Using Whatsapp in distance education: Assessing the impact on academic interaction and influencing factors

Academic Edi o : And eu Case o-Ripollés Recei ed: 20 Decembe 2024 Re ised: 9 Ma ch 2025 Accep ed: 12 Ma ch 2025 Published: 18 Ma ch 2025 Ci a ion: Rome o-Sa i ama, Jose Miguel, Sand a Espinosa-Tapia, and An onio Palacios-Rod íguez. 2025. Using Wha sApp in Dis ance Educa ion: Assessing he Impac on Academic In e ac ion and In luencing Fac o s. Social Sciences 14: 183. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ socsci14030183 Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/ licenses/by/4.0/). A icle Using Wha sApp in Dis ance Educa ion: Assessing he Impac on Academic In e ac ion and In luencing Fac o s Jose Miguel Rome o-Sa i ama 1, Sand a Espinosa-Tapia 2,* and An onio Palacios-Rod íguez 3,* 1Depa men o Biological and Ag icul u al Sciences, P i a e Technical Uni e si y o Loja, Loja 110107, Ecuado ; jm ome [email p o ec ed] 2Depa men o Chemis y, P i a e Technical Uni e si y o Loja, Loja 110107, Ecuado 3Depa men o Didac ics and Educa ional O ganiza ion, Uni e si y o Se ille, 41013 Se ille, Spain *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (S.E.-T.); [email p o ec ed] (A.P.-R.) Abs ac : Wha sApp has gained ele ance in dis ance highe educa ion due o i s accessibil- i y and ease o use, making i a aluable ool o academic suppo . This s udy analyzes he use o Wha sApp in his con ex , conside ing sociodemog aphic a iables and ac o s such as subjec and g oup size. The sample included 127 s uden s om an Ecuado ian uni e si y, belonging o wo subjec s om di e en a eas. Wi h a mul i a ia e quan i a i e app oach, his s udy e alua ed he dimensions o managemen , communica ion and in e ac ion, lea n- ing, and he ele ance and bene i s o using Wha sApp. The da a we e analyzed using Mann–Whi ney U and K uskal–Wallis es s and a K-means clus e ing analysis. The esul s show a posi i e assessmen o he use o Wha sApp (mean o 4.48/5), highligh ing he academic bene i s, especially i s inno a i e and p ac ical e ec . Smalle g oups p esen ed a mo e a o able assessmen , and women epo ed a g ea e inclina ion owa ds some key dimensions. The clus e ing analysis iden i ied h ee g oups o s uden s wi h di e en ia ed assessmen s. These indings sugges ha Wha sApp, as a suppo ool in dis ance educa- ion, no only acili a es academic in e ac ion, bu also esponds o he speci ic needs o s uden s, i s e ec i eness being dependen on g oup size and o he s uden cha ac e is ics. Keywo ds: online educa ion; academic communica ion; digi al lea ning ools; digi al in e ac ion; echnological inno a ion; Wha sApp 1. In oduc ion Dis ance educa ion is an educa ional modali y in which s uden s and eache s a e physically and/o empo ally sepa a ed, in e ac ing h ough a ious echnological means and esou ces o acili a e he eaching–lea ning p ocess (Ga cía 2021). This modali y has helped educe geog aphical inequali y in access o highe educa ion, p o iding s uden s wi h he oppo uni y o s udy wi hou ime o loca ion cons ain s. Addi ionally, i allows hem o balance wo k, amily li e, and s udies (Ös lund 2009;Wii a aa a and Wida 2025). Howe e , dis ance highe educa ion has shown a lowe e en ion a e compa ed o ace- o- ace educa ion, leading o a ious economic and social challenges o bo h s uden s and uni e si ies (Wii a aa a and Wida 2025). The di icul ies ha s uden s ace in his modali y ha e been widely s udied. Al un e al. (2021) a gue ha dis ance educa ion does no always gua an ee e ec i e lea ning, while o he s udies ha e iden i ied issues such as di icul ies in ca ying ou g oup wo k (Adnan and Anwa 2020;Boza lı 2021) and academic o e load due o he la ge numbe o asks and ac i i ies o be comple ed (Nenakho a 2021). Mo eo e , s uden s may expe ience a sense o abandonmen , especially when hey do no ecei e immedia e esponses om Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/socsci14030183 Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 2 o 17 hei eache s. Added o his is he lack o digi al compe encies, which hinde s hei in e ac ion in i ual academic pla o ms. Despi e hese challenges, dis ance educa ion has expe ienced signi ican g ow h in ecen yea s, d i en by he need o lexible access o lea ning and, mo e ecen ly, by he COVID-19 pandemic (Masalimo a e al. 2022). Howe e , his g ow h poses new challenges, especially in e ms o e ec i e communica ion, con inuous in e ac ion, and collabo a ion be ween pa icipan s in he educa ional p ocess (Rome o-Sa i ama and Simaluiza 2022; Ramí ez-Mon oya e al. 2024). In his con ex , i is essen ial o ha e lea ning en i on- men s ha p omo e luid and accessible communica ion be ween s uden s and eache s, as he lack o immedia e in e ac ion can nega i ely a ec he educa ional expe ience and g oup cohesion. Al hough o mal educa ional pla o ms such as Can as and Moodle exis , hese ools ha e limi a ions when i comes o mee ing he demands o as and in o mal communica- ion ha cha ac e ize dis ance lea ning en i onmen s. Access ba ie s, he o mal s uc u e o hese pla o ms, and he lack o immediacy in in e ac ion can hinde he na u al low o communica ion, limi ing hei e ec i eness in si ua ions whe e eal- ime collabo a ion is c ucial (Lee e al. 2023;Ga cía Á ila and Camacho 2023). O e he pas decade, ins an messaging pla o ms ha e signi ican ly ans o med he way we in e ac in pe sonal and p o essional se ings, and hei impac on he educa ional en i onmen has no been mino . Among hese pla o ms, Wha sApp has s ood ou o i s ease o use, a ailabili y, and mass adop ion, bo h in social and academic con ex s. As educa ional ins i u ions adop echnologies o acili a e dis ance lea ning, Wha sApp has become a key ool o communica ion be ween s uden s and eache s, as well as a pedagogical esou ce o he de elopmen o collabo a i e lea ning (Suá ez-Lan a ón e al. 2022;Slakmon 2024). In his con ex , Wha sApp has eme ged as a as and e ec i e communica ion pla o m ha , being p esen in he daily li es o mos s uden s, o e s an accessible way o connec s uden s wi h each o he and wi h hei eache s in eal ime (Hadiyana Fah u ozi and Fakh i 2024). The use o Wha sApp in educa ion has been pa icula ly ele an du ing c isis si ua ions such as he COVID-19 pandemic, when limi a ions on ace- o- ace con ac inc eased he demand o i ual communica ion ools (Nkambule 2023). One o he main ad an ages o Wha sApp in educa ional se ings is i s abili y o acili a e synch onous and asynch onous lea ning, allowing eal- ime communica ion, sending and ecei ing ex messages, images, audio messages, ideos, documen s, use loca ions, con ac s, and he c ea ion o g oups whe e doub s can be esol ed, ma e ials can be sha ed, and ac i i ies can be coo dina ed quickly and e icien ly (Suá ez-Lan a ón e al. 2022;Nuuyoma e al. 2020). Fu he mo e, unlike o he mo e o mal educa ional managemen pla o ms, Wha sApp does no equi e addi ional lea ning o use, as mos s uden s a e al eady amilia wi h he applica ion in hei daily li es. This signi ican ly educes echnological ba ie s, p omo ing g ea e pa icipa ion and accessibili y (Lee e al. 2023;Casillas-Ma ín e al. 2021). P e ious esea ch has shown ha Wha sApp no only imp o es communica ion be ween s uden s and eache s, bu also enhances collabo a i e lea ning by os e ing mo e luid and cons an in e ac ion ou side he adi ional class oom en i onmen . S uden s can sha e ideas, e lec ions, and s udy ma e ials in a mo e in o mal and elaxed en i onmen , con ibu ing o g ea e pa icipa ion and he de elopmen o sel -managemen skills in lea ning (Nasu ion and Munanda 2023;Suá ez-Lan a ón e al. 2022;Palacios-Rod íguez e al. 2025). This ype o in e ac ion, which blu s adi ional hie a chical ba ie s be ween eache and s uden , is c ucial in dis ance educa ion en i onmen s, whe e s uden s may Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 3 o 17 expe ience isola ion o lack o eedback (Ja amillo-Se ano e al. 2023;Koma udin and Suhe man 2024). On he o he hand, i has also been poin ed ou ha he adop ion o Wha sApp in educa ional se ings may a y depending on sociodemog aphic ac o s. Al hough some s udies sugges ha younge s uden s a e mo e ecep i e o he use o mobile echnologies, o he s indica e ha Wha sApp, being such a widely used pla o m, has managed o o e come gene a ional gaps, being posi i ely alued by s uden s o di e en ages (Yu and Mo lhabane 2022;Ga cía Á ila and Camacho 2023). Rega ding gende di e ences, i has been documen ed ha women end o pa icipa e mo e ac i ely in i ual collabo a i e en i onmen s, which could be e lec ed in a highe app ecia ion o he use o Wha sApp in he educa ional con ex (Casillas-Ma ín e al. 2021). Ano he impo an ea u e o Wha sApp is i s abili y o c ea e wo king g oups, which has p o en o be pa icula ly e ec i e in os e ing close and mo e collabo a i e in e ac ion be ween s uden s (Mo sidi e al. 2021). In his sense, Wha sApp no only ac s as an ins an messaging pla o m bu also becomes a i ual space wi h a ying numbe s o pa icipan s o he de elopmen o collec i e lea ning, aligned wi h he p inciples o connec i ism exp essed by Siemens (2005), which emphasize ha lea ning is no longe an indi idual p ocess bu occu s h ough connec ion and ne wo ked collabo a ion wi h o he people and sou ces o in o ma ion. Howe e , using Wha sApp is no wi hou i s challenges. Despi e i s nume ous ad an- ages, some s udies ha e poin ed ou ha i s in o mal na u e can lead o dis ac ions o blu he bounda ies be ween academic and pe sonal li e, a ec ing s uden s’ concen a ion and abili y o main ain e ec i e ime managemen (Suá ez-Lan a ón e al. 2022). Fu he - mo e, unlike educa ional managemen pla o ms such as Moodle o Can as, Wha sApp is no speci ically designed o he s uc u ed o ganiza ion o academic con en , which may limi i s use in mo e complex ac i i ies o in he deli e y o la ge-scale assignmen s (Mo sidi e al. 2021). Gi en he g owing impo ance o Wha sApp in he educa ional ield and he need o explo e i s impac in dis ance educa ion con ex s, i is c ucial o conduc s udies ha analyze how his pla o m is pe cei ed by s uden s and wha ac o s in luence i s e ec i eness as an academic suppo ool in dis ance s udies. Wha sApp’s accessibili y, combined wi h i s abili y o os e collabo a ion, in e ac ion, and sel -di ec ed lea ning, posi ions i as a ool ha can signi ican ly con ibu e o imp o ing eaching and lea ning p ocesses in i ual en i onmen s (Lee e al. 2023;Ven u ino and Hsu 2022). Gi en he abo e, his s udy seeks o ill a gap in he li e a u e by analyzing no only he gene al impac o Wha sApp on academic in e ac ion, bu also how a ious con ex ual and sociodemog aphic a iables can in luence he pe cep ion and e ec i eness o his ool in dis ance educa ion en i onmen s. Wi hin his amewo k, he p esen esea ch aims o answe he ollowing ques ions: 1. Wha a e he dimensions o Wha sApp’s use as an academic suppo ool ha a e mos alued by s uden s, and wha ac o s in luence his assessmen ? 2. How do s uden s pe cei e he use o Wha sApp as an academic suppo ool in dis ance educa ion depending on he subjec ? 3. A e he e signi ican di e ences in he assessmen o he use o Wha sApp as an academic ool based on he a iables o he sex and age o he pa icipan s? 4. How does he size o he Wha sApp g oup in luence s uden pe cep ions o Wha - sApp’s use in he academic con ex ? 5. How a e s uden s g ouped acco ding o hei pe cep ions o Wha sApp usage, and wha a e he key cha ac e is ics o each g oup iden i ied h ough clus e ing analysis? Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 4 o 17 2. Ma e ials and Me hods 2.1. Type o S udy This s udy is amed wi hin a quan i a i e app oach, since we ha e used he collec ion o nume ical da a h ough a s uc u ed ques ionnai e, ollowed by a s a is ical analysis. This quan i a i e app oach is essen ial when seeking o es ablish ela ionships be ween a iables and gene alize he esul s ob ained o a b oade popula ion (Gue e o Táma a 2022). F om he poin o iew o he ype o esea ch, we can classi y i as desc ip i e and co ela ional. Desc ip i e esea ch has allowed us o explo e and de ail he s uden s’ pe cep ions, while he co ela ional na u e is jus i ied by he ela ionship ha has been s udied be ween pe cep ions and a ious sociodemog aphic a iables (He nández-Sampie i e al. 2018). On he o he hand, he non-expe imen al design used is ideal o his ype o s udy, since a iables we e no manipula ed, and i is a c oss-sec ional s udy, which is sui able o analyzing phenomena in hei na u al s a e wi hou di ec in e en ion (Salkind 2017). 2.2. Pa icipan s This s udy was conduc ed wi h 127 ou o he 140 s uden s en olled in he cou ses P ác icum 3 (En i onmen al Managemen p og am) and Knowledge Managemen (Business Adminis a ion p og am) in he dis ance lea ning modali y a Uni e sidad Técnica Pa - icula de Loja—Ecuado . P ác icum 3 is augh in he ou h yea o he p og am, while Knowledge Managemen is aken in he hi d yea . The sample included da a om h ee academic e ms, Oc 21–Feb22 (A), Ap 22–Aug22 (B), and Oc 22–Feb23 (C), wi h an e en gende dis ibu ion o men (52%) and women (48%) (Table 1). Table 1. Sociodemog aphic da a o he pa icipan s. Va iable Ca ego y F equency * % Sex Man 66 51.97 Women 61 48.03 Age 19–22 6 4.72 23–26 24 18.9 27–30 39 30.71 31–34 31 24.41 35–38 11 8.66 39–42 16 12.6 Academic cycle Oc 21-Feb22 (A) 58 45.67 Ap 22-Aug22 (B) 35 27.56 Oc 22-Feb23 (C) 34 26.77 Subjec Knowledge Managemen 10 7.87 P ac icum 3 117 92.13 Wha sApp G oup G oup 1 10 7.87 G oup 2 7 5.51 G oup 3 14 11.02 G oup 4 14 11.02 G oup 5 13 10.24 G oup 6 35 27.56 G oup 7 34 26.77 * F equency is he numbe o s uden s who co espond o he assigned ca ego y. Since one o his s udy’s esea ch ques ions examines he in luence o Wha sApp g oup size on s uden pe cep ion (Ques ion 2), di e en con igu a ions we e implemen ed in each academic e m: Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 5 o 17 • Cycle A: S uden s we e di ided in o small g oups, wi h sizes anging om 7 o 14 pa - icipan s (G oups 1 o 5). G oup 1 co esponded o he Knowledge Managemen cou se. • Cycle B: A single la ge Wha sApp g oup was o med, including all s uden s om he e m (G oup 6). • Cycle C: The s a egy om Cycle B was epea ed, g ouping all s uden s in o a single Wha sApp g oup (G oup 7, Table 1). All pa icipan s p o ided w i en consen o ake pa in his s udy, unde he condi ion ha hey had access o a mobile phone wi h Wha sApp. S uden s who chose no o pa icipa e accoun ed o 9.3%. Since pa icipa ion was ee and olun a y, no inqui y was made ega ding hei decision. 2.3. Use o Wha sApp and Resea ch Ins umen Du ing he i s week o classes, pa icipan s we e dis ibu ed in di e en Wha sApp g oups, wi h he la ges being G oups 6 and 7, wi h 27.56% (n = 35) and 26.77% (n = 34) o s uden s, espec i ely, while he smalles g oups, such as G oup 2, had only 5.51% o s uden s (n = 7). This dis ibu ion allowed o a a ie y in he expe ience o using Wha sApp as an academic suppo ool, which adds ichness o he da a ob ained in his s udy. In each g oup, h ee ypes o gene al ac i i ies we e ca ied ou : a) esol ing conce ns, b) sha ing in o ma ion, and c) sending and ecei ing announcemen s abou ac i i y da es. Wha sApp was used a a ime ag eed upon wi h he s uden s and he c edibili y o he in o ma ion sha ed by he s uden s was analyzed. C edibili y e e s o he ex en o which he eache e i ies he ep oduc ion o he in o ma ion e lec ed in he opinions o he pa icipan s (Pa on 2015). A he end o he academic pe iod, he educa ional expe ience was e alua ed online using a su ey, ollowing he p oposal o Klein e al. (2018). The ques ionnai e consis ed o h ee sec ions: (a) sociodemog aphic da a, which speci ically included he age and sex o he pa icipan s and he subjec in which hey we e en olled, (b) p e ious expe ience wi h Wha sApp ( ou ques ions), and (c) s uden pe cep ion (Table 2). The la e included 21 i ems di ided in o 4 dimensions, e alua ing 1. Wha sApp managemen , 2. communica- ion and in e ac ion, 3. lea ning, and 4. ele ance o use and bene i s ob ained du ing he educa ional expe ience (Nuuyoma e al. 2020). Table 2. Dimensions and ques ions abou he use o Wha sApp. Dimension Cod. I em * I em C onbach’s Alpha Wha sApp Managemen D1P1 I was easy o handle Wha sApp o he subjec D1P2 The s uden iden i ied all he Wha sApp unc ions D1P3 The ules o pa icipa ion in he Wha sApp g oup we e espec ed D1P4 The du a ion o in e ac ion on Wha sApp was used p ope ly Communica ion and in e ac ion D2P5 The s uden s we e able o communica e easily wi h hei classma es in he g oup D2P6 The s uden s we e able o communica e easily wi h hei eache in he g oup 0.86 D2P7 I was easy o make ques ions in he g oup D2P8 I was easy o sha e ideas in he g oup D2P9 I was easy o ind in e ac ion in he g oup Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 6 o 17 Table 2. Con . Dimension Cod. I em * I em C onbach’s Alpha Wha sApp academic medium D3P10 The in o ma ion in he g oup helped s uden s o emembe penden ac i i ies D3P11 The in o ma ion in he g oup helped s uden s o comple e asks D3P12 The g oup helped s uden s o sol e hei ques ions quickly 0.77 D3P13 I was easy o exchange knowledge in he g oup D3P14 The con en in he g oup helped he lea ning p ocess D3P15 The g oup was a p ope esou ce o he de elopmen o he subjec Rele ance o use and bene i s D4P16 I is use ul o in eg a e he use o Wha sApp in o educa ion D4P17 Wha sApp g oups inc ease con idence be ween s uden s and eache s D4P18 The g oup ep esen s an inno a i e lea ning esou ce 0.81 D4P19 The in e ac ion in he g oup was p ac ical D4P20 I would ecommend c ea ing g oups o o he subjec s D4P21 Wha sApp g oups help s uden s o become mo e in eg a ed * Cod. I em = iden i ies he dimension numbe and he i em numbe , e.g., D1P1 = Dimension 1, I em 1. The esponses we e sco ed on a i e-poin Like scale ( om o ally disag ee o o ally ag ee). The eliabili y o he ins umen was measu ed using C onbach ’s Alpha coe icien o each ques ion (Table 2), gene ally ob aining a high in e nal consis ency o 0.89. 2.4. Da a Analysis The da a analysis was conduc ed in mul iple s ages, combining desc ip i e s a is ical me hods, in e en ial es s, and mul i a ia e analysis o e alua e s uden s’ pe cep ions o using Wha sApp in educa ion. Fi s , a desc ip i e analysis o he su ey esponses was pe o med, calcula ing he mean (M) and s anda d de ia ion (SD) o each pe cep ion- ela ed ques ion, g ouped in o ou main dimensions: Wha sApp managemen , communica ion and in e ac ion, Wha sApp as academic suppo , and ele ance o use and bene i s. The o e all mean pe cep ion sco e was calcula ed o p o ide a gene al assessmen o Wha sApp as an educa ional ool. Addi ionally, di e ences in s uden s’ pa icipa ion ac oss di e en ypes o Wha sApp g oups ( amily, iends, s udy pee s, and eache s) we e examined using mean compa ison es s. To iden i y signi ican di e ences be ween sociodemog aphic g oups and pe cep ion dimensions, non-pa ame ic es s we e applied due o he o dinal na u e o he da a and he non-no mal dis ibu ion. The Mann–Whi ney U es was used o assess di e ences be ween wo g oups (gende and academic p og am) in each pe cep ion dimension, wi h a signi icance le el se a p< 0.05 o de e mine s a is ically signi ican di e ences. Addi ion- ally, he K uskal–Wallis es was employed o analyze di e ences in Wha sApp pe cep ion ac oss g oups, pa icula ly in he “Wha sApp g oup” a iable, e alua ing whe he he o ga- niza ion o s uden s in o di e en g oups a ec ed hei pe cep ion o he ool’s use ulness. Chi-squa e alues (X²) and p- alues we e epo ed o each es . Fu he mo e, a clus e ing analysis was conduc ed using he K-means clus e ing me hod o iden i y pe cep ion pa e ns among s uden s. Be o e applying he clus e ing algo i hm, pe cep ion a iables we e s anda dized o a oid bias in g oup assignmen . The Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 7 o 17 elbow me hod was used o de e mine he op imal numbe o clus e s, selec ing h ee g oups based on he explained a iance wi hin each clus e . Subsequen ly, he cha ac e is ics o each clus e we e analyzed based on hei a e age alues in he pe cep ion dimensions, iden i ying s uden s wi h c i ical, mode a e, and highly posi i e pe cep ions o Wha sApp in educa ion Figu e 1. Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 18 he non-no mal dis ibu ion. The Mann–Whi ney U es was used o assess diffe ences be ween wo g oups (gende and academic p og am) in each pe cep ion dimension, wi h a signi icance le el se a p < 0.05 o de e mine s a is ically signi ican diffe ences. Addi- ionally, he K uskal–Wallis es was employed o analyze diffe ences in Wha sApp pe - cep ion ac oss g oups, pa icula ly in he “Wha sApp g oup” a iable, e alua ing whe he he o ganiza ion o s uden s in o diffe en g oups affec ed hei pe cep ion o he ool’s use ulness. Chi-squa e alues (X²) and p- alues we e epo ed o each es . Fu he mo e, a clus e ing analysis was conduc ed using he K-means clus e ing me hod o iden i y pe cep ion pa e ns among s uden s. Be o e applying he clus e ing algo i hm, pe cep ion a iables we e s anda dized o a oid bias in g oup assignmen . The elbow me hod was used o de e mine he op imal numbe o clus e s, selec ing h ee g oups based on he explained a iance wi hin each clus e . Subsequen ly, he cha ac e - is ics o each clus e we e analyzed based on hei a e age alues in he pe cep ion di- mensions, iden i ying s uden s wi h c i ical, mode a e, and highly posi i e pe cep ions o Wha sApp in educa ion Figu e 1. Figu e 1. Elbow me hod o clus e numbe iden i ica ion. Finally, o e alua e s uden s’ p e e ence o Wha sApp compa ed o o he academic communica ion me hods, a mean compa ison analysis was conduc ed using he K uskal– Wallis es , conside ing a signi icance le el o p < 0.05. Chi-squa e (X²) alues and deg ees o eedom (d ) we e calcula ed o de e mine diffe ences be ween Wha sApp, email, and u o ing sessions. All s a is ical analyses we e pe o med R so wa e ( e sion 4.1.1), using he s a s, ggplo 2, and clus e lib a ies o da a p ocessing and isualiza ion. Figu e 1. Elbow me hod o clus e numbe iden i ica ion. Finally, o e alua e s uden s’ p e e ence o Wha sApp compa ed o o he academic communica ion me hods, a mean compa ison analysis was conduc ed using he K uskal– Wallis es , conside ing a signi icance le el o p< 0.05. Chi-squa e (X²) alues and deg ees o eedom (d ) we e calcula ed o de e mine di e ences be ween Wha sApp, email, and u o ing sessions. All s a is ical analyses we e pe o med R so wa e ( e sion 4.1.1), using he s a s, ggplo 2, and clus e lib a ies o da a p ocessing and isualiza ion. 3. Resul s Analysis o he p e-diagnosis o s uden s’ use and pa icipa ion in Wha sApp g oups e ealed ha mos ha e equen ly pa icipa ed in g oups wi h iends (M = 4.23) and amily (M = 3.95), ollowed by g oups wi h classma es, while in e ac ion wi h eache s is less common. The s a is ical di e ence be ween he g oups was e iden , wi h an alpha signi icance le el less han 0.05 (Figu e 2). Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18 3. Resul s Analysis o he p e-diagnosis o s uden s’ use and pa icipa ion in Wha sApp g oups e ealed ha mos ha e equen ly pa icipa ed in g oups wi h iends (M = 4.23) and amily (M = 3.95), ollowed by g oups wi h classma es, while in e ac ion wi h eache s is less common. The s a is ical diffe ence be ween he g oups was e iden , wi h an alpha signi icance le el less han 0.05 (Figu e 2). Figu e 2. P e ious pa icipa ion o s uden s in Wha sApp g oups. The desc ip i e esul s show ha he s uden s’ o e all assessmen o he use o Wha sApp is highly posi i e, wi h a gene al mean o 4.48 ou o 5 poin s e alua ed and a s anda d de ia ion (SD) o 0.64, which ep esen s a consis en e alua ion among he pa - icipan s. Rega ding Dimension 1, ela ed o he managemen o he Wha sApp applica- ion, he s uden s conside ha i is ela i ely easy o use, wi h a mean o 4.58 (SD = 0.89), highligh ing he ease o espec ing in e ac ion imes (M = 4.78) as he mos alued aspec . Howe e , espec o pa icipa ion ules ob ained he lowes a ing (M = 4.21. SD = 1.09) among all he issues analyzed, al hough he gene al a e age o he dimension was posi i e (Figu e 3). Figu e 3. A e age alues o he ques ions and dimensions used. Rega ding “communica ion and in e ac ion”, indica ed in Dimension 2, he gene al mean was posi i e (M = 4.47, SD = 0.73) (Figu e 2), wi h simila alues be ween mos o Figu e 2. P e ious pa icipa ion o s uden s in Wha sApp g oups. Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 8 o 17 The desc ip i e esul s show ha he s uden s’ o e all assessmen o he use o Wha - sApp is highly posi i e, wi h a gene al mean o 4.48 ou o 5 poin s e alua ed and a s anda d de ia ion (SD) o 0.64, which ep esen s a consis en e alua ion among he pa icipan s. Rega ding Dimension 1, ela ed o he managemen o he Wha sApp applica ion, he s u- den s conside ha i is ela i ely easy o use, wi h a mean o 4.58 (SD = 0.89), highligh ing he ease o espec ing in e ac ion imes (M = 4.78) as he mos alued aspec . Howe e , espec o pa icipa ion ules ob ained he lowes a ing (M = 4.21. SD = 1.09) among all he issues analyzed, al hough he gene al a e age o he dimension was posi i e (Figu e 3). Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18 3. Resul s Analysis o he p e-diagnosis o s uden s’ use and pa icipa ion in Wha sApp g oups e ealed ha mos ha e equen ly pa icipa ed in g oups wi h iends (M = 4.23) and amily (M = 3.95), ollowed by g oups wi h classma es, while in e ac ion wi h eache s is less common. The s a is ical diffe ence be ween he g oups was e iden , wi h an alpha signi icance le el less han 0.05 (Figu e 2). Figu e 2. P e ious pa icipa ion o s uden s in Wha sApp g oups. The desc ip i e esul s show ha he s uden s’ o e all assessmen o he use o Wha sApp is highly posi i e, wi h a gene al mean o 4.48 ou o 5 poin s e alua ed and a s anda d de ia ion (SD) o 0.64, which ep esen s a consis en e alua ion among he pa - icipan s. Rega ding Dimension 1, ela ed o he managemen o he Wha sApp applica- ion, he s uden s conside ha i is ela i ely easy o use, wi h a mean o 4.58 (SD = 0.89), highligh ing he ease o espec ing in e ac ion imes (M = 4.78) as he mos alued aspec . Howe e , espec o pa icipa ion ules ob ained he lowes a ing (M = 4.21. SD = 1.09) among all he issues analyzed, al hough he gene al a e age o he dimension was posi i e (Figu e 3). Figu e 3. A e age alues o he ques ions and dimensions used. Rega ding “communica ion and in e ac ion”, indica ed in Dimension 2, he gene al mean was posi i e (M = 4.47, SD = 0.73) (Figu e 2), wi h simila alues be ween mos o Figu e 3. A e age alues o he ques ions and dimensions used. Rega ding “communica ion and in e ac ion”, indica ed in Dimension 2, he gene al mean was posi i e (M = 4.47, SD = 0.73) (Figu e 2), wi h simila alues be ween mos o he ques ions e alua ed in he dimension, wi h ques ion D2P8 (ease o sha ing ideas) being one o he bes - a ed aspec s (M = 4.54. SD = 0.74). Dimension 3, Wha sApp as an academic suppo , eached a gene al mean o 4.48 (SD = 0.74), a sligh ly highe alue han he p e ious dimensions; in his case, he s uden s conside ha he use o Wha sApp is a use ul esou ce o suppo hei lea ning. The in o ma ion ansmi ed in he g oup allowed hem o emembe he academic ac i i ies o be ca ied ou (PD3P10), wi h his ac i i y being he highes alued (M = 4.68), al hough he abili y o exchange knowledge (D3P13) was alued sligh ly lowe (M = 4.31). In con as , Dimension 4, which assessed he ele ance o he applica ion’s use and o e all bene i , was he highes a ed among he dimensions (Figu e 2), wi h a mean o 4.55 (SD = 0.65). S uden s iew Wha sApp as an inno a i e (D4P18: M = 4.53) and p ac ical esou ce o lea ning (D4P19), mainly highligh ing he bene i o in eg a ing Wha sApp in gene al in educa ion (D5p16: M = 4.65 ± 0.70) and he ecommenda ion o i s use o o he subjec s (M = 4.66). Likewise, he esul s o he Mann–Whi ney and K uskal–Wallis es s e ealed signi i- can di e ences in s uden s’ pe cep ions o Wha sApp use based on wo dimensions, wi h alues below hei signi icance alue (p< 0.05). The subjec ha s uden s a e en olled in signi ican ly in luences hei pe cep ion o Wha sApp managemen (Dimension 1) and i s gene al use (Dimension 4) (p< 0.018 o Dimension 1 and p< 0.027 o Dimension 4), wi h hose in Knowledge Managemen being hose who a ed he dimensions bes . Rega ding sex, a signi ican di e ence was de e mined in Dimension 1 (W = 1591.5, p- alue = 0.036), Soc. Sci. 2025,14, 183 9 o 17 whe e women ob ained a highe a ing (M = 5.00) (Figu e 4), unlike men, whose a e age alue eached 4.67. Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 18 he ques ions e alua ed in he dimension, wi h ques ion D2P8 (ease o sha ing ideas) be- ing one o he bes - a ed aspec s (M = 4.54. SD = 0.74). Dimension 3, Wha sApp as an aca- demic suppo , eached a gene al mean o 4.48 (SD = 0.74), a sligh ly highe alue han he p e ious dimensions; in his case, he s uden s conside ha he use o Wha sApp is a use ul esou ce o suppo hei lea ning. The in o ma ion ansmi ed in he g oup al- lowed hem o emembe he academic ac i i ies o be ca ied ou (PD3P10), wi h his ac i i y being he highes alued (M = 4.68), al hough he abili y o exchange knowledge (D3P13) was alued sligh ly lowe (M = 4.31). In con as , Dimension 4, which assessed he ele ance o he applica ion’s use and o e all bene i , was he highes a ed among he dimensions (Figu e 2), wi h a mean o 4.55 (SD = 0.65). S uden s iew Wha sApp as an inno a i e (D4P18: M = 4.53) and p ac ical esou ce o lea ning (D4P19), mainly highligh ing he bene i o in eg a ing Wha sApp in gene al in educa ion (D5p16: M = 4.65 ± 0.70) and he ecommenda ion o i s use o o he subjec s (M = 4.66). Likewise, he esul s o he Mann–Whi ney and K uskal–Wallis es s e ealed signi - ican diffe ences in s uden s’ pe cep ions o Wha sApp use based on wo dimensions, wi h alues below hei signi icance alue (p < 0.05). The subjec ha s uden s a e en olled in signi ican ly in luences hei pe cep ion o Wha sApp managemen (Dimension 1) and i s gene al use (Dimension 4) (p < 0.018 o Dimension 1 and p < 0.027 o Dimension 4), wi h hose in Knowledge Managemen being hose who a ed he dimensions bes . Re- ga ding sex, a signi ican diffe ence was de e mined in Dimension 1 (W = 1591.5, p- alue = 0.036), whe e women ob ained a highe a ing (M = 5.00) (Figu e 4), unlike men, whose a e age alue eached 4.67. Figu e 4. Boxplo o dimensions based on pa icipan s’ sex. The K uskal–Wallis es showed signi ican diffe ences in Dimension 1 be ween he diffe en Wha sApp g oups (X²: 13.196, p- alue = 0.03). G oup 1 (M = 5) and G oup 5 (M = 5) had he highes sco es, while G oup 3 (M = 4.37) and G oup 4 (M = 4.62) showed lowe Figu e 4. Boxplo o dimensions based on pa icipan s’ sex. The K uskal–Wallis es showed signi ican di e ences in Dimension 1 be ween he di e en Wha sApp g oups (X²: 13.196, p- alue = 0.03). G oup 1 (M = 5) and G oup 5 (M = 5) had he highes sco es, while G oup 3 (M = 4.37) and G oup 4 (M = 4.62) showed lowe sco es. I is impo an o highligh ha he gene al a e age o he g oups whe e he e we e ewe pa icipan s had a highe a e age sco e (4.75) han he g oups wi h a g ea e numbe o s uden s (M = 4.63), sugges ing ha he numbe o pa icipan s in he g oups a ec s he pe cep ion o he use ulness o he ool o communica ion. K-means clus e ing analysis e ealed h ee dis inc clus e s o s uden s based on hei pe cep ions o Wha sApp use. Each clus e p esen ed unique cha ac e is ics ha e lec impo an di e ences in how s uden s a e he pla o m’s use ulness and e ec i eness o communica ion and i s gene al applica ion in he academic en i onmen . Clus e 1 (Figu e 5, ed colo ) was cha ac e ized by con aining s uden s wi h he leas a o able pe cep ions abou Wha sApp use. The a e age sco es on he a iables ela ed o use ulness o communica ion wi h pee s and g oup wo k we e 2.7 and 2.6, espec i ely, indica ing ha hese s uden s do no pe cei e Wha sApp as a pa icula ly use ul ool in he educa ional con ex . The o al means o pe cep ion in he di e en dimensions anged om 2.5 o 3.1; his g oup o s uden s migh ha e ce ain ese a ions abou using he pla o m in collabo a i e o educa ional ac i i ies. These s uden s may p e e o he me hods o ools o ca y ou such ac i i ies. In con as , Clus e 2 g ouped s uden s wi h mode a ely posi i e pe cep ions abou he use o Wha sApp. Sco es on key a iables such as Wha sApp’s use ulness o g oup wo k anged be ween 3.9 and 4.2, indica ing a gene al accep ance o he pla o m, albei wi h some ese a ions. The o al a e age sco es o his clus e we e highe han in Clus e 1, wi h alues be ween 4.0 and 4.3 in he di e en dimensions e alua ed. 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