool in
dis ance educa ion depending on he subjec ?
3.
A e he e signi ican di e ences in he assessmen o he use o Wha sApp as an
academic ool based on he a iables o he sex and age o he pa icipan s?
4.
How does he size o he Wha sApp g oup in luence s uden pe cep ions o Wha -
sApp’s use in he academic con ex ?
5.
How a e s uden s g ouped acco ding o hei pe cep ions o Wha sApp usage, and
wha a e he key cha ac e is ics o each g oup iden i ied h ough clus e ing analysis?
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 4 o 17
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Type o S udy
This s udy is amed wi hin a quan i a i e app oach, since we ha e used he collec ion
o nume ical da a h ough a s uc u ed ques ionnai e, ollowed by a s a is ical analysis. This
quan i a i e app oach is essen ial when seeking o es ablish ela ionships be ween a iables
and gene alize he esul s ob ained o a b oade popula ion (Gue e o Táma a 2022). F om
he poin o iew o he ype o esea ch, we can classi y i as desc ip i e and co ela ional.
Desc ip i e esea ch has allowed us o explo e and de ail he s uden s’ pe cep ions, while
he co ela ional na u e is jus i ied by he ela ionship ha has been s udied be ween
pe cep ions and a ious sociodemog aphic a iables (He nández-Sampie i e al. 2018).
On he o he hand, he non-expe imen al design used is ideal o his ype o s udy, since
a iables we e no manipula ed, and i is a c oss-sec ional s udy, which is sui able o
analyzing phenomena in hei na u al s a e wi hou di ec in e en ion (Salkind 2017).
2.2. Pa icipan s
This s udy was conduc ed wi h 127 ou o he 140 s uden s en olled in he cou ses
P ác icum 3 (En i onmen al Managemen p og am) and Knowledge Managemen (Business
Adminis a ion p og am) in he dis ance lea ning modali y a Uni e sidad Técnica Pa -
icula de Loja—Ecuado . P ác icum 3 is augh in he ou h yea o he p og am, while
Knowledge Managemen is aken in he hi d yea . The sample included da a om h ee
academic e ms, Oc 21–Feb22 (A), Ap 22–Aug22 (B), and Oc 22–Feb23 (C), wi h an e en
gende dis ibu ion o men (52%) and women (48%) (Table 1).
Table 1. Sociodemog aphic da a o he pa icipan s.
Va iable Ca ego y F equency * %
Sex Man 66 51.97
Women 61 48.03
Age
19–22 6 4.72
23–26 24 18.9
27–30 39 30.71
31–34 31 24.41
35–38 11 8.66
39–42 16 12.6
Academic cycle Oc 21-Feb22 (A) 58 45.67
Ap 22-Aug22 (B) 35 27.56
Oc 22-Feb23 (C) 34 26.77
Subjec Knowledge
Managemen 10 7.87
P ac icum 3 117 92.13
Wha sApp G oup
G oup 1 10 7.87
G oup 2 7 5.51
G oup 3 14 11.02
G oup 4 14 11.02
G oup 5 13 10.24
G oup 6 35 27.56
G oup 7 34 26.77
* F equency is he numbe o s uden s who co espond o he assigned ca ego y.
Since one o his s udy’s esea ch ques ions examines he in luence o Wha sApp
g oup size on s uden pe cep ion (Ques ion 2), di e en con igu a ions we e implemen ed
in each academic e m:
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 5 o 17
•
Cycle A: S uden s we e di ided in o small g oups, wi h sizes anging om 7 o 14 pa -
icipan s (G oups 1 o 5). G oup 1 co esponded o he Knowledge Managemen cou se.
•
Cycle B: A single la ge Wha sApp g oup was o med, including all s uden s om he
e m (G oup 6).
•
Cycle C: The s a egy om Cycle B was epea ed, g ouping all s uden s in o a single
Wha sApp g oup (G oup 7, Table 1).
All pa icipan s p o ided w i en consen o ake pa in his s udy, unde he condi ion
ha hey had access o a mobile phone wi h Wha sApp. S uden s who chose no o
pa icipa e accoun ed o 9.3%. Since pa icipa ion was ee and olun a y, no inqui y was
made ega ding hei decision.
2.3. Use o Wha sApp and Resea ch Ins umen
Du ing he i s week o classes, pa icipan s we e dis ibu ed in di e en Wha sApp
g oups, wi h he la ges being G oups 6 and 7, wi h 27.56% (n = 35) and 26.77% (n = 34)
o s uden s, espec i ely, while he smalles g oups, such as G oup 2, had only 5.51% o
s uden s (n = 7). This dis ibu ion allowed o a a ie y in he expe ience o using Wha sApp
as an academic suppo ool, which adds ichness o he da a ob ained in his s udy. In
each g oup, h ee ypes o gene al ac i i ies we e ca ied ou : a) esol ing conce ns, b)
sha ing in o ma ion, and c) sending and ecei ing announcemen s abou ac i i y da es.
Wha sApp was used a a ime ag eed upon wi h he s uden s and he c edibili y o he
in o ma ion sha ed by he s uden s was analyzed. C edibili y e e s o he ex en o which
he eache e i ies he ep oduc ion o he in o ma ion e lec ed in he opinions o he
pa icipan s (Pa on 2015).
A he end o he academic pe iod, he educa ional expe ience was e alua ed online
using a su ey, ollowing he p oposal o Klein e al. (2018). The ques ionnai e consis ed
o h ee sec ions: (a) sociodemog aphic da a, which speci ically included he age and sex
o he pa icipan s and he subjec in which hey we e en olled, (b) p e ious expe ience
wi h Wha sApp ( ou ques ions), and (c) s uden pe cep ion (Table 2). The la e included
21 i ems di ided in o 4 dimensions, e alua ing 1. Wha sApp managemen , 2. communica-
ion and in e ac ion, 3. lea ning, and 4. ele ance o use and bene i s ob ained du ing he
educa ional expe ience (Nuuyoma e al. 2020).
Table 2. Dimensions and ques ions abou he use o Wha sApp.
Dimension Cod. I em * I em C onbach’s
Alpha
Wha sApp
Managemen
D1P1 I was easy o handle Wha sApp o he subjec
D1P2 The s uden iden i ied all he Wha sApp unc ions
D1P3 The ules o pa icipa ion in he Wha sApp g oup
we e espec ed
D1P4 The du a ion o in e ac ion on Wha sApp was used p ope ly
Communica ion
and in e ac ion
D2P5 The s uden s we e able o communica e easily wi h hei
classma es in he g oup
D2P6
The s uden s we e able o communica e easily wi h hei eache
in he g oup 0.86
D2P7 I was easy o make ques ions in he g oup
D2P8 I was easy o sha e ideas in he g oup
D2P9 I was easy o ind in e ac ion in he g oup

Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 6 o 17
Table 2. Con .
Dimension Cod. I em * I em C onbach’s
Alpha
Wha sApp
academic medium
D3P10 The in o ma ion in he g oup helped s uden s o emembe
penden ac i i ies
D3P11
The in o ma ion in he g oup helped s uden s o comple e asks
D3P12 The g oup helped s uden s o sol e hei ques ions quickly 0.77
D3P13 I was easy o exchange knowledge in he g oup
D3P14 The con en in he g oup helped he lea ning p ocess
D3P15 The g oup was a p ope esou ce o he de elopmen o
he subjec
Rele ance o use
and bene i s
D4P16 I is use ul o in eg a e he use o Wha sApp in o educa ion
D4P17 Wha sApp g oups inc ease con idence be ween s uden s
and eache s
D4P18 The g oup ep esen s an inno a i e lea ning esou ce 0.81
D4P19 The in e ac ion in he g oup was p ac ical
D4P20 I would ecommend c ea ing g oups o o he subjec s
D4P21 Wha sApp g oups help s uden s o become mo e in eg a ed
* Cod. I em = iden i ies he dimension numbe and he i em numbe , e.g., D1P1 = Dimension 1, I em 1.
The esponses we e sco ed on a i e-poin Like scale ( om o ally disag ee o o ally
ag ee). The eliabili y o he ins umen was measu ed using C onbach ’s Alpha coe icien
o each ques ion (Table 2), gene ally ob aining a high in e nal consis ency o 0.89.
2.4. Da a Analysis
The da a analysis was conduc ed in mul iple s ages, combining desc ip i e s a is ical
me hods, in e en ial es s, and mul i a ia e analysis o e alua e s uden s’ pe cep ions o
using Wha sApp in educa ion.
Fi s , a desc ip i e analysis o he su ey esponses was pe o med, calcula ing he
mean (M) and s anda d de ia ion (SD) o each pe cep ion- ela ed ques ion, g ouped
in o ou main dimensions: Wha sApp managemen , communica ion and in e ac ion,
Wha sApp as academic suppo , and ele ance o use and bene i s.
The o e all mean pe cep ion sco e was calcula ed o p o ide a gene al assessmen
o Wha sApp as an educa ional ool. Addi ionally, di e ences in s uden s’ pa icipa ion
ac oss di e en ypes o Wha sApp g oups ( amily, iends, s udy pee s, and eache s) we e
examined using mean compa ison es s.
To iden i y signi ican di e ences be ween sociodemog aphic g oups and pe cep ion
dimensions, non-pa ame ic es s we e applied due o he o dinal na u e o he da a and
he non-no mal dis ibu ion. The Mann–Whi ney U es was used o assess di e ences
be ween wo g oups (gende and academic p og am) in each pe cep ion dimension, wi h a
signi icance le el se a p< 0.05 o de e mine s a is ically signi ican di e ences. Addi ion-
ally, he K uskal–Wallis es was employed o analyze di e ences in Wha sApp pe cep ion
ac oss g oups, pa icula ly in he “Wha sApp g oup” a iable, e alua ing whe he he o ga-
niza ion o s uden s in o di e en g oups a ec ed hei pe cep ion o he ool’s use ulness.
Chi-squa e alues (X²) and p- alues we e epo ed o each es .
Fu he mo e, a clus e ing analysis was conduc ed using he K-means clus e ing
me hod o iden i y pe cep ion pa e ns among s uden s. Be o e applying he clus e ing
algo i hm, pe cep ion a iables we e s anda dized o a oid bias in g oup assignmen . The
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 7 o 17
elbow me hod was used o de e mine he op imal numbe o clus e s, selec ing h ee g oups
based on he explained a iance wi hin each clus e . Subsequen ly, he cha ac e is ics o
each clus e we e analyzed based on hei a e age alues in he pe cep ion dimensions,
iden i ying s uden s wi h c i ical, mode a e, and highly posi i e pe cep ions o Wha sApp
in educa ion Figu e 1.
Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 18
he non-no mal dis ibu ion. The Mann–Whi ney U es was used o assess diffe ences
be ween wo g oups (gende and academic p og am) in each pe cep ion dimension, wi h
a signi icance le el se a p < 0.05 o de e mine s a is ically signi ican diffe ences. Addi-
ionally, he K uskal–Wallis es was employed o analyze diffe ences in Wha sApp pe -
cep ion ac oss g oups, pa icula ly in he “Wha sApp g oup” a iable, e alua ing
whe he he o ganiza ion o s uden s in o diffe en g oups affec ed hei pe cep ion o he
ool’s use ulness. Chi-squa e alues (X²) and p- alues we e epo ed o each es .
Fu he mo e, a clus e ing analysis was conduc ed using he K-means clus e ing
me hod o iden i y pe cep ion pa e ns among s uden s. Be o e applying he clus e ing
algo i hm, pe cep ion a iables we e s anda dized o a oid bias in g oup assignmen . The
elbow me hod was used o de e mine he op imal numbe o clus e s, selec ing h ee
g oups based on he explained a iance wi hin each clus e . Subsequen ly, he cha ac e -
is ics o each clus e we e analyzed based on hei a e age alues in he pe cep ion di-
mensions, iden i ying s uden s wi h c i ical, mode a e, and highly posi i e pe cep ions o
Wha sApp in educa ion Figu e 1.
Figu e 1. Elbow me hod o clus e numbe iden i ica ion.
Finally, o e alua e s uden s’ p e e ence o Wha sApp compa ed o o he academic
communica ion me hods, a mean compa ison analysis was conduc ed using he K uskal–
Wallis es , conside ing a signi icance le el o p < 0.05. Chi-squa e (X²) alues and deg ees
o eedom (d ) we e calcula ed o de e mine diffe ences be ween Wha sApp, email, and
u o ing sessions.
All s a is ical analyses we e pe o med R so wa e ( e sion 4.1.1), using he s a s,
ggplo 2, and clus e lib a ies o da a p ocessing and isualiza ion.
Figu e 1. Elbow me hod o clus e numbe iden i ica ion.
Finally, o e alua e s uden s’ p e e ence o Wha sApp compa ed o o he academic
communica ion me hods, a mean compa ison analysis was conduc ed using he K uskal–
Wallis es , conside ing a signi icance le el o p< 0.05. Chi-squa e (X²) alues and deg ees
o eedom (d ) we e calcula ed o de e mine di e ences be ween Wha sApp, email, and
u o ing sessions.
All s a is ical analyses we e pe o med R so wa e ( e sion 4.1.1), using he s a s,
ggplo 2, and clus e lib a ies o da a p ocessing and isualiza ion.
3. Resul s
Analysis o he p e-diagnosis o s uden s’ use and pa icipa ion in Wha sApp g oups
e ealed ha mos ha e equen ly pa icipa ed in g oups wi h iends (M = 4.23) and
amily (M = 3.95), ollowed by g oups wi h classma es, while in e ac ion wi h eache s is
less common. The s a is ical di e ence be ween he g oups was e iden , wi h an alpha
signi icance le el less han 0.05 (Figu e 2).
Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18
3. Resul s
Analysis o he p e-diagnosis o s uden s’ use and pa icipa ion in Wha sApp g oups
e ealed ha mos ha e equen ly pa icipa ed in g oups wi h iends (M = 4.23) and
amily (M = 3.95), ollowed by g oups wi h classma es, while in e ac ion wi h eache s is
less common. The s a is ical diffe ence be ween he g oups was e iden , wi h an alpha
signi icance le el less han 0.05 (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. P e ious pa icipa ion o s uden s in Wha sApp g oups.
The desc ip i e esul s show ha he s uden s’ o e all assessmen o he use o
Wha sApp is highly posi i e, wi h a gene al mean o 4.48 ou o 5 poin s e alua ed and a
s anda d de ia ion (SD) o 0.64, which ep esen s a consis en e alua ion among he pa -
icipan s. Rega ding Dimension 1, ela ed o he managemen o he Wha sApp applica-
ion, he s uden s conside ha i is ela i ely easy o use, wi h a mean o 4.58 (SD = 0.89),
highligh ing he ease o espec ing in e ac ion imes (M = 4.78) as he mos alued aspec .
Howe e , espec o pa icipa ion ules ob ained he lowes a ing (M = 4.21. SD = 1.09)
among all he issues analyzed, al hough he gene al a e age o he dimension was posi i e
(Figu e 3).
Figu e 3. A e age alues o he ques ions and dimensions used.
Rega ding “communica ion and in e ac ion”, indica ed in Dimension 2, he gene al
mean was posi i e (M = 4.47, SD = 0.73) (Figu e 2), wi h simila alues be ween mos o
Figu e 2. P e ious pa icipa ion o s uden s in Wha sApp g oups.
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 8 o 17
The desc ip i e esul s show ha he s uden s’ o e all assessmen o he use o Wha -
sApp is highly posi i e, wi h a gene al mean o 4.48 ou o 5 poin s e alua ed and a s anda d
de ia ion (SD) o 0.64, which ep esen s a consis en e alua ion among he pa icipan s.
Rega ding Dimension 1, ela ed o he managemen o he Wha sApp applica ion, he s u-
den s conside ha i is ela i ely easy o use, wi h a mean o 4.58 (SD = 0.89), highligh ing
he ease o espec ing in e ac ion imes (M = 4.78) as he mos alued aspec . Howe e ,
espec o pa icipa ion ules ob ained he lowes a ing (M = 4.21. SD = 1.09) among all
he issues analyzed, al hough he gene al a e age o he dimension was posi i e (Figu e 3).
Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18
3. Resul s
Analysis o he p e-diagnosis o s uden s’ use and pa icipa ion in Wha sApp g oups
e ealed ha mos ha e equen ly pa icipa ed in g oups wi h iends (M = 4.23) and
amily (M = 3.95), ollowed by g oups wi h classma es, while in e ac ion wi h eache s is
less common. The s a is ical diffe ence be ween he g oups was e iden , wi h an alpha
signi icance le el less han 0.05 (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. P e ious pa icipa ion o s uden s in Wha sApp g oups.
The desc ip i e esul s show ha he s uden s’ o e all assessmen o he use o
Wha sApp is highly posi i e, wi h a gene al mean o 4.48 ou o 5 poin s e alua ed and a
s anda d de ia ion (SD) o 0.64, which ep esen s a consis en e alua ion among he pa -
icipan s. Rega ding Dimension 1, ela ed o he managemen o he Wha sApp applica-
ion, he s uden s conside ha i is ela i ely easy o use, wi h a mean o 4.58 (SD = 0.89),
highligh ing he ease o espec ing in e ac ion imes (M = 4.78) as he mos alued aspec .
Howe e , espec o pa icipa ion ules ob ained he lowes a ing (M = 4.21. SD = 1.09)
among all he issues analyzed, al hough he gene al a e age o he dimension was posi i e
(Figu e 3).
Figu e 3. A e age alues o he ques ions and dimensions used.
Rega ding “communica ion and in e ac ion”, indica ed in Dimension 2, he gene al
mean was posi i e (M = 4.47, SD = 0.73) (Figu e 2), wi h simila alues be ween mos o
Figu e 3. A e age alues o he ques ions and dimensions used.
Rega ding “communica ion and in e ac ion”, indica ed in Dimension 2, he gene al
mean was posi i e (M = 4.47, SD = 0.73) (Figu e 2), wi h simila alues be ween mos
o he ques ions e alua ed in he dimension, wi h ques ion D2P8 (ease o sha ing ideas)
being one o he bes - a ed aspec s (M = 4.54. SD = 0.74). Dimension 3, Wha sApp as an
academic suppo , eached a gene al mean o 4.48 (SD = 0.74), a sligh ly highe alue han
he p e ious dimensions; in his case, he s uden s conside ha he use o Wha sApp is a
use ul esou ce o suppo hei lea ning. The in o ma ion ansmi ed in he g oup allowed
hem o emembe he academic ac i i ies o be ca ied ou (PD3P10), wi h his ac i i y
being he highes alued (M = 4.68), al hough he abili y o exchange knowledge (D3P13)
was alued sligh ly lowe (M = 4.31).
In con as , Dimension 4, which assessed he ele ance o he applica ion’s use and
o e all bene i , was he highes a ed among he dimensions (Figu e 2), wi h a mean o 4.55
(SD = 0.65). S uden s iew Wha sApp as an inno a i e (D4P18: M = 4.53) and p ac ical
esou ce o lea ning (D4P19), mainly highligh ing he bene i o in eg a ing Wha sApp in
gene al in educa ion (D5p16: M = 4.65
±
0.70) and he ecommenda ion o i s use o o he
subjec s (M = 4.66).
Likewise, he esul s o he Mann–Whi ney and K uskal–Wallis es s e ealed signi i-
can di e ences in s uden s’ pe cep ions o Wha sApp use based on wo dimensions, wi h
alues below hei signi icance alue (p< 0.05). The subjec ha s uden s a e en olled in
signi ican ly in luences hei pe cep ion o Wha sApp managemen (Dimension 1) and i s
gene al use (Dimension 4) (p< 0.018 o Dimension 1 and p< 0.027 o Dimension 4), wi h
hose in Knowledge Managemen being hose who a ed he dimensions bes . Rega ding
sex, a signi ican di e ence was de e mined in Dimension 1 (W = 1591.5, p- alue = 0.036),
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 9 o 17
whe e women ob ained a highe a ing (M = 5.00) (Figu e 4), unlike men, whose a e age
alue eached 4.67.
Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 18
he ques ions e alua ed in he dimension, wi h ques ion D2P8 (ease o sha ing ideas) be-
ing one o he bes - a ed aspec s (M = 4.54. SD = 0.74). Dimension 3, Wha sApp as an aca-
demic suppo , eached a gene al mean o 4.48 (SD = 0.74), a sligh ly highe alue han he
p e ious dimensions; in his case, he s uden s conside ha he use o Wha sApp is a
use ul esou ce o suppo hei lea ning. The in o ma ion ansmi ed in he g oup al-
lowed hem o emembe he academic ac i i ies o be ca ied ou (PD3P10), wi h his
ac i i y being he highes alued (M = 4.68), al hough he abili y o exchange knowledge
(D3P13) was alued sligh ly lowe (M = 4.31).
In con as , Dimension 4, which assessed he ele ance o he applica ion’s use and
o e all bene i , was he highes a ed among he dimensions (Figu e 2), wi h a mean o
4.55 (SD = 0.65). S uden s iew Wha sApp as an inno a i e (D4P18: M = 4.53) and p ac ical
esou ce o lea ning (D4P19), mainly highligh ing he bene i o in eg a ing Wha sApp
in gene al in educa ion (D5p16: M = 4.65 ± 0.70) and he ecommenda ion o i s use o
o he subjec s (M = 4.66).
Likewise, he esul s o he Mann–Whi ney and K uskal–Wallis es s e ealed signi -
ican diffe ences in s uden s’ pe cep ions o Wha sApp use based on wo dimensions,
wi h alues below hei signi icance alue (p < 0.05). The subjec ha s uden s a e en olled
in signi ican ly in luences hei pe cep ion o Wha sApp managemen (Dimension 1) and
i s gene al use (Dimension 4) (p < 0.018 o Dimension 1 and p < 0.027 o Dimension 4),
wi h hose in Knowledge Managemen being hose who a ed he dimensions bes . Re-
ga ding sex, a signi ican diffe ence was de e mined in Dimension 1 (W = 1591.5, p- alue
= 0.036), whe e women ob ained a highe a ing (M = 5.00) (Figu e 4), unlike men, whose
a e age alue eached 4.67.
Figu e 4. Boxplo o dimensions based on pa icipan s’ sex.
The K uskal–Wallis es showed signi ican diffe ences in Dimension 1 be ween he
diffe en Wha sApp g oups (X²: 13.196, p- alue = 0.03). G oup 1 (M = 5) and G oup 5 (M
= 5) had he highes sco es, while G oup 3 (M = 4.37) and G oup 4 (M = 4.62) showed lowe
Figu e 4. Boxplo o dimensions based on pa icipan s’ sex.
The K uskal–Wallis es showed signi ican di e ences in Dimension 1 be ween he
di e en Wha sApp g oups (X²: 13.196, p- alue = 0.03). G oup 1
(M = 5)
and G oup 5
(M = 5)
had he highes sco es, while G oup 3 (M = 4.37) and G oup 4 (M = 4.62) showed
lowe sco es. I is impo an o highligh ha he gene al a e age o he g oups whe e he e
we e ewe pa icipan s had a highe a e age sco e (4.75) han he g oups wi h a g ea e
numbe o s uden s (M = 4.63), sugges ing ha he numbe o pa icipan s in he g oups
a ec s he pe cep ion o he use ulness o he ool o communica ion.
K-means clus e ing analysis e ealed h ee dis inc clus e s o s uden s based on hei
pe cep ions o Wha sApp use. Each clus e p esen ed unique cha ac e is ics ha e lec
impo an di e ences in how s uden s a e he pla o m’s use ulness and e ec i eness
o communica ion and i s gene al applica ion in he academic en i onmen . Clus e 1
(Figu e 5, ed colo ) was cha ac e ized by con aining s uden s wi h he leas a o able
pe cep ions abou Wha sApp use. The a e age sco es on he a iables ela ed o use ulness
o communica ion wi h pee s and g oup wo k we e 2.7 and 2.6, espec i ely, indica ing ha
hese s uden s do no pe cei e Wha sApp as a pa icula ly use ul ool in he educa ional
con ex . The o al means o pe cep ion in he di e en dimensions anged om 2.5 o
3.1; his g oup o s uden s migh ha e ce ain ese a ions abou using he pla o m in
collabo a i e o educa ional ac i i ies. These s uden s may p e e o he me hods o ools o
ca y ou such ac i i ies.
In con as , Clus e 2 g ouped s uden s wi h mode a ely posi i e pe cep ions abou
he use o Wha sApp. Sco es on key a iables such as Wha sApp’s use ulness o g oup
wo k anged be ween 3.9 and 4.2, indica ing a gene al accep ance o he pla o m, albei
wi h some ese a ions. The o al a e age sco es o his clus e we e highe han in Clus e
1, wi h alues be ween 4.0 and 4.3 in he di e en dimensions e alua ed. He e, s uden s
conside Wha sApp o be use ul in he educa ional con ex bu a e likely o pe cei e some
limi a ions in i s e ec i eness o in i s capaci y o acili a e collabo a i e wo k. Clus e
Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 16 o 17
Lee, Cheng Ean, Huei Huei Che n, and Dza an Ad is Azmi . 2023. Wha sApp Use in a Highe Educa ion Lea ning En i onmen :
Pe spec i e o S uden s o a Malaysian P i a e Uni e si y on Academic Pe o mance and Team E ec i eness. Educa ion Sciences
13: 244. [C ossRe ]
Madge, Cla e, Ma kus Roos B eines, Mwaz i a Tapiwa Bea ice Dalu, Ashley Gun e , Jenna Mi elmeie , Paul P insloo, and Pa a i
Raghu am. 2019. Wha sApp use among A ican in e na ional dis ance educa ion (IDE) s uden s: T ans e ing, ansla ing and
ans o ming educa ional expe iences. Lea ning, Media and Technology 44: 267–82. [C ossRe ]
Masalimo a, Al iya, Lyudmila S. Chikile a, Ma ia A. Kh a o a, Elena P. Z yagin se a, Valen ina V. S epano a, and Ma iya V. Melnik.
2022. Dis ance Lea ning in Highe Educa ion Du ing Co id-19. F on ie s in Educa ion 7: 822958. [C ossRe ]
Menéndez Ál a ez-Da de , Susana, Bá ba a Lo ence La a, and Ja ie Pé ez-Padilla. 2020. Olde adul s and ICT adop ion: Analysis o
he use and a i udes owa d compu e s in elde ly Spanish people. Compu e s in Human Beha io 110: 106377. [C ossRe ]
Misaghi, Mohammad, E elise Tonio i, Edua do Concepcion Ba iz, and An onio José Dos San os. 2021. Wha sApp as a Tool o
In eg a ion and Mo i a ion in Dis ance Educa ion. Social Ne wo king 10: 29–43. [C ossRe ]
Mo sidi, Su aya, Khai ul Anua Abdul Rahman, Zakiah Mohamad Asha i, Nu ul Fa hana Jumaa , and Abdul Halim Abdullah. 2021.
Wha sApp and I s Po en ial o De elop Communica ion Skills among Uni e si y S uden s. In e na ional Jou nal o In e ac i e
Mobile Technologies (iJIM) 15: 57–71. [C ossRe ]
Nasu ion, Awal Ku nia Pu a, and Imam Munanda . 2023. T ends, Oppo uni ies, and Challenges o Using Wha sApp in Lea ning: A
Li e a u e Re iew. Ju nal Simki Pedagogia 6: 531–44. [C ossRe ]
Nenakho a, Eka e ina. 2021. Dis ance lea ning p ac ices on he example o second language lea ning du ing co ona i us epidemic in
Russia. In e na ional Jou nal o Ins uc ion 14: 807–26. [C ossRe ]
Nkambule, Bongani I. 2023. Wha sApp Messenge as a supplemen a y ool o school cu iculum knowledge ans e and acquisi ion
du ing COVID-19 s ic e lockdown: Educa o s’ pe cep ions. Resea ch in Social Sciences and Technology 8: 37–55. [C ossRe ]
Nuuyoma, Vis olina, Nkosenhle Je maine Mhlope, and Leona d Chihu u u. 2020. The use o Wha sApp as an educa ional communica-
ion ool in highe educa ion: Expe iences o nu sing s uden s in Ka ango Eas , Namibia. In e na ional Jou nal o Highe Educa ion
9: 105–14. [C ossRe ]
Ös lund, Be i . 2009. Women and men in compu e -media ed dis ance lea ning– an explo a o y s udy on condi ions o dis ance
lea ning based on male and emale s uden s’ own desc ip ions. No dic Jou nal o Digi al Li e acy 4: 48–64. [C ossRe ]
Palacios-Rod íguez, An onio, Ca men Llo en e-Cejudo, Ma ga ida Lucas, and Ped ó Bem-haja. 2025. Mac oe aluación de la compe en-
cia digi al docen e. Es udio DigCompEdu en España y Po ugal. RIED-Re is a Ibe oame icana de Educación a Dis ancia 28: 177–96.
[C ossRe ]
Pa on, Michael Q. 2015. Quali a i e esea ch and e alua ion me hods: In eg a ing heo y and p ac ice, 4 h ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publica ions.
Ramí ez-Mon oya, Ma ia Soledad, Isabeñ Al a ez-Icaza, Joe Webe , and F ancisco Casillas-Muñoz. 2024. Tecnologías abie as e
inclusi as en la complejidad del u u o de la educación: Diseño de modelo basado en in es igación [Open and Inclusi e
Technologies in he Complexi y o he Fu u e o Educa ion: Designing a Resea ch-Based Model]. Pixel-Bi . Re is a De Medios Y
Educación 71: 123–39. [C ossRe ]
Rome o-Sa i ama, José Miguel, and Janne h Simaluiza. 2022. G upos de Facebook como he amien a de apoyo a la comunicación y
enseñanza en la Educación Supe io a dis ancia. In Nue as me odologías, espacios y es ilos de enseñanza-ap endizaje: P ác icas docen es
e inno ación educa i a. Edi ed by Sue Ca ascal, Daniel Mela é and Diego Gallego. Mad id: Uni e si as, S.A, pp. 1–10.
Salkind, Neil J. 2017. Explo ing Resea ch, 9 h ed. Kansas Ci y: Pea son Educa ion.
Selinge , Adol , and E a G ös enbe ge . 2023. The e ec o gende and age on compu e sel -e icacy, compu e anxie y and pe cei ed
enjoymen among Aus ian seconda y school eache s. MAP Educa ion and Humani ies 4: 1–9. [C ossRe ]
Siemens, Geo ge. 2005. Connec i ism: A lea ning heo y o he digi al age. In e na ional Jou nal o Ins uc ional Technology & Dis ance
Lea ning 2: 3–10.
Slakmon, Benzi. 2024. Wha sApp o pedagogy: Ini ia i es, ins uc ional p ac ices and he na u e o knowledge in Is ael’s seconda y
educa ion. Technology, Pedagogy and Educa ion 33: 647–62. [C ossRe ]
Suá ez-Lan a ón, Belén, I ina Cas illo-Reche, and Ana M. López Medialdea. 2021. Tu o ía académica uni e si a ia apoyada median e
Wha sApp: Conoce sus en ajas y sal a sus des en ajas. Re is a Elec ónica In e uni e si a ia de Fo mación del P o eso ado 24:
189–203. [C ossRe ]
Suá ez-Lan a ón, Belén, Yolanda Deocano-Ruíz, Nu ia Ga cía-Pe ales, and I ina She ezade Cas illo-Reche. 2022. The educa ional use
o Wha sApp. Sus ainabili y 14: 10510. [C ossRe ]
Ven u ino, Ma ielle, and Yu-C. Hsu. 2022. Using Wha sApp o Enhance In e na ional Dis ance Educa ion a he Uni e si y o Sou h
A ica. TechT ends 66: 401–4. [C ossRe ]
Ve ma, Manoj K., and Mayank Yu a aj. 2023. Wha ’s up in Wha sApp esea ch: A comp ehensi e analysis o 12,947 pape s indexed in
Dimensions.ai. Lib a y Hi Tech.. [C ossRe ]
Wii a aa a, Bi gi a, and Linda Wida . 2025. Challenges and oppo uni ies ela ed o online s udies in highe educa ion. Educa ion and
In o ma ion Technologies 21: 1–26. [C ossRe ]

Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 17 o 17
Yeboah, Douglas, and Paul Nyago me. 2022. S uden s’ accep ance o Wha sApp as eaching and lea ning ool in dis ance highe
educa ion in sub-Saha an A ica. Cogen Educa ion 9. [C ossRe ]
Yu, Ke, and Monicah G. Mo lhabane. 2022. Wha sApp’s po en ial o b oaden online eaching and lea ning: Pe cep ions o unde -
g adua e s uden s om one Sou h A ican uni e si y. Jou nal o In o ma ion Technology Educa ion: Resea ch 21: 547–69. [C ossRe ]
[PubMed]
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .