Vol.:(0123456789)
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10639-025-13490-z
Unhea d oices: Iden i ying aspec s o aninclusi e digi al
educa ion h ough helens o low-income con ex s schools
Jona anCas año‑Muñoz1 · CeliaMo eno‑Mo illa1· ManuelReina‑Pa ado1·
IsabelLopez‑Cobo1
Recei ed: 31 July 2024 / Accep ed: 6 Ma ch 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac
This s udy explo es he pe cep ions, expe iences and challenges o schools loca ed
in disad an aged a eas ega ding he in eg a ion o digi al echnologies in hei unc-
ioning. Th ough eigh case s udies, in which p incipals, eache s and s uden s we e
in ol ed, we iden i ied he main challenges ha hese schools ace e e y day, which
we e g ouped in o h ee a eas: a) b eaking he hidden digi al di ide, b) eache ain-
ing o cul u ally esponsi e eaching, and c) use o echnology as a b idge be ween
home and schools. The esul s show ha , in o de o p e en digi alisa ion om
inc easing he exis ing di ide among schools o di e en socioeconomic and cul-
u al le els, i is necessa y o design inclusi e policies o educa ional digi al ans-
o ma ion ha ake in o accoun he pa icula i ies and oices o hese schools.
Keywo ds Digi al inequali y· Inclusi e educa ion· ICT educa ion· Low-income
con ex s· Quali a i e esea ch
1 In oduc ion
In o ma ion and Communica ion Technologies (ICT) ha e e olu ionised educa ion,
p o iding new possibili ies o eaching and lea ning. Howe e , his p og ess is no
exemp om challenges, especially ega ding social inclusion.
In he mid-1990s, he e m digi al di ide was c ea ed o e e o he di ision
be ween social g oups who access and use he In e ne and hose who do no
(NTIA, 1995; Veki i, 2010). O e ime, i became e iden ha he issue was mo e
complex han me e access. Se e al ac o s, including dispa i ies in in as uc u es
(de ices, connec ion and so wa e), digi al compe ence, suppo o guidance om
* Jona an Cas año-Muñoz
[email p o ec ed]
1 Depa men o Teaching andEduca ional O ganisa ion, Calle Pi o ecnia S/N (Campus Ramón y
Cajal), Uni e si y o Se ille, CP.41013Se ille, Spain
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
he amilies and/o he communi y, and he uses ha di e en g oups make o
echnologies, con ibu e o digi al inequali y.
Socioeconomic s a us play an impo an ole shaping indi idual´s ela ionship
wi h echnology om ea ly ages (Passa e a & Gil-He nández, 2023; Qual e ,
2024). Pa en s om highe socioeconomic backg ounds o en employ echnol-
ogy o in o ma ion seeking a he han leisu e ( an Deu sen & an Dijk, 2014)
and ac i ely supe ise and guide hei child en’s online ac i i ies os e ing educa-
ional uses (Li ings one e al., 2015). In con as , s uden s om lowe socioeco-
nomic backg ounds o en ha e limi ed access o echnology a home, use hem o
a lesse ex en o hei academic ac i i ies ( an Dijk, 2012) and show an ea ly
gap in digi al compe ence ha is simila o ha o o he subjec s, which, in addi-
ion, pe sis s h oughou ime (Passa e a & Gil-He nández, 2023). In ulne a-
ble con ex s wi h limi ed esou ces, hese dispa i ies can es ic educa ional and
social oppo uni ies, exace ba ing exis ing social di ides (Hohl elde al., 2008;
Schee de e e al., 2017; Van Dijk, 2020; OECD, 2022).
Mo eo e , in low-income con ex , implemen ing cul u ally esponsi e educa-
ion (Gay, 2010) is an impo an issue. F om cul u al di e ence heo y (Howa d,
2021), schools ha e been c i icized o he lack o adap a ion o hei p ac ices
o s uden s´ di e se cul u al backg ound. This neglec can signi ican ly impac
s uden achie emen , as i dis ega ds he unique alues, lea ning and communi-
ca ion p e e ences ha s uden s om di e en cul u al backg ounds b ing o he
class oom. To add ess his issue, schools mus implemen cul u ally esponsi e
eaching me hods (Ace es & O osco, 2014), wha in ol es inco po a ing di e se
pe spec i es in o he cu iculum, u ilizing a a ie y o ins uc ional s a egies and
c ea ing en i onmen whe e ha alues and espec s he di e se cul u al back-
g ounds and s eng hs o all s uden s (He nandez e al., 2021). ICT in eg a ion in
eaching and lea ning can enhance his app oach by p o iding access o di e se
esou ces, acili a ing pee - o-pee lea ning, and enabling pe sonalized lea ning
expe iences among o he s (G eene-Clemons, 2016).
Recognising he impo ance o he aspec s men ioned abo e, educa ional sys-
ems and schools a e inc easingly equi ed o p o ide ailo ed esponses o low-
SES con ex s conside ing socie al digi aliza ion. This has a wo- old aim:
a) Reduce digi al inequali ies by empowe ing s uden s o use echnology con iden ly,
sa ely and esponsibly, he eby p epa ing hem o li e and wo k in inc eas-
ingly digi alized socie ies (Ca e e o e al., 2017; Espinosa-Zá a e e al., 2023;
Go schalk & Weise, 2023).
b) T ans o m and imp o e eaching and lea ning p ocesses using echnologies o
mee he speci ic needs o hese con ex s (Zielezinski & Da ling-Hammond, 2016)
and os e cul u ally esponsi e eaching.
Al hough he digi alisa ion o schools has been widely analysed in he li e a-
u e (Pe e sson, 2021; Vande linde & an B aak, 2010; Timo heou e al., 2023),
he e is much o explo e abou he speci ici ies o his p ocess in disad an aged
con ex s. This pape aims o add ess his gap by in es iga ing he cu en s a e o
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
digi aliza ion in low-SES schools wi hin he Spanish educa ional sys em. Namely,
he speci ic objec i es o he esea ch a e:
• Iden i y he main challenges o schools loca ed in socioeconomically disad an-
aged a eas ega ding he in eg a ion o digi al echnologies in o hei unc ion-
ing.
• Desc ibe he pe cep ions and expe iences o p incipals, eache s, and s uden s,
abou he main challenges hey ace in in eg a ing digi al echnologies in hei
schools
• Desc ibe po en ial oppo uni ies and implica ions o he use o echnology in
low-income con ex schools o os e mo e inclusi e lea ning, as pe cei ed by
s uden s, eache s and leade s.
The s udy was ca ied ou in he Spanish con ex , cha ac e ized by policies aimed
a imp o ing educa ional quali y, equi y, and inclusion h ough digi al ans o ma-
ion (Roig-Vila, 2012). These policies ha e led o an inc eased impo ance o digi-
al s a egies (Guo e  al., 2022), in e ne access and digi al esou ces use in he
schools (Gómez-Fe nández & Media illa, 2022). Howe e , ad anced applica ions
o echnology, such as collabo a i e lea ning and inno a i e assessmen , equi e u -
he de elopmen (Cas año-Muñoz e al., 2021). Equi y in digi alisa ion o schools
emains a conce n, wi h dispa i ies obse ed ac oss school ypes and socioeconomic
le els (Cas año-Muñoz e al., 2021), aligning wi h in e na ional indings (Hohl eld
e  al., 2008; Reich, 2020). Fu he mo e, signi ican dispa i ies in in e ne access
exis be ween u ban and u al a eas and among di e en egions (Gallego-A u a
e al., 2015; He nández-O ega & Ál a ez-He e o, 2021). This s udy ocuses on
Andalusia, a egion wi h a high pe cen age o disad an aged s uden s, making he
analysis o digi aliza ion’s impac on social inclusion pa icula ly ele an (P ie o-
La o e e al., 2021).
The s udy aligns wi h cu en ends ha emphasize inclusi e educa ion and
challenge "one-size- i s-all" app oaches o digi aliza ion (UNESCO, 2009; Asma
e al., 2022). By examining he expe iences o s uden s, eache s, and p incipals in
low-SES schools, his s udy aims o iden i y s a egies o os e ing digi alisa ion o
educa ion in a way ha p omo e he inclusion o di e se lea ne s, conside ing hei
unique needs, expe iences, and backg ounds (Go schalk & Weise, 2023; Hambu g
& Lü gen, 2019; Heemske k e al., 2005). The indings a e expec ed o con ibu e o
a deepe unde s anding o he challenges and oppo uni ies o digi aliza ion in hese
schools, illing a esea ch gap and p o iding aluable in o ma ion o he design o
public policies and aining plans abou he use o echnology ha speci ically con-
side he needs o hese schools.
1.1 Rela ed li e a u e
To con ex ualize ou esea ch, his sec ion p esen s a e iew o he exis ing li e a u e
on he in eg a ion o digi al echnologies in low-income con ex schools.
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
A i s esea ch line has ocused on he ac o s o success ul echnology
implemen a ion in low- income con ex s schools. Zielezinski & Da ling-Ham-
mond (2016) syn hesized hese ac o s in wo a eas: ’ echnological domain’ and
’lea ning con ex ’ The echnological domain encompasses in as uc u e, access,
and esou ces. Disad an aged schools o en ace limi a ions in his a ea, includ-
ing inadequa e budge s o acqui ing ad anced and upda ed echnologies and
so wa e in he school (Gómez-Fe nández & Media illa, 2022; Kim e al., 2021).
This lack o access, pa icula ly o one- o-one de ices ha ha e he po en ial o
b idging he digi al di ide exis ing a home, educes s uden s’ lea ning oppo uni-
ies (Zielezinski & Da ling-Hammond, 2016). Mo eo e , a lack o echnical sup-
po o en hinde s hei main enance, equi ing echnical aining o he s a o
he school esponsible o his (Adipa e al., 2023).
Wi h ega d o lea ning con ex , he li e a u e ema ks he impo ance o cu -
icula and me hodological adap a ions o e ec i ely in eg a e echnology in
hese con ex s. This implies no only including echnological de ices in he class-
oom, bu also edesigning lea ning expe iences o u ilize hese ools inno a i ely
and con ex ually (Tondeu e al., 2008). Acco ding o li e a u e, e ec i e ech-
nology in eg a ion in low-income con ex schools should p io i ize highe -o de
hinking skills and 21s -cen u y compe encies o e memo iza ion (e.g., h ough
simula ions and online games), p omo e sel -di ec ed lea ning (e.g., s uden -led
p ojec c ea ion, con en disco e y, c ea ion o con en , choosing asks, demon-
s a ing p io knowledge, deciding how o use echnology) o e di ec ins uc ion,
and p omo e sel -con idence and a posi i e a i ude owa ds lea ning, he eby
enhancing engagemen and mo i a ion.
While hese elemen s a e impo an o e ec i e eaching and lea ning in hese
con ex s, hey do no gua an ee a key elemen in hese con ex s: cul u al espon-
si eness (Gay, 2010). Cul u al esponsi eness equi es an unde s anding o s u-
den s’ cul u al backg ounds and expe iences, and echnology o le e age hese
ac o s wi hin he lea ning p ocess. The e o e, a second line o esea ch explo es
he ela ionship be ween echnology and cul u ally esponsi e eaching. While
echnology can po en ially homogenize lea ning, i also p o ides he means o
di e en ia ed and pe sonalized lea ning expe iences (Bhu o ia, 2022; Chen e al.,
2021). Some ela ed p ac ices include: he use o echnology o connec lea ning
and s uden s’ li ed expe iences (e.g., h ough ideos showcasing di e se cul u al
pe spec i es, o connec ing s uden s wi h indi iduals om di e se backg ounds
ia ideo con e encing); os e ing sel -di ec ed lea ning by p o iding s uden s
wi h agency in selec ing and u ilizing echnology ools o hei own lea ning;
c ea ing inclusi e digi al lea ning esou ces ha e lec he di e se cul u al back-
g ounds o he s uden s, such as inco po a ing mul ilingual esou ces, using cul-
u ally ele an examples in lea ning ac i i ies, and p o iding oppo uni ies o
s uden s o sha e hei own cul u al pe spec i es h ough digi al s o y elling and
mul imedia p ojec s (Shadie & Dang, 2022). This aligns wi h esea ch empha-
sizing he need o cul u ally esponsi e compu ing, which conside s how o in e-
g a e cul u al aspec s in o compu e educa ion o engage mino i y s uden s while
also explo ing how echnology can con ibu e o communi y ad ancemen (Sco
e al., 2015).
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
Howe e , esea ch indica es ha eache s o en lack he pedagogical knowledge
o e ec i ely in eg a e echnology in a cul u ally esponsi e manne , equen ly eel-
ing no con iden (Eu opean Commission, 2019) and elying on adi ional appli-
ca ions like online sea ches and p esen a ions (Baako & Ab oampa, 2023; G eene-
Clemons, 2016). This sugges s a need o enhance eache educa ion p og ams,
ocusing on he de elopmen o hei echnological li e acy wi hin he amewo k o
cul u ally esponsi e p ac ices. Fu he mo e, he po en ial o A i icial In elligence
has also been ecognised o his ask and as a way o educe echnological expe ise
equi ed (Bhu o ia, 2022).
Finally, a hi d esea ch s and ocuses on he quan i a i e measu emen o he
impac o educa ional echnology in e en ions on he academic achie emen o
low-SES s uden s. Resul s show ha he simple p o ision o echnology o schools
does no show a signi ican e ec (Bando e  al., 2017; Malamud e  al., 2011).
Howe e , he e a e wo main p omising app oaches: Compu e -Assis ed Lea ning
(CAL) in e en ions and echnology-media ed beha iou al in e en ions (Di Pie o
& Cas año Muñoz, 2025). The i s app oach u ilizes echnology o supplemen a-
di ional class oom ins uc ion and di ec ly add esses cogni i e skills and cu icu-
la con en de ici s. CAL encompasses a di e se ange o ools, including educa-
ional so wa e, in elligen u o ing sys ems, and e en imme si e echnologies like
i ual eali y. By p o iding in e ac i e and engaging lea ning expe iences, CAL
in e en ions can enhance lea ning oppo uni ies o all s uden s, o e ing pe son-
alized lea ning expe iences, equi able access o high-quali y educa ional esou ces,
and os e ing independen lea ning skills (Bane jee e al., 2007; Lai e al., 2015;
Rouse & K uege , 2004). Con e sely, echnology-media ed beha iou al in e en-
ions concen a e on add essing non-cogni i e skills such as belie s, mo i a ion and
sel - egula ion. These in e en ions o en le e age echnology o enhance pa en al
engagemen , such as h ough ex message eminde s o ac i i ies o online pla -
o ms o pa en - eache communica ion (K a & Mon i-Nussbaum, 2017; Be lisnki
e al., 2022). These app oaches a e pa icula ly e ec i e in en i onmen s wi h low
cul u al capi al and poo educa ional aspi a ions, con i ming he key ole o amily
and communi y suppo in os e ing academic success o disad an aged s uden s.
Fu he mo e, he combina ion o he wo app oaches, ocusing on cogni i e and
non-cogni i e ac o s, can be an e ec i e s a egy o educing educa ional inequali-
ies using echnologies (Di Pie o & Cas año Muñoz, 2025).
2 Me hodology
In o de o espond o he esea ch objec i es, his s udy akes a quali a i e app oach
based on mul iple nes ed cases, speci ically a Type 4 design in he e minology o
Yin (2014). This design in ol es analysing mul iple cases wi h embedded uni s o
analysis. By allowing o bo h b oad and deep analysis, his app oach acili a es
compa a i e s udies and a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he subjec ma e . This
mul iple nes ed s udy analysed se e al cases ep esen ed by he pa icipa ing schools
and examined di e en subuni s ela ed o he men ioned cases (e.g., o icial docu-
men s o he school, pe cep ion o he p incipals, eache s and s uden s, e c.), wi h

Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
he aim o gua an eeing he iangula ion o he ga he ed in o ma ion. This in es-
iga ion del es in o he pe cep ions and desc ip ions o he pa icipan s; hus, we
conside ha he na a i e pe spec i e is he mos adequa e o p o ide in o ma ion
abou hei expe ience as p incipals, eache s and s uden s ega ding digi alisa ion in
a complex and con ex ualised manne (Benson e al., 2010).
2.1 Pa icipan s/cases
The sample consis ed o eigh Ea ly Childhood and P ima y Educa ion schools o
he Au onomous Communi y o Andalusia (Spain), which we e ec ui ed based on
he ollowing inclusion c i e ia:
1) Being loca ed in a Low-Income Con ex o ca ego ised as a school wi h special
needs due o he socioeconomic condi ions o he s uden s (acco ding o he clas-
si ica ion o he Go e nmen o Andalusia).
2) Geog aphic di e si y, wi h one school pe Andalusian p o ince.
3) A ailabili y and commi men o he managemen eam, eache s and s uden s in
pa icipa ing. The pa icipa ing schools a e loca ed in u ban spaces wi h a com-
bina ion o se ious s uc u al si ua ions o po e y and social ma ginalisa ion.
The ci izens o hese a eas (a) li e in de e io a ed homes wi h de icien in as uc-
u e, equipmen and public se ices, (b) p esen high le els o school absen eeism
and ailu e, (c) show high unemploymen a es along wi h se ious o ma i e and
p o essional de ici s, (d) ha e hygiene-sani a y de iciencies and/o (e) a e subjec ed
o social disin eg a ion phenomena (Jun a de Andalucía, n.d).
In each school, we had he collabo a ion o he p incipal, he eache s o P ima y
Educa ion, and he s uden s o six h g ade, wi h a o al o 8 p incipals, 30 each-
e s and 32 s uden s. Annex 1 shows he mos ele an a ibu es o he p incipals,
eache s and s uden s ha pa icipa ed in his s udy. Pa icipa ion was olun a y and
ollowed he ules o he in o med consen , which limi s he use o in o ma ion o
esea ch pu poses and gua an ees he anonymi y and con iden iali y o he da a.
This s udy ollowed he in e nal egula ion in Social Sciences o he Resea ch E hics
Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Se ille.
2.2 In o ma ion ga he ing p ocedu e
The echniques used included semis uc u ed in e iews, discussion g oups and
p ocedu es based on pa icipa o y and isual me hods. In each o he eigh pa ici-
pa ing schools, i s ly, a semis uc u ed in e iew was ca ied ou wi h he p inci-
pal, and hen a discussion g oup was conduc ed wi h he eache s, wi h a numbe
o pa icipan s ha anged be ween ou and se en pe school. The hema ic a eas
add essed we e simila and mos ly based on he a eas co e ed by he SELFIE ool o
he Eu opean Commission (Cos a e al.,2020): opinion abou he use o ICT in low-
income con ex s, leade ship and s a egies o digi alisa ion, collabo a ion ne wo ks,
in as uc u e and equipmen , p o essional de elopmen , inco po a ion o ICT in he
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
pedagogical p ac ice, e alua ion and digi al compe ence o eache s and s uden s.
Mo eo e , he p incipals and eache s we e asked o iden i y and desc ibe he main
challenges ha hei schools ace in he ealisa ion o digi al ans o ma ion, as well
as good digi alisa ion p ac ices ha a e implemen ed in hei schools. In he case o
he eache s, a e pe o ming he discussion g oup, hey we e eques ed o p io i ise
he challenges o he digi al ans o ma ion o hei schools in he sho , medium
and long e m (a “ladde o p io i ies” was de eloped in isual o ma ).
Secondly, he discussion g oups we e ca ied ou wi h he s uden s. F om ou o
six s uden s om each school pa icipa ed. I is wo h highligh ing ha he selec ion
was pe o med by he eache s a ending o c i e ia such as a ailabili y, na ionali y,
e hnici y and in ol emen . In his case, we add essed aspec s ela ed o hei uses
and pe cep ions abou echnology bo h inside and ou side o he school. A e he
discussion g oup, he s uden s c ea ed a pos e ha simula ed a a ic ligh , wi h
aspec s ha hey conside ed unaccep able ( ed), imp o able (o ange) o excellen
(g een) abou he use o echnologies in educa ion. Each s uden had ed, o ange and
g een s icke s in which hey w o e down hei judgemen s (one idea in each s icke ).
As hey placed hem in he pos e , hey ead hem aloud, wi h he aim o inspi ing
he es o hei classma es, as well as gene a ing a deba e among hem. In he con-
ex o he s udy, we called his p ocedu e a ic ligh o digi alisa ion.
Complemen a ily, o icial documen s o each school we e also ga he ed (e.g.,
Educa ional P ojec o he School, Digi alisa ion Plan, Class oom Schedules, e c.)
and ep esen a i e pic u es we e aken. The da a we e collec ed in Feb ua y-June
2023 and s o ed in secu e se e s o he Uni e si y o Se ille.
2.3 Da a analysis
The aim o he analysis was no o simply p esen he indi idual opinions and pe -
cep ions o he pa icipan s, bu also o o e a syn hesis o he main challenges
a ending o he coincidence be ween “ ype o in o man ” (p incipal, eache o s u-
den ) and “ equency” o appea ance.
The iden i ica ion and desc ip ion o he challenges o digi al ans o ma ion
we e conduc ed om he in o ma ion con ained in he ladde o p io i ies (syn hesis
o he aspec s pe cei ed as mos ele an by he eache s) and he a ic ligh o digi-
alisa ion (syn hesis o he aspec s pe cei ed as mos ele an by he s uden s), as
well as ha con ained in he in e iews and discussion g oups.
The in o ma ion o he ladde o p io i ies and he a ic ligh o digi alisa ion
was eco ded isually, and we also eco ded he deba e ha eme ged in he cons uc-
ion session o each o hese elemen s. The in o ma ion o he in e iews and discus-
sion g oups was eco ded in audio and subsequen ly ansc ibed o a ou a igo ous
hema ic analysis o he con en .
To gua an ee he obus ness o he hema ic analysis, se e al s eps we e aking.
Fi s , wo explo a o y in e iews (one wi h a school leade and one wi h an expe )
we e ca ied ou o gua an ee alidi y and me hodological adequacy o he ocus
g oup, in e iews and pa icipa i e me hods and he opics/ques ions co e ed in
hem. Secondly, o gua an ee in e - a e eliabili y, he hemes we e independen ly
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
iden i ied by wo esea che s, who hen iangula ed hei da a o consolida e a
cohe en ca ego y sys em. The ini ial obse ed ag eemen be ween code s was 84%,
which ansla es o a Cohen’s kappa o 0.68, conside ed subs an ial ag eemen .
When disag eemen s a ose, h ee esea che s ( o a oid ies) con ened o discuss
he coding and each consensus. Subsequen ly, he con en was coded in de ail. The
eme ging ca ego ies we e e ined h ough an i e a i e p ocess, ensu ing hey accu-
a ely e lec ed he pe cep ions and expe iences o he pa icipan s. This sys em o
ca ego ies p o ided a s uc u ed amewo k o analysis, acili a ing he in e p e a-
ion and syn hesis o he ga he ed da a. Finally, i is impo an o no e ha any o he
in ol ed esea che s had a link o p e ious ela ionship wi h he analysed schools
wha can con ibu e o minimise possible biases.
3 Resul s
The analysis p oduced challenges ela ed o he ollowing ac o s:
1. B eaking he hidden digi al di ide.
2. Teache aining o cul u ally esponsi e eaching.
3. Technology as a b idge be ween home and school.
Nex , we desc ibe each o hese challenges in de ail.
3.1 B eaking hehidden digi al di ide
The digi al di ide and he lack o adequa e in as uc u e can lead o exclusion and
ampli y educa ional inequali ies. The e o e, i eme ges as a pe sis en issue, albei
no a new one, in hese cen es. Below a e he indings o he h ee mos ele an
ca ego ies ela ed o his dimension:
Insu icien access o de ices Acco ding o he in o ma ion p o ided, mos s u-
den s lack adequa e de ices (compu e s, able s) a home. Many depend on mobile
phones sha ed wi h hei pa en s, as no ed by a s uden om Alme ía: “My a he
has a mobile phone, bu he is ne e a home… when he comes back, he doesn’
wan o lend i o me. I wan o do my homewo k, bu I can’ ” (ST12). This si ua ion
makes access o echnology a school e en mo e impo an , as i is o en he only
place whe e hey can egula ly use and lea n how o ope a e such de ices. Howe e ,
al hough schools, especially hose o icially ecognised as "educa ional compensa-
ion schools," ecei e basic esou ces, hese a e no always conside ed adequa e by
s uden s and eache s due o hei apid obsolescence. Addi ionally, school in a-
s uc u e o en includes physical spaces ha make i di icul o se up compu e
labs, coupled wi h a sho age o app op ia e desks and chai s. This si ua ion neglec s
physical heal h conside a ions when using compu e s and esul s in an o e eliance
on small-sc een de ices such as lap ops and able s, complica ing p olonged wo k
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
on such de ices. As a s uden om Huel a ema ked: “My head and neck hu om
cons an ly looking down” (ST25).
Lack o connec i i y School p incipals, eache s, and s uden s ag ee ha in e ne
in as uc u e in hese ypes o schools ends o be de icien . F equen powe ou -
ages and uns able Wi-Fi ne wo ks unable o suppo simul aneous de ice usage a e
common issues. As a eache om Se ille obse ed: “I i ains, he elec ici y goes
ou ; i he e is a bi o wind, he same happens, and ’coppe ’ is highly sough -a e
in hese a eas” (T4). These echnical di icul ies o ce eliance on analogue me h-
ods, limi ing s uden s’ de elopmen o digi al skills. A eache om Cádiz exp essed
us a ion: “We can’ a o d o was e so much ime. On he day I plan o use he
compu e s, I know i will be comple e chaos. We jus can’ wo k like his” (T25).
Ou side o school, he si ua ion is no be e . Mos s uden s lack in e ne access a
home and ely on insecu e public Wi-Fi ho spo s. This si ua ion adds s ess o s u-
den s ying o mee eache s’ deadlines, as one s uden om Se ille explained: “I
don’ like being gi en sho deadlines because ou pa en s some imes don’ le us
use he phone, o we don’ ha e Wi-Fi; in he end, we ge scolded a school, bu we
couldn’ do he homewo k—i ’s no ha we didn’ wan o” (ST9).
Inadequa e equipmen main enance Bo h eache s and s uden s exp ess dissa is ac-
ion wi h he main enance o echnological in as uc u e in hei schools. Teache s
poin ou he inconsis ency o ha ing unds o pu chase equipmen bu no o keep i
upda ed. De ices de e io a e quickly, limi ing hei unc ionali y, and main enance
depends on he goodwill and knowledge o eache s. Consequen ly, many eache s
a oid using echnology in hei eaching, causing us a ion o bo h hem and hei
s uden s. A eache om Cádiz desc ibed he si ua ion: “The de ices s op wo king,
and we can’ epai hem. So, we end up using he blackboa d and pape ins ead o
eaching s uden s how o use digi al ools” (T25). Ano he eache om Málaga sug-
ges ed ha digi al li e acy, despi e being pa o he o icial cu iculum, is p ac ically
ese ed o "o he con ex s" (T23) wi h mo e esou ces. Simila ly, a s uden om
Se ille complained: “I ge eally bo ed he e, always w i ing. We don’ lea n cool
s u . I liked i when we had a obo ics eache on F idays” (ST8).
Beyond ha dwa e p oblems, eache s also c i icise he Guadalinex Edu ope -
a ing sys em (a Linux-based sys em used in all Andalusian schools, ollowing
egional go e nmen ins uc ions), desc ibing i as unsa e, ine icien , and ou -
da ed. Res ic ions on web b owse s and he inabili y o ins all upda ed so wa e
imposed by his sys em signi ican ly limi pedagogical possibili ies, hinde ing
s uden s’ de elopmen o digi al skills and schools’ abili y o adap o educa ional
needs.
Despi e hese challenges, bo h school leade s and eache s acknowledge
he po en ial o echnology o ans o m educa ion in hese se ings, gi en he
inc eased mo i a ion i s use can gene a e and i s u ili y in adap ing he each-
ing–lea ning p ocess. In his con ex , he c ea ion o “ u u e class ooms”—spaces
equipped wi h modula u ni u e, ad anced ha dwa e and so wa e, and make
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
ulne abili y and knowledge abou cul u ally esponsi e eaching. Finally, he s udy
iden i ied a need o aining in inno a i e pedagogical me hods, as de ailed in he
nex poin .
Inno a i e pedagogical me hods S uden s exp ess a clea p e e ence o p ac i-
cal, hands-on lea ning expe iences, o en exp essing dissa is ac ion wi h adi-
ional, unidi ec ional uses o echnology. To enhance s uden mo i a ion, he use
o echnology-suppo ed ac i e lea ning me hods, such as p ojec -based lea ning,
gami ica ion, and se ice-lea ning, should be encou aged. Fu he mo e, cu icula
should in eg a e esou ces and ac i i ies ha e lec s uden ´s cul u al con ex and
p e e ences o gua an ee a meaning ul lea ning. This could include, inco po a ing
success ul models om non- o mal educa ion ha p io i ize hands-on aining,
like ablabs and make spaces, and u ilizing echnologies ha os e imme si e
and cul u ally ele an lea ning expe iences using i ual and augmen ed eali y
ools (Adipa e al., 2023; Du & Ca e , 2019; Mak ansky & Pe e sen, 2021;
Molloy & Fa ell, 2024; Pa migiani e al., 2021; Zielezinski & Da ling-Ham-
mond, 2016). Assis ance on c ea ing cul u ally esponsi e and engaging didac-
ic ma e ials (Du & Ca e , 2019; Pa migiani e al., 2021) is also impo an .
Recen de elopmen s o AI can be used as a pedagogical assis an , acili a ing
eache s design mo e con ex ualised and cul u ally esponsi e esou ces and les-
son plans. Mo eo e , pedagogies should le e age s uden s’ pe sonal li e acy p ac-
ices. Ac i i ies such as c ea ing documen a ies based on in e iews wi h com-
muni y membe s o c ea ing sho documen a ies abou he neighbou hood no
only os e c ea i i y and esea ch skills bu also enable s uden s o de elop digi-
al skills. Finally, when access o echnology is limi ed, pedagogical app oaches
ha os e cul i a e compu a ional hinking h ough unplugged ac i i ies o u i-
lizing basic mobile phones and sha ed esou ces can be e ec i e op ions in low-
income schools.
School- amily-communi y pa ne ship Gi en he equen occu ence o echnol-
ogy- ela ed isk de ec ed in he s udy, and ecognizing he key ole o amilies in
guiding child en’s echnology use, low-income a eas schools should implemen digi-
al li e acy p og ams o amilies o enhance hei abili y o suppo s uden s in using
echnology sa ely and esponsibly. Beha iou al in e en ions aimed a inc easing
pa en al in ol emen in digi al p ac ices o child en o he use o AI apps/cha bo s
implemen ed in he mo e widely use communica ion pla o ms (Wha sApp in he
case o Andalusia) and aimed o esponse doub s abou digi alisa ion and how sup-
po child en can be e ec i e p ac ices. Fu he mo e, i is impo an p omo e spaces
o ga he ing and dialogue, such as lea ning communi ies, whe e amilies and s u-
den s can engage in o ma i e wo kshops o wo k on he c i ical, esponsible, and
sa e use o echnologies (Medina e al., 2022; Oso io-Saez e al., 2021; Qual e ,
2024).
Addi ionally, clea p o ocols should be es ablished o he use o digi al
de ices and pla o ms, including he es ablishmen o simple and clea ules
o he good use o echnology inside and ou side o he school (Hohl eld e al.,

Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
2017), o p e en isks such as cybe bullying and inapp op ia e in e ne use. The
s udy also highligh s he need o comp ehensi e aining in digi al sa e y o
mino s, a ecommenda ion consis en ly emphasized by eache s h oughou he
esea ch p ocess.
In addi ion o hese s a egies, he esul s o he s udy show he impo -
ance o schools p omo ing he use o echnologies o b idge cul u al di ides
and enhance communica ion wi h amilies (Goodall, 2016). Technologies can
acili a e he c ea ion o ne wo ks ha connec s uden s wi h pee s om di e se
socio-cul u al backg ounds and wi h simila in e es s, enabling hem o explo e
new en i onmen s, expe ience o he cul u al eali ies, and b eak in o ma ion
bubbles o hei communi ies, empowe ing s uden s o challenge hei de ec ed
iews abou some p ac ices such as ea ly ma iage o engaging in illegal ac i i-
ies. Mo eo e , AI la ge language models can be use ul ools o " ansla e"
school communica ions om o mal language o a mo e accessible egis e
commonly used by amilies.
Finally, he indings highligh he impo ance o o ging pa ne ships wi h local
o ganiza ions, NGOs, and echnology companies o p o ide digi al esou ces, ain-
ing, and ex acu icula ac i i ies, including se ices such as counselling and sup-
po g oups, o p omo e a heal hy and balanced use o echnology. These pa ne -
ships can ha e a signi ican impac on s uden educa ion and communi y well-being,
con ibu ing o a educ ion o digi al inequali ies (Di Maggio e al., 2004).
6 Limi a ions
Al hough ou s udy o e s aluable in o ma ion o e lec on he digi alisa ion o
inclusi e educa ion in schools loca ed in low-income con ex s, i also p esen s
some limi a ions. Fi s ly, despi e comp ising di e en ypes o low-income con-
ex s, his wo k was ocused on a speci ic egion, which could a ec i s gene -
alisa ion o o he con ex s and coun ies. The eplica ion o his s udy in o he
con ex s would allow iangula ing and compa ing esul s in o he en i onmen s.
Secondly, i is wo h men ioning ha he esponses o he pa icipan s, espe-
cially ega ding digi al/ eaching p ac ices, could be subjec o social-desi abili y
bias. Howe e , he iangula ion o pe spec i es o di e en agen s and he a i-
e y o da a-ga he ing me hods minimises his isk. Las ly, his s udy indica es
and p io i ises opics o he digi alisa ion o schools in hese con ex s, al hough
i does no del e in o speci ic aspec s such as he ole o eme ging echnolo-
gies o espond o hese opics o how he implemen a ion o di e en inno a i e
socio-communi y s a egies may p omo e he inclusion o amilies and he en i-
onmen in he digi al ans o ma ion o educa ion. Add essing hese limi a ions
in u u e s udies may complemen he esul s p esen ed in his s udy and help o
speci y e ec i e ac ions o a mo e inclusi e digi alisa ion.
Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi.
o g/ 10. 1007/ s10639- 025- 13490-z.
Acknowledgemen s This wo k was pa ly unded by he esea ch p ojec “The digi isa ion o Andalusian
schools wi h g ea e p esence o s uden s wi h low socioeconomic le el” (p ojec 2022/00000398 o he
6 h Resea ch Plan o he Uni e si y o Se ille). Jona an Cas año Muñoz acknowledges he suppo o he
‘Ramón y Cajal’ g an RYC2020-030157 unded by MCIN/AEI/h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 13039/ 50110 00110 33
and by “ESF In es ing in you u u e”.
Funding Funding o open access publishing: Uni e sidad de Se illa/CBUA.
Da a a ailabili y An anonymized e sion o he da a used and analysed du ing he cu en s udy ( an-
sc ip ions, images e c.) is a ailable om he co esponding au ho on easonable eques .
Decla a ions
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