Unheard voices: Identifying aspects for an inclusive digital education through the lens of low-income contexts schools

Vol.:(0123456789) Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10639-025-13490-z Unhea d oices: Iden i ying aspec s o aninclusi e digi al educa ion h ough helens o low-income con ex s schools Jona anCas año‑Muñoz1 · CeliaMo eno‑Mo illa1· ManuelReina‑Pa ado1· IsabelLopez‑Cobo1 Recei ed: 31 July 2024 / Accep ed: 6 Ma ch 2025 © The Au ho (s) 2025 Abs ac This s udy explo es he pe cep ions, expe iences and challenges o schools loca ed in disad an aged a eas ega ding he in eg a ion o digi al echnologies in hei unc- ioning. Th ough eigh case s udies, in which p incipals, eache s and s uden s we e in ol ed, we iden i ied he main challenges ha hese schools ace e e y day, which we e g ouped in o h ee a eas: a) b eaking he hidden digi al di ide, b) eache ain- ing o cul u ally esponsi e eaching, and c) use o echnology as a b idge be ween home and schools. The esul s show ha , in o de o p e en digi alisa ion om inc easing he exis ing di ide among schools o di e en socioeconomic and cul- u al le els, i is necessa y o design inclusi e policies o educa ional digi al ans- o ma ion ha ake in o accoun he pa icula i ies and oices o hese schools. Keywo ds Digi al inequali y· Inclusi e educa ion· ICT educa ion· Low-income con ex s· Quali a i e esea ch 1 In oduc ion In o ma ion and Communica ion Technologies (ICT) ha e e olu ionised educa ion, p o iding new possibili ies o eaching and lea ning. Howe e , his p og ess is no exemp om challenges, especially ega ding social inclusion. In he mid-1990s, he e m digi al di ide was c ea ed o e e o he di ision be ween social g oups who access and use he In e ne and hose who do no (NTIA, 1995; Veki i, 2010). O e ime, i became e iden ha he issue was mo e complex han me e access. Se e al ac o s, including dispa i ies in in as uc u es (de ices, connec ion and so wa e), digi al compe ence, suppo o guidance om * Jona an Cas año-Muñoz [email p o ec ed] 1 Depa men o Teaching andEduca ional O ganisa ion, Calle Pi o ecnia S/N (Campus Ramón y Cajal), Uni e si y o Se ille, CP.41013Se ille, Spain Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies he amilies and/o he communi y, and he uses ha di e en g oups make o echnologies, con ibu e o digi al inequali y. Socioeconomic s a us play an impo an ole shaping indi idual´s ela ionship wi h echnology om ea ly ages (Passa e a & Gil-He nández, 2023; Qual e , 2024). Pa en s om highe socioeconomic backg ounds o en employ echnol- ogy o in o ma ion seeking a he han leisu e ( an Deu sen & an Dijk, 2014) and ac i ely supe ise and guide hei child en’s online ac i i ies os e ing educa- ional uses (Li ings one e al., 2015). In con as , s uden s om lowe socioeco- nomic backg ounds o en ha e limi ed access o echnology a home, use hem o a lesse ex en o hei academic ac i i ies ( an Dijk, 2012) and show an ea ly gap in digi al compe ence ha is simila o ha o o he subjec s, which, in addi- ion, pe sis s h oughou ime (Passa e a & Gil-He nández, 2023). In ulne a- ble con ex s wi h limi ed esou ces, hese dispa i ies can es ic educa ional and social oppo uni ies, exace ba ing exis ing social di ides (Hohl elde al., 2008; Schee de e e al., 2017; Van Dijk, 2020; OECD, 2022). Mo eo e , in low-income con ex , implemen ing cul u ally esponsi e educa- ion (Gay, 2010) is an impo an issue. F om cul u al di e ence heo y (Howa d, 2021), schools ha e been c i icized o he lack o adap a ion o hei p ac ices o s uden s´ di e se cul u al backg ound. This neglec can signi ican ly impac s uden achie emen , as i dis ega ds he unique alues, lea ning and communi- ca ion p e e ences ha s uden s om di e en cul u al backg ounds b ing o he class oom. To add ess his issue, schools mus implemen cul u ally esponsi e eaching me hods (Ace es & O osco, 2014), wha in ol es inco po a ing di e se pe spec i es in o he cu iculum, u ilizing a a ie y o ins uc ional s a egies and c ea ing en i onmen whe e ha alues and espec s he di e se cul u al back- g ounds and s eng hs o all s uden s (He nandez e al., 2021). ICT in eg a ion in eaching and lea ning can enhance his app oach by p o iding access o di e se esou ces, acili a ing pee - o-pee lea ning, and enabling pe sonalized lea ning expe iences among o he s (G eene-Clemons, 2016). Recognising he impo ance o he aspec s men ioned abo e, educa ional sys- ems and schools a e inc easingly equi ed o p o ide ailo ed esponses o low- SES con ex s conside ing socie al digi aliza ion. This has a wo- old aim: a) Reduce digi al inequali ies by empowe ing s uden s o use echnology con iden ly, sa ely and esponsibly, he eby p epa ing hem o li e and wo k in inc eas- ingly digi alized socie ies (Ca e e o e al., 2017; Espinosa-Zá a e e al., 2023; Go schalk & Weise, 2023). b) T ans o m and imp o e eaching and lea ning p ocesses using echnologies o mee he speci ic needs o hese con ex s (Zielezinski & Da ling-Hammond, 2016) and os e cul u ally esponsi e eaching. Al hough he digi alisa ion o schools has been widely analysed in he li e a- u e (Pe e sson, 2021; Vande linde & an B aak, 2010; Timo heou e al., 2023), he e is much o explo e abou he speci ici ies o his p ocess in disad an aged con ex s. This pape aims o add ess his gap by in es iga ing he cu en s a e o Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies digi aliza ion in low-SES schools wi hin he Spanish educa ional sys em. Namely, he speci ic objec i es o he esea ch a e: • Iden i y he main challenges o schools loca ed in socioeconomically disad an- aged a eas ega ding he in eg a ion o digi al echnologies in o hei unc ion- ing. • Desc ibe he pe cep ions and expe iences o p incipals, eache s, and s uden s, abou he main challenges hey ace in in eg a ing digi al echnologies in hei schools • Desc ibe po en ial oppo uni ies and implica ions o he use o echnology in low-income con ex schools o os e mo e inclusi e lea ning, as pe cei ed by s uden s, eache s and leade s. The s udy was ca ied ou in he Spanish con ex , cha ac e ized by policies aimed a imp o ing educa ional quali y, equi y, and inclusion h ough digi al ans o ma- ion (Roig-Vila, 2012). These policies ha e led o an inc eased impo ance o digi- al s a egies (Guo e  al., 2022), in e ne access and digi al esou ces use in he schools (Gómez-Fe nández & Media illa, 2022). Howe e , ad anced applica ions o echnology, such as collabo a i e lea ning and inno a i e assessmen , equi e u - he de elopmen (Cas año-Muñoz e al., 2021). Equi y in digi alisa ion o schools emains a conce n, wi h dispa i ies obse ed ac oss school ypes and socioeconomic le els (Cas año-Muñoz e al., 2021), aligning wi h in e na ional indings (Hohl eld e  al., 2008; Reich, 2020). Fu he mo e, signi ican dispa i ies in in e ne access exis be ween u ban and u al a eas and among di e en egions (Gallego-A u a e al., 2015; He nández-O ega & Ál a ez-He e o, 2021). This s udy ocuses on Andalusia, a egion wi h a high pe cen age o disad an aged s uden s, making he analysis o digi aliza ion’s impac on social inclusion pa icula ly ele an (P ie o- La o e e al., 2021). The s udy aligns wi h cu en ends ha emphasize inclusi e educa ion and challenge "one-size- i s-all" app oaches o digi aliza ion (UNESCO, 2009; Asma e al., 2022). By examining he expe iences o s uden s, eache s, and p incipals in low-SES schools, his s udy aims o iden i y s a egies o os e ing digi alisa ion o educa ion in a way ha p omo e he inclusion o di e se lea ne s, conside ing hei unique needs, expe iences, and backg ounds (Go schalk & Weise, 2023; Hambu g & Lü gen, 2019; Heemske k e al., 2005). The indings a e expec ed o con ibu e o a deepe unde s anding o he challenges and oppo uni ies o digi aliza ion in hese schools, illing a esea ch gap and p o iding aluable in o ma ion o he design o public policies and aining plans abou he use o echnology ha speci ically con- side he needs o hese schools. 1.1 Rela ed li e a u e To con ex ualize ou esea ch, his sec ion p esen s a e iew o he exis ing li e a u e on he in eg a ion o digi al echnologies in low-income con ex schools. Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies A i s esea ch line has ocused on he ac o s o success ul echnology implemen a ion in low- income con ex s schools. Zielezinski & Da ling-Ham- mond (2016) syn hesized hese ac o s in wo a eas: ’ echnological domain’ and ’lea ning con ex ’ The echnological domain encompasses in as uc u e, access, and esou ces. Disad an aged schools o en ace limi a ions in his a ea, includ- ing inadequa e budge s o acqui ing ad anced and upda ed echnologies and so wa e in he school (Gómez-Fe nández & Media illa, 2022; Kim e al., 2021). This lack o access, pa icula ly o one- o-one de ices ha ha e he po en ial o b idging he digi al di ide exis ing a home, educes s uden s’ lea ning oppo uni- ies (Zielezinski & Da ling-Hammond, 2016). Mo eo e , a lack o echnical sup- po o en hinde s hei main enance, equi ing echnical aining o he s a o he school esponsible o his (Adipa e al., 2023). Wi h ega d o lea ning con ex , he li e a u e ema ks he impo ance o cu - icula and me hodological adap a ions o e ec i ely in eg a e echnology in hese con ex s. This implies no only including echnological de ices in he class- oom, bu also edesigning lea ning expe iences o u ilize hese ools inno a i ely and con ex ually (Tondeu e al., 2008). Acco ding o li e a u e, e ec i e ech- nology in eg a ion in low-income con ex schools should p io i ize highe -o de hinking skills and 21s -cen u y compe encies o e memo iza ion (e.g., h ough simula ions and online games), p omo e sel -di ec ed lea ning (e.g., s uden -led p ojec c ea ion, con en disco e y, c ea ion o con en , choosing asks, demon- s a ing p io knowledge, deciding how o use echnology) o e di ec ins uc ion, and p omo e sel -con idence and a posi i e a i ude owa ds lea ning, he eby enhancing engagemen and mo i a ion. While hese elemen s a e impo an o e ec i e eaching and lea ning in hese con ex s, hey do no gua an ee a key elemen in hese con ex s: cul u al espon- si eness (Gay, 2010). Cul u al esponsi eness equi es an unde s anding o s u- den s’ cul u al backg ounds and expe iences, and echnology o le e age hese ac o s wi hin he lea ning p ocess. The e o e, a second line o esea ch explo es he ela ionship be ween echnology and cul u ally esponsi e eaching. While echnology can po en ially homogenize lea ning, i also p o ides he means o di e en ia ed and pe sonalized lea ning expe iences (Bhu o ia, 2022; Chen e al., 2021). Some ela ed p ac ices include: he use o echnology o connec lea ning and s uden s’ li ed expe iences (e.g., h ough ideos showcasing di e se cul u al pe spec i es, o connec ing s uden s wi h indi iduals om di e se backg ounds ia ideo con e encing); os e ing sel -di ec ed lea ning by p o iding s uden s wi h agency in selec ing and u ilizing echnology ools o hei own lea ning; c ea ing inclusi e digi al lea ning esou ces ha e lec he di e se cul u al back- g ounds o he s uden s, such as inco po a ing mul ilingual esou ces, using cul- u ally ele an examples in lea ning ac i i ies, and p o iding oppo uni ies o s uden s o sha e hei own cul u al pe spec i es h ough digi al s o y elling and mul imedia p ojec s (Shadie & Dang, 2022). This aligns wi h esea ch empha- sizing he need o cul u ally esponsi e compu ing, which conside s how o in e- g a e cul u al aspec s in o compu e educa ion o engage mino i y s uden s while also explo ing how echnology can con ibu e o communi y ad ancemen (Sco e al., 2015). Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies Howe e , esea ch indica es ha eache s o en lack he pedagogical knowledge o e ec i ely in eg a e echnology in a cul u ally esponsi e manne , equen ly eel- ing no con iden (Eu opean Commission, 2019) and elying on adi ional appli- ca ions like online sea ches and p esen a ions (Baako & Ab oampa, 2023; G eene- Clemons, 2016). This sugges s a need o enhance eache educa ion p og ams, ocusing on he de elopmen o hei echnological li e acy wi hin he amewo k o cul u ally esponsi e p ac ices. Fu he mo e, he po en ial o A i icial In elligence has also been ecognised o his ask and as a way o educe echnological expe ise equi ed (Bhu o ia, 2022). Finally, a hi d esea ch s and ocuses on he quan i a i e measu emen o he impac o educa ional echnology in e en ions on he academic achie emen o low-SES s uden s. Resul s show ha he simple p o ision o echnology o schools does no show a signi ican e ec (Bando e  al., 2017; Malamud e  al., 2011). Howe e , he e a e wo main p omising app oaches: Compu e -Assis ed Lea ning (CAL) in e en ions and echnology-media ed beha iou al in e en ions (Di Pie o & Cas año Muñoz, 2025). The i s app oach u ilizes echnology o supplemen a- di ional class oom ins uc ion and di ec ly add esses cogni i e skills and cu icu- la con en de ici s. CAL encompasses a di e se ange o ools, including educa- ional so wa e, in elligen u o ing sys ems, and e en imme si e echnologies like i ual eali y. By p o iding in e ac i e and engaging lea ning expe iences, CAL in e en ions can enhance lea ning oppo uni ies o all s uden s, o e ing pe son- alized lea ning expe iences, equi able access o high-quali y educa ional esou ces, and os e ing independen lea ning skills (Bane jee e al., 2007; Lai e al., 2015; Rouse & K uege , 2004). Con e sely, echnology-media ed beha iou al in e en- ions concen a e on add essing non-cogni i e skills such as belie s, mo i a ion and sel - egula ion. These in e en ions o en le e age echnology o enhance pa en al engagemen , such as h ough ex message eminde s o ac i i ies o online pla - o ms o pa en - eache communica ion (K a & Mon i-Nussbaum, 2017; Be lisnki e al., 2022). These app oaches a e pa icula ly e ec i e in en i onmen s wi h low cul u al capi al and poo educa ional aspi a ions, con i ming he key ole o amily and communi y suppo in os e ing academic success o disad an aged s uden s. Fu he mo e, he combina ion o he wo app oaches, ocusing on cogni i e and non-cogni i e ac o s, can be an e ec i e s a egy o educing educa ional inequali- ies using echnologies (Di Pie o & Cas año Muñoz, 2025). 2 Me hodology In o de o espond o he esea ch objec i es, his s udy akes a quali a i e app oach based on mul iple nes ed cases, speci ically a Type 4 design in he e minology o Yin (2014). This design in ol es analysing mul iple cases wi h embedded uni s o analysis. By allowing o bo h b oad and deep analysis, his app oach acili a es compa a i e s udies and a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he subjec ma e . This mul iple nes ed s udy analysed se e al cases ep esen ed by he pa icipa ing schools and examined di e en subuni s ela ed o he men ioned cases (e.g., o icial docu- men s o he school, pe cep ion o he p incipals, eache s and s uden s, e c.), wi h Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies he aim o gua an eeing he iangula ion o he ga he ed in o ma ion. This in es- iga ion del es in o he pe cep ions and desc ip ions o he pa icipan s; hus, we conside ha he na a i e pe spec i e is he mos adequa e o p o ide in o ma ion abou hei expe ience as p incipals, eache s and s uden s ega ding digi alisa ion in a complex and con ex ualised manne (Benson e al., 2010). 2.1 Pa icipan s/cases The sample consis ed o eigh Ea ly Childhood and P ima y Educa ion schools o he Au onomous Communi y o Andalusia (Spain), which we e ec ui ed based on he ollowing inclusion c i e ia: 1) Being loca ed in a Low-Income Con ex o ca ego ised as a school wi h special needs due o he socioeconomic condi ions o he s uden s (acco ding o he clas- si ica ion o he Go e nmen o Andalusia). 2) Geog aphic di e si y, wi h one school pe Andalusian p o ince. 3) A ailabili y and commi men o he managemen eam, eache s and s uden s in pa icipa ing. The pa icipa ing schools a e loca ed in u ban spaces wi h a com- bina ion o se ious s uc u al si ua ions o po e y and social ma ginalisa ion. The ci izens o hese a eas (a) li e in de e io a ed homes wi h de icien in as uc- u e, equipmen and public se ices, (b) p esen high le els o school absen eeism and ailu e, (c) show high unemploymen a es along wi h se ious o ma i e and p o essional de ici s, (d) ha e hygiene-sani a y de iciencies and/o (e) a e subjec ed o social disin eg a ion phenomena (Jun a de Andalucía, n.d). In each school, we had he collabo a ion o he p incipal, he eache s o P ima y Educa ion, and he s uden s o six h g ade, wi h a o al o 8 p incipals, 30 each- e s and 32 s uden s. Annex 1 shows he mos ele an a ibu es o he p incipals, eache s and s uden s ha pa icipa ed in his s udy. Pa icipa ion was olun a y and ollowed he ules o he in o med consen , which limi s he use o in o ma ion o esea ch pu poses and gua an ees he anonymi y and con iden iali y o he da a. This s udy ollowed he in e nal egula ion in Social Sciences o he Resea ch E hics Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Se ille. 2.2 In o ma ion ga he ing p ocedu e The echniques used included semis uc u ed in e iews, discussion g oups and p ocedu es based on pa icipa o y and isual me hods. In each o he eigh pa ici- pa ing schools, i s ly, a semis uc u ed in e iew was ca ied ou wi h he p inci- pal, and hen a discussion g oup was conduc ed wi h he eache s, wi h a numbe o pa icipan s ha anged be ween ou and se en pe school. The hema ic a eas add essed we e simila and mos ly based on he a eas co e ed by he SELFIE ool o he Eu opean Commission (Cos a e al.,2020): opinion abou he use o ICT in low- income con ex s, leade ship and s a egies o digi alisa ion, collabo a ion ne wo ks, in as uc u e and equipmen , p o essional de elopmen , inco po a ion o ICT in he Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies pedagogical p ac ice, e alua ion and digi al compe ence o eache s and s uden s. Mo eo e , he p incipals and eache s we e asked o iden i y and desc ibe he main challenges ha hei schools ace in he ealisa ion o digi al ans o ma ion, as well as good digi alisa ion p ac ices ha a e implemen ed in hei schools. In he case o he eache s, a e pe o ming he discussion g oup, hey we e eques ed o p io i ise he challenges o he digi al ans o ma ion o hei schools in he sho , medium and long e m (a “ladde o p io i ies” was de eloped in isual o ma ). Secondly, he discussion g oups we e ca ied ou wi h he s uden s. F om ou o six s uden s om each school pa icipa ed. I is wo h highligh ing ha he selec ion was pe o med by he eache s a ending o c i e ia such as a ailabili y, na ionali y, e hnici y and in ol emen . In his case, we add essed aspec s ela ed o hei uses and pe cep ions abou echnology bo h inside and ou side o he school. A e he discussion g oup, he s uden s c ea ed a pos e ha simula ed a a ic ligh , wi h aspec s ha hey conside ed unaccep able ( ed), imp o able (o ange) o excellen (g een) abou he use o echnologies in educa ion. Each s uden had ed, o ange and g een s icke s in which hey w o e down hei judgemen s (one idea in each s icke ). As hey placed hem in he pos e , hey ead hem aloud, wi h he aim o inspi ing he es o hei classma es, as well as gene a ing a deba e among hem. In he con- ex o he s udy, we called his p ocedu e a ic ligh o digi alisa ion. Complemen a ily, o icial documen s o each school we e also ga he ed (e.g., Educa ional P ojec o he School, Digi alisa ion Plan, Class oom Schedules, e c.) and ep esen a i e pic u es we e aken. The da a we e collec ed in Feb ua y-June 2023 and s o ed in secu e se e s o he Uni e si y o Se ille. 2.3 Da a analysis The aim o he analysis was no o simply p esen he indi idual opinions and pe - cep ions o he pa icipan s, bu also o o e a syn hesis o he main challenges a ending o he coincidence be ween “ ype o in o man ” (p incipal, eache o s u- den ) and “ equency” o appea ance. The iden i ica ion and desc ip ion o he challenges o digi al ans o ma ion we e conduc ed om he in o ma ion con ained in he ladde o p io i ies (syn hesis o he aspec s pe cei ed as mos ele an by he eache s) and he a ic ligh o digi- alisa ion (syn hesis o he aspec s pe cei ed as mos ele an by he s uden s), as well as ha con ained in he in e iews and discussion g oups. The in o ma ion o he ladde o p io i ies and he a ic ligh o digi alisa ion was eco ded isually, and we also eco ded he deba e ha eme ged in he cons uc- ion session o each o hese elemen s. The in o ma ion o he in e iews and discus- sion g oups was eco ded in audio and subsequen ly ansc ibed o a ou a igo ous hema ic analysis o he con en . To gua an ee he obus ness o he hema ic analysis, se e al s eps we e aking. Fi s , wo explo a o y in e iews (one wi h a school leade and one wi h an expe ) we e ca ied ou o gua an ee alidi y and me hodological adequacy o he ocus g oup, in e iews and pa icipa i e me hods and he opics/ques ions co e ed in hem. Secondly, o gua an ee in e - a e eliabili y, he hemes we e independen ly Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies iden i ied by wo esea che s, who hen iangula ed hei da a o consolida e a cohe en ca ego y sys em. The ini ial obse ed ag eemen be ween code s was 84%, which ansla es o a Cohen’s kappa o 0.68, conside ed subs an ial ag eemen . When disag eemen s a ose, h ee esea che s ( o a oid ies) con ened o discuss he coding and each consensus. Subsequen ly, he con en was coded in de ail. The eme ging ca ego ies we e e ined h ough an i e a i e p ocess, ensu ing hey accu- a ely e lec ed he pe cep ions and expe iences o he pa icipan s. This sys em o ca ego ies p o ided a s uc u ed amewo k o analysis, acili a ing he in e p e a- ion and syn hesis o he ga he ed da a. Finally, i is impo an o no e ha any o he in ol ed esea che s had a link o p e ious ela ionship wi h he analysed schools wha can con ibu e o minimise possible biases. 3 Resul s The analysis p oduced challenges ela ed o he ollowing ac o s: 1. B eaking he hidden digi al di ide. 2. Teache aining o cul u ally esponsi e eaching. 3. Technology as a b idge be ween home and school. Nex , we desc ibe each o hese challenges in de ail. 3.1 B eaking hehidden digi al di ide The digi al di ide and he lack o adequa e in as uc u e can lead o exclusion and ampli y educa ional inequali ies. The e o e, i eme ges as a pe sis en issue, albei no a new one, in hese cen es. Below a e he indings o he h ee mos ele an ca ego ies ela ed o his dimension: Insu icien access o de ices Acco ding o he in o ma ion p o ided, mos s u- den s lack adequa e de ices (compu e s, able s) a home. Many depend on mobile phones sha ed wi h hei pa en s, as no ed by a s uden om Alme ía: “My a he has a mobile phone, bu he is ne e a home… when he comes back, he doesn’ wan o lend i o me. I wan o do my homewo k, bu I can’ ” (ST12). This si ua ion makes access o echnology a school e en mo e impo an , as i is o en he only place whe e hey can egula ly use and lea n how o ope a e such de ices. Howe e , al hough schools, especially hose o icially ecognised as "educa ional compensa- ion schools," ecei e basic esou ces, hese a e no always conside ed adequa e by s uden s and eache s due o hei apid obsolescence. Addi ionally, school in a- s uc u e o en includes physical spaces ha make i di icul o se up compu e labs, coupled wi h a sho age o app op ia e desks and chai s. This si ua ion neglec s physical heal h conside a ions when using compu e s and esul s in an o e eliance on small-sc een de ices such as lap ops and able s, complica ing p olonged wo k Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies on such de ices. As a s uden om Huel a ema ked: “My head and neck hu om cons an ly looking down” (ST25). Lack o connec i i y School p incipals, eache s, and s uden s ag ee ha in e ne in as uc u e in hese ypes o schools ends o be de icien . F equen powe ou - ages and uns able Wi-Fi ne wo ks unable o suppo simul aneous de ice usage a e common issues. As a eache om Se ille obse ed: “I i ains, he elec ici y goes ou ; i he e is a bi o wind, he same happens, and ’coppe ’ is highly sough -a e in hese a eas” (T4). These echnical di icul ies o ce eliance on analogue me h- ods, limi ing s uden s’ de elopmen o digi al skills. A eache om Cádiz exp essed us a ion: “We can’ a o d o was e so much ime. On he day I plan o use he compu e s, I know i will be comple e chaos. We jus can’ wo k like his” (T25). Ou side o school, he si ua ion is no be e . Mos s uden s lack in e ne access a home and ely on insecu e public Wi-Fi ho spo s. This si ua ion adds s ess o s u- den s ying o mee eache s’ deadlines, as one s uden om Se ille explained: “I don’ like being gi en sho deadlines because ou pa en s some imes don’ le us use he phone, o we don’ ha e Wi-Fi; in he end, we ge scolded a school, bu we couldn’ do he homewo k—i ’s no ha we didn’ wan o” (ST9). Inadequa e equipmen main enance Bo h eache s and s uden s exp ess dissa is ac- ion wi h he main enance o echnological in as uc u e in hei schools. Teache s poin ou he inconsis ency o ha ing unds o pu chase equipmen bu no o keep i upda ed. De ices de e io a e quickly, limi ing hei unc ionali y, and main enance depends on he goodwill and knowledge o eache s. Consequen ly, many eache s a oid using echnology in hei eaching, causing us a ion o bo h hem and hei s uden s. A eache om Cádiz desc ibed he si ua ion: “The de ices s op wo king, and we can’ epai hem. So, we end up using he blackboa d and pape ins ead o eaching s uden s how o use digi al ools” (T25). Ano he eache om Málaga sug- ges ed ha digi al li e acy, despi e being pa o he o icial cu iculum, is p ac ically ese ed o "o he con ex s" (T23) wi h mo e esou ces. Simila ly, a s uden om Se ille complained: “I ge eally bo ed he e, always w i ing. We don’ lea n cool s u . I liked i when we had a obo ics eache on F idays” (ST8). Beyond ha dwa e p oblems, eache s also c i icise he Guadalinex Edu ope - a ing sys em (a Linux-based sys em used in all Andalusian schools, ollowing egional go e nmen ins uc ions), desc ibing i as unsa e, ine icien , and ou - da ed. Res ic ions on web b owse s and he inabili y o ins all upda ed so wa e imposed by his sys em signi ican ly limi pedagogical possibili ies, hinde ing s uden s’ de elopmen o digi al skills and schools’ abili y o adap o educa ional needs. Despi e hese challenges, bo h school leade s and eache s acknowledge he po en ial o echnology o ans o m educa ion in hese se ings, gi en he inc eased mo i a ion i s use can gene a e and i s u ili y in adap ing he each- ing–lea ning p ocess. In his con ex , he c ea ion o “ u u e class ooms”—spaces equipped wi h modula u ni u e, ad anced ha dwa e and so wa e, and make Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies ulne abili y and knowledge abou cul u ally esponsi e eaching. Finally, he s udy iden i ied a need o aining in inno a i e pedagogical me hods, as de ailed in he nex poin . Inno a i e pedagogical me hods S uden s exp ess a clea p e e ence o p ac i- cal, hands-on lea ning expe iences, o en exp essing dissa is ac ion wi h adi- ional, unidi ec ional uses o echnology. To enhance s uden mo i a ion, he use o echnology-suppo ed ac i e lea ning me hods, such as p ojec -based lea ning, gami ica ion, and se ice-lea ning, should be encou aged. Fu he mo e, cu icula should in eg a e esou ces and ac i i ies ha e lec s uden ´s cul u al con ex and p e e ences o gua an ee a meaning ul lea ning. This could include, inco po a ing success ul models om non- o mal educa ion ha p io i ize hands-on aining, like ablabs and make spaces, and u ilizing echnologies ha os e imme si e and cul u ally ele an lea ning expe iences using i ual and augmen ed eali y ools (Adipa e al., 2023; Du & Ca e , 2019; Mak ansky & Pe e sen, 2021; Molloy & Fa ell, 2024; Pa migiani e al., 2021; Zielezinski & Da ling-Ham- mond, 2016). Assis ance on c ea ing cul u ally esponsi e and engaging didac- ic ma e ials (Du & Ca e , 2019; Pa migiani e al., 2021) is also impo an . Recen de elopmen s o AI can be used as a pedagogical assis an , acili a ing eache s design mo e con ex ualised and cul u ally esponsi e esou ces and les- son plans. Mo eo e , pedagogies should le e age s uden s’ pe sonal li e acy p ac- ices. Ac i i ies such as c ea ing documen a ies based on in e iews wi h com- muni y membe s o c ea ing sho documen a ies abou he neighbou hood no only os e c ea i i y and esea ch skills bu also enable s uden s o de elop digi- al skills. Finally, when access o echnology is limi ed, pedagogical app oaches ha os e cul i a e compu a ional hinking h ough unplugged ac i i ies o u i- lizing basic mobile phones and sha ed esou ces can be e ec i e op ions in low- income schools. School- amily-communi y pa ne ship Gi en he equen occu ence o echnol- ogy- ela ed isk de ec ed in he s udy, and ecognizing he key ole o amilies in guiding child en’s echnology use, low-income a eas schools should implemen digi- al li e acy p og ams o amilies o enhance hei abili y o suppo s uden s in using echnology sa ely and esponsibly. Beha iou al in e en ions aimed a inc easing pa en al in ol emen in digi al p ac ices o child en o he use o AI apps/cha bo s implemen ed in he mo e widely use communica ion pla o ms (Wha sApp in he case o Andalusia) and aimed o esponse doub s abou digi alisa ion and how sup- po child en can be e ec i e p ac ices. Fu he mo e, i is impo an p omo e spaces o ga he ing and dialogue, such as lea ning communi ies, whe e amilies and s u- den s can engage in o ma i e wo kshops o wo k on he c i ical, esponsible, and sa e use o echnologies (Medina e al., 2022; Oso io-Saez e al., 2021; Qual e , 2024). Addi ionally, clea p o ocols should be es ablished o he use o digi al de ices and pla o ms, including he es ablishmen o simple and clea ules o he good use o echnology inside and ou side o he school (Hohl eld e al., Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies 2017), o p e en isks such as cybe bullying and inapp op ia e in e ne use. The s udy also highligh s he need o comp ehensi e aining in digi al sa e y o mino s, a ecommenda ion consis en ly emphasized by eache s h oughou he esea ch p ocess. In addi ion o hese s a egies, he esul s o he s udy show he impo - ance o schools p omo ing he use o echnologies o b idge cul u al di ides and enhance communica ion wi h amilies (Goodall, 2016). Technologies can acili a e he c ea ion o ne wo ks ha connec s uden s wi h pee s om di e se socio-cul u al backg ounds and wi h simila in e es s, enabling hem o explo e new en i onmen s, expe ience o he cul u al eali ies, and b eak in o ma ion bubbles o hei communi ies, empowe ing s uden s o challenge hei de ec ed iews abou some p ac ices such as ea ly ma iage o engaging in illegal ac i i- ies. Mo eo e , AI la ge language models can be use ul ools o " ansla e" school communica ions om o mal language o a mo e accessible egis e commonly used by amilies. Finally, he indings highligh he impo ance o o ging pa ne ships wi h local o ganiza ions, NGOs, and echnology companies o p o ide digi al esou ces, ain- ing, and ex acu icula ac i i ies, including se ices such as counselling and sup- po g oups, o p omo e a heal hy and balanced use o echnology. These pa ne - ships can ha e a signi ican impac on s uden educa ion and communi y well-being, con ibu ing o a educ ion o digi al inequali ies (Di Maggio e al., 2004). 6 Limi a ions Al hough ou s udy o e s aluable in o ma ion o e lec on he digi alisa ion o inclusi e educa ion in schools loca ed in low-income con ex s, i also p esen s some limi a ions. Fi s ly, despi e comp ising di e en ypes o low-income con- ex s, his wo k was ocused on a speci ic egion, which could a ec i s gene - alisa ion o o he con ex s and coun ies. The eplica ion o his s udy in o he con ex s would allow iangula ing and compa ing esul s in o he en i onmen s. Secondly, i is wo h men ioning ha he esponses o he pa icipan s, espe- cially ega ding digi al/ eaching p ac ices, could be subjec o social-desi abili y bias. Howe e , he iangula ion o pe spec i es o di e en agen s and he a i- e y o da a-ga he ing me hods minimises his isk. Las ly, his s udy indica es and p io i ises opics o he digi alisa ion o schools in hese con ex s, al hough i does no del e in o speci ic aspec s such as he ole o eme ging echnolo- gies o espond o hese opics o how he implemen a ion o di e en inno a i e socio-communi y s a egies may p omo e he inclusion o amilies and he en i- onmen in he digi al ans o ma ion o educa ion. Add essing hese limi a ions in u u e s udies may complemen he esul s p esen ed in his s udy and help o speci y e ec i e ac ions o a mo e inclusi e digi alisa ion. Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s10639- 025- 13490-z. Acknowledgemen s This wo k was pa ly unded by he esea ch p ojec “The digi isa ion o Andalusian schools wi h g ea e p esence o s uden s wi h low socioeconomic le el” (p ojec 2022/00000398 o he 6 h Resea ch Plan o he Uni e si y o Se ille). Jona an Cas año Muñoz acknowledges he suppo o he ‘Ramón y Cajal’ g an RYC2020-030157 unded by MCIN/AEI/h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 13039/ 50110 00110 33 and by “ESF In es ing in you u u e”. Funding Funding o open access publishing: Uni e sidad de Se illa/CBUA. Da a a ailabili y An anonymized e sion o he da a used and analysed du ing he cu en s udy ( an- sc ip ions, images e c.) is a ailable om he co esponding au ho on easonable eques . Decla a ions Con lic o in e es None. Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License, which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons licence, and indica e i changes we e made. The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his a icle a e included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence, unless indica ed o he wise in a c edi line o he ma e ial. I ma e ial is no included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence and you in ended use is no pe mi ed by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain pe mis- sion di ec ly om he copy igh holde . To iew a copy o his licence, isi h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/ licenses/by/4.0/. Re e ences Abuhammad, S. (2020). Ba ie s o dis ance lea ning du ing he COVID-19 ou b eak: A quali a i e e iew om pa en s’ pe spec i e. Heliyon, 6(11), e05482. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. heliy on. 2020. e05482 Ace es, T. C., & O osco, M. J. (2014). Cul u ally esponsi e eaching. Uni e si y o Flo ida. Adipa , S., Cho ikapanich, R., Laksana, K., Busayanon, K., Pia anom, P., Ausawasowan, A., & Elbasouni, I. (2023). Technological pedagogical con en knowledge o p o essional eache de elopmen . Aca- demic Jou nal o In e disciplina y S udies, 12(1), 173–182. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 36941/ ajis- 2023- 0015 Asma , A., Ma iën, I., & Van Audenho e, L. (2022). No one-size- i s-all! Eigh p o iles o digi al ine- quali ies o cus omized inclusion s a egies. New Media & Socie y, 24(2), 279–310. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1177/ 14614 44821 10631 82 Baako, I., & Ab oampa, W. K. (2023). Resea ch ends on ICT in eg a ion in educa ion: A bibliome ic analysis. Cogen Educa ion, 10(2). h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 23311 86X. 2023. 22811 62 Bando, R., Gallego, F., Ge le , P., & Rome o Fonseca, D. (2017). Books o lap ops? The e ec o shi - ing om p in ed o digi al deli e y o educa ional con en on lea ning. Economics o Educa ion Re iew, 61, 162–173. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. econe du e . 2017. 07. 005 Bane jee, A. V., Cole, S., Du lo, E., & Linden, L. (2007). Remedying educa ion: E idence om wo an- domized expe imen s in India. The Qua e ly Jou nal o Economics, 122(3), 1235–1264. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1162/ qjec. 122.3. 1235 Benson, R., Hewi , L., Heagney, M., De os, A., & C osling, G. (2010). Di e se pa hways in o highe educa ion: Using s uden s’ s o ies o iden i y ans o ma i e expe iences. Aus alian Jou nal o Adul Lea ning, 50(1), 26–53. Be linski, S., Busso, M., Dinkelman, T., & Ma ínez, C. (2022). Reducing pa en -school in o ma ion gaps and imp o ing educa ion ou comes: E idence om high- equency ex messages. Jou nal o Human Resou ces. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 3368/ jh . 1121- 11992 R2 Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies Bhu o ia, A. (2022). Pe sonalized educa ion and a i icial in elligence in he Uni ed S a es, China, and India: A sys ema ic e iew using a human-in- he-loop model. Compu e s and Educa ion: A i icial In elligence, 3, 100068. Büchi, M. (2021). Digi al well-being heo y and esea ch. New Media and Socie y. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1177/ 14614 44821 10568 51 Bu , C., Taddeo, M., & Flo idi, L. (2020). The e hics o digi al well-being: A hema ic e iew. Science and Enginee ing E hics, 26(1), 2313–2343. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s11948- 020- 00175-8 Ca e e o, S., Vuo ika i, R., & Punie, Y. (2017). DigComp 2.1: The digi al compe ence amewo k o ci izens wi h eigh p o iciency le els and examples o use. Eu opean Commission. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 2760/ 38842 Cas año-Muñoz, J., Weike Ga cia, L., & He e o Rámila, C. (2021). Analysing he digi al capaci y o Spanish schools using SELFIE. Publica ions O ice o he Eu opean Union. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 2760/ 947402 Chen, X., Zou, D., Xie, H., & Cheng, G. (2021). Twen y yea s o pe sonalized language lea ning. Educa- ional Technology & Socie y, 24(1), 205–222. Cos a, P., Cas año Muñoz, J., & y Kampylis, P. (2020). Cap u ing schools’ digi al capaci y: Psychome ic analyses o he SELFIE sel - e lec ion ool. Compu e s & Educa ion, 162, 1–15. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2020. 104080 Da ling-Hammond, L. (2020). Accoun abili y in eache educa ion. Ac ion in Teache Educa ion, 42(1), 1–12. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 01626 620. 2019. 17044 64 Di Pie o, G., & Cas año Muñoz, J. (2025). A me a-analysis on he e ec o echnology on he achie e- men o less ad an aged s uden s. Compu e s & Educa ion, 226, 105197. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2024. 105197 DiMaggio, P., Ha gi ai, E., Celes e, C., & Sha e , S. (2004). F om unequal access o di e en ia ed use: A li e a u e e iew and agenda o esea ch on digi al inequali y. Social Inequali y, 1, 355–400. Du , L., & Ca e , M. (2019). O e coming second-o de ba ie s o echnology in eg a ion in K–5 schools. Jou nal o Educa ional Resea ch and P ac ice, 9(1), 246–260. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 5590/ JERAP. 2019. 09.1. 18 ElSaya y, A. (2023). The impac o a p o essional upskilling aining p og amme on de eloping eache s’ digi al compe ence. Jou nal o Compu e Assis ed Lea ning, 39(4), 1154–1166. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1111/ jcal. 12788 Espinosa-Zá a e, Z., Camilli-T ujillo, C., & Plaza-de-la-Hoz, J. (2023). Digi aliza ion in ulne able popu- la ions: A sys ema ic e iew in La in Ame ica. Social Indica o s Resea ch: An In e na ional and In e disciplina y Jou nal o Quali y-o -Li e Measu emen , 170(3), 1183–1207. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s11205- 023- 03239-x Eu opean Commission. (2019). 2nd su ey o schools: ICT in educa ion.h ps:// ec. eu opa. eu/ news oom/ dae/ docum en . c m? doc_ id= 57894 F ancom, G. M. (2020). Ba ie s o echnology in eg a ion: A ime-se ies su ey s udy. Jou nal o Resea ch on Technology in Educa ion, 52(1), 1–16. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 15391 523. 2019. 16790 55 Gallego-A u a , M. J., Gu ié ez-San ius e, E., & Campaña-Jiménez, R. L. (2015). Online dis ibu ed leade ship: A con en analysis o in e ac ion and eache e lec ions on compu e -suppo ed lea n- ing. Technology, Pedagogy and Educa ion, 24(1), 81–99. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 14759 39X. 2013. 814585 Gay, G. (2010). Cul u ally esponsi e eaching: Theo y, esea ch, and p ac ice (2nd ed.). Teache s Col- lege P ess. Gómez-Fe nández, N., & Media illa, M. (2022). Fac o s in luencing eache s’ use o ICT in class: E i- dence om a mul ile el logis ic model. Ma hema ics, 10(5), 799. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 3390/ ma h1 00507 99 González-Be anco , S. M., López-Puig, A. J., & Ca denal, M. E. (2021). Digi al inequali y a home. The school as compensa o y agen . Compu e s and Educa ion, 168, 104195. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2021. 104195 Goodall, J. S. (2016). Technology and school–home communica ion. In e na ional Jou nal o Pedago- gies and Lea ning, 11(2), 118–131. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 22040 552. 2016. 12272 52 Go schalk, F., & Weise, C. (2023). Digi al equi y and inclusion in educa ion: An o e iew o p ac ice and policy in OECD coun ies. h ps:// www. oecd- ilib a y. o g/ docse e / 7cb15 030- en. pd ? expi es= 17137 99769 & id= id& accna me= gues & check sum= 8C317 7F45E 58E98 E3103 92909 8BD5A 96. Accessed 17 Ma 2025. Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies G eene-Clemons, C. D. (2016). Pe cep ions o echnology engagemen on cul u ally esponsi e p e-se - ice eache s. Jou nal o Mul icul u al Educa ion, 10(3), 339–353. Gudmundsdo i , G. B., & Ha le ik, O. E. (2018). Newly quali ied eache s’ p o essional digi al compe- ence: Implica ions o eache educa ion. Eu opean Jou nal o Teache Educa ion, 41(2), 214–231. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 02619 768. 2017. 14160 85 Guo, D., Suo, J., Hu, Q., & Duan, C. (2022) The impac o echnology in educa ional esou ces: A su ey and new pe spec i es. 2022 In e na ional Con e ence on Cul u e-O ien ed Science and Technology (CoST), Lanzhou, China (pp. 114–118). h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1109/ CoST5 7098. 2022. 00033 Gup a, P., & Ve ma, A. (2024). B idging he digi al di ide: Na iga ing he landscape o digi al equi y. In B. Ve ma, B. Singla, & A. Mi al (Eds.), Digi al echnologies, e hics, and decen aliza ion in he digi al e a (pp. 167–179). IGI Global. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 4018/ 979-8- 3693- 1762-4. ch009 Hambu g, I., & Lü gen, G. (2019). Digi al di ide, digi al inclusion and inclusi e educa ion. Ad ances in Social Sciences Resea ch Jou nal, 6(4), 193–206. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 14738/ ass j. 64. 6457 Hébe , C., Jenson, J., & Te zopoulos, T. (2021). Access o echnology is he majo challenge: Teache pe spec i es on ba ie s o DGBL in K-12 class ooms. E-Lea ning and Digi al Media, 18(3), 307– 324. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1177/ 20427 53021 995315 Heemske k, I., e al. (2005). Inclusi eness and ICT in educa ion: A ocus on gende , e hnici y and social class. Jou nal o Compu e Assis ed Lea ning, 21(1), 1–16. Hee s, M., Van Kla e en, C., G oo , W., & Maassen an den B ink, H. (2016). Communi y schools: Wha we know and wha we need o know. Re iew o Educa ional Resea ch, 86(4), 1016–1051. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 3102/ 00346 54315 627365 Helspe , E. J., an Deu sen, A. J. A. M., & Eynon, R. (2015). Tangible ou comes o in e ne use. F om digi al skills o angible ou comes p ojec epo .h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 13140/ RG.2. 1. 1117. 6722. Accessed 17 Ma 2025. He nandez, I. A., Sil e man, D. M., & Des in, M. (2021). F om de ici o bene i : Highligh ing lowe -SES s uden s’ backg ound-speci ic s eng hs ein o ces hei academic pe sis ence. Jou nal o Expe i- men al Social Psychology, 92, 104080. He nández-O ega, J., & Ál a ez-He e o, J. F. (2021). Ges ión educa i a del con inamien o po COVID- 19: Pe cepción del docen e en España. Re is a Española De Educación Compa ada, 38, 129–150. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 5944/ eec. 38. 2021. 29017 Hohl eld, T. N., Ri zhaup , A. D., Ba on, A. E., & Kemke , K. (2008). Examining he digi al di ide in K-12 public schools: Fou -yea ends o suppo ing ICT li e acy in Flo ida. Compu e s & Educa- ion, 51(4), 1648–1663. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2008. 04. 002 Hohl eld, T. N., Ri zhaup , A. D., & Dawson, K. (2017). An examina ion o se en yea s o echnology in eg a ion in Flo ida schools: Th ough he lens o he le els o digi al di ide in schools. Compu e s & Educa ion, 113, 135–161. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2017. 05. 017 Howa d, T. C. (2021). Cul u ally esponsi e pedagogy. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), T ans o ming mul icul u al educa ion policy and p ac ice: Expanding educa ional oppo uni y (pp. 137–163). Teache s College P ess. Hun ing on, B., Goulding, J., & Pi ch o d, N. J. (2023). Expe pe spec i es on how educa ional echnol- ogy may suppo au onomous lea ning o emo e ou -o -school child en in low-income con ex s. In e na ional Jou nal o Educa ional Resea ch Open, 5, 100263. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. ijed o. 2023. 100263 Jun a de Andalucía-Conseje ía de Inclusión Social, Ju en ud, Familias e Igualdad (n.d.). Zonas con Necesidades de T ans o mación Social (ZNTS). Jun a de Andalucía. h ps:// www. jun a deand alu- cia. es/ o gan ismos/ inclu sions ocial ju en ud a milia seigu aldad/ a eas/ inclu sion/ zonas- ans o ma cion/ pagin as/ in o ducci on- zonas- ans o ma cion. h ml. Accessed 17 Ma 2025. Kim, H. J., Yi, P., & Hong, J. I. (2021). A e schools digi ally inclusi e o all? P o iles o school digi- al inclusion using PISA 2018. Compu e s and Educa ion, 170. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2021. 104226 K a , M. A., & Mon i-Nussbaum, M. (2017). Can schools enable pa en s o p e en summe lea ning loss? A ex -messaging ield expe imen o p omo e li e acy skills. The ANNALS o he Ame ican Academy o Poli ical and Social Science, 674(1), 85–112. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1177/ 00027 16217 73200 Lai, F., Luo, R., Zhang, L., Huang, X., & Rozelle, S. (2015). Does compu e -assis ed lea ning imp o e lea ning ou comes? E idence om a andomized expe imen in mig an schools in Beijing. Eco- nomics o Educa ion Re iew, 47, 34–48. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. econe du e . 2015. 03. 005 Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies Li ings one, S., Masche oni, G., D eie , M., Chaud on, S., & Lagae, K. (2015). How Pa en s o Young Child en Manage Digi al De ices a Home: The Role o Income. EU Kids Online, LSE: Educa ion and Pa en al S yle. h ps:// ep in s. lse. ac. uk/ 63378/ 1/__ lse. ac. uk_ s o a ge_ LIBRA RY_ Secon da y_ lib i le_ sha ed_ epos i o y_ Con e n _ EU% 20Kids% 20Onl ine_ EU_ Kids_ Online_ How% 20pa en s% 20man age% 20 Mak ansky, G., & Pe e sen, G. B. (2021). The cogni i e a ec i e model o imme si elea ning (CAMIL): A heo e ical esea ch-based model o lea ning in imme si e i u-al eali y. Educa ional Psychol- ogy Re iew, 33(3), 937–958. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s10648- 020- 09586-2 Malamud, O., & Pop-Eleches, C. (2011). Home compu e use and he de elopmen o human capi al. The Qua e ly Jou nal o Economics, 126(2), 987–1027. Medina, A., Mahjoub, Y., Sha e , L., & P ingsheim, T. (2022). P e alence and incidence o Hun ing on’s disease: An upda ed sys ema ic e iew and me a-analysis. Mo emen Diso de s. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1002/ mds. 29228 Min z, J., Connolly, C., O’B ien, E., Daniela, L., & Ceallaigh, T. Ó. (2024). Inclusi e digi al educa ion: Con ex s, p ac ices and pe spec i es. Compu e s in he Schools, 41(2), 115–119. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 07380 569. 2024. 23408 73 Molloy, C., & Fa ell, R. (2024). Cul i a ing posi i e class oom en i onmen s: Explo ing he e icacy o imme si e echnologies in emo ing ba ie s o lea ning among p ima y school s uden s. Compu e s in he Schools, 41(2), 164–192. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 07380 569. 2024. 23254 41 Na ional Telecommunica ions & In o ma ion Adminis a ion (NTIA). (1995). Falling h ough he ne : a su ey o he “ha e no s” in u al and u ban Ame ica. h ps:// www. n ia. go / page/ alli ng- h ou gh- ne - su ey- ha e- no s- u al- and- u ban- ame i ca. Accessed 17 Ma 2025. OECD. (2022). T ends shaping educa ion 2022. OECD. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1787/ 22187 049 O osu-Asa e, Y. (2024). De eloping class oom ICT eaching echniques, p inciples and p ac ice o eache s in u al Ghana wi hou access o compu e s o in e ne : A amewo k based on li e a u e e iew. In e na ional Jou nal o In o ma ion and Lea ning Technology, 41(3), 262–279. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1108/ IJILT- 04- 2023- 0045 Oso io-Saez, E. M., E yilmaz, N., & Sando al-He nandez, A. (2021). Pa en s’ accep ance o educa ional echnology: Lessons om a ound he wo ld. F on ie s in Psychology, 12, 719430. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 3389/ psyg. 2021. 719430 Pa migiani, D., Benigno, V., Gius o, M., Sil aggio, C., & Spe andio, S. (2021). E-inclusion: Online spe- cial educa ion in I aly du ing he Co id-19 pandemic. Technology, Pedagogy and Educa ion, 30(1), 111–124. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 14759 39X. 2020. 18567 14 Passa e a, G., & Gil-He nández, C. J. (2023). The ea ly oo s o he digi al di ide: Socioeconomic ine- quali y in child ens ICT li e acy om p ima y o seconda y schooling. In Resea ch handbook on digi al sociology (pp. 307–327). Edwa d Elga Publishing. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 4337/ 97817 89906 769. 00026 Pe e sson, F. (2021). Unde s anding digi aliza ion and educa ional change in school by means o ac i i y heo y and he le els o lea ning concep . Educ In o ma ion Technologies, 26, 187–204. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s10639- 020- 10239-8 P ie o-La o e, C., Ma cena o-Gu ie ez, O. D., & Vignoles, A. (2021). School seg ega ion in public and semip i a e p ima y schools in Andalusia. B i ish Jou nal o Educa ional S udies, 69(2), 175–196. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 00071 005. 2020. 17950 78 Qual e , D. (2024). F om digi al exclusion o digi al inclusion: Shaping he ole o pa en al in ol emen in home-based digi al lea ning – a na a i e li e a u e e iew. Compu e s in he Schools, 41(2), 120– 144. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1080/ 07380 569. 2024. 23221 67 Ragnedda, M. (2018). Concep ualizing digi al capi al. Telema ics and In o ma ics, 35(8), 2366–2375. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. ele. 2018. 10. 006 Reich, J. (2020). Failu e o dis up , why echnology alone can’ ans o m educa ion. Ha a d Uni e si y P ess. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 2307/j. c 32 2 4cp Roig-Vila, R. (2012). Spanish policies on in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies in educa ion. REM - Resea ches on Educa ion and Media, 4(2), 205–218. Rouse, C. E., & K uege , A. B. (2004). Pu ing compu e ized ins uc ion o he es : A andomized e alu- a ion o a “scien i ically based” eading p og am. Economics o Educa ion Re iew, 23(4), 323–338. Schee de , A., Van Deu sen, A., & Van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2017). De e minan s o In e ne skills, uses and ou comes. A sys ema ic e iew o he second-and hi d-le el digi al di ide. Telema ics and In o - ma ics, 34(8), 1607–1624. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. ele. 2017. 07. 007 Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies Sco , K. A., She idan, K. M., & Cla k, K. (2015). Cul u ally esponsi e compu ing: A heo y e isi ed. Lea ning, Media and Technology, 40(4), 412–436. Shadie , R., & Dang, C. (2022). A sys ema ic e iew s udy on in eg a ing echnology-assis ed in e cul- u al lea ning in a ious lea ning con ex . Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies, 27(5), 6753– 6785. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s10639- 021- 10877-6 Timo heou, S., Miliou, O., Dimi iadis, Y., e al. (2023). Impac os de las ecnologías digi ales en la edu- cación y ac o es que in luyen en la capacidad y ans o mación digi al de las escuelas: Una e isión de la li e a u a. Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies, 28, 6695–6726. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s10639- 022- 11431-8 Tondeu , J., Van Kee , H., Van B aak, J., & Valcke, M. (2008). ICT in eg a ion in he class oom: Chal- lenging he po en ial o a school policy. Compu e s & Educa ion, 51(1), 212–223. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2007. 05. 003 UNESCO. (2009). Towa ds inclusi e educa ion o child en wi h disabili ies: A guideline. h p:// www. uis. unesco. o g/ Lib a y/ Docum en s/ disab child 09- en. pd . Accessed 17 Ma 2025. UNESCO. (2023). Global educa ion moni o ing epo 2023: Technology in educa ion-a ool on whose e ms? h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 54676/ UZQV8 501 Val, S., & López-Bueno, H. (2024). Analysis o digi al eache educa ion: Key aspec s o b idging he digi al di ide and imp o ing he eaching-lea ning p ocess. Educa ion Sciences, 14(3), 321. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 3390/ educs ci140 30321 an Deu sen, A. J., & an Dijk, J. A. (2014). The digi al di ide shi s o di e ences in usage. New Media & Socie y, 16(3), 507–526. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1177/ 14614 44813 487959 an Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2012). The e olu ion o he digi al di ide: The digi al di ide u ns o inequali y o skills and usage. In J. Bus, M. C omp on, M. Hildeb and , & G. Me akides (Eds.), Digi al enligh en- men yea book (pp. 57–75). IOS P ess. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 3233/ 978-1- 61499- 057-4- 57 an Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2020). The digi al di ide. Wiley. Vande linde, R., & Van B aak, J. (2010). The e-capaci y o p ima y schools: De elopmen o a concep- ual model and scale cons uc ion om a school imp o emen pe spec i e. Compu e s & Educa ion, 55(2), 541–553. Veki i, I. (2010). Socioeconomic di e ences in elemen a y s uden s’ ICT belie s and ou -o -school expe- iences. Compu e s & Educa ion, 54(4), 941–950. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2009. 09. 029 Yin, R. K. (2014). Case s udy esea ch. Design and me hods. Sage. Zhan, W., & You, Z. (2024). Family communica ion pa e ns, sel -e icacy, and adolescen online p oso- cial beha io : A mode a ed media ion model. Humani Soc Sci Commun, 11, 658. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1057/ s41599- 024- 03202-2 Zielezinski, M. B., & Da ling-Hammond, L. (2016). P omising p ac ices: A li e a u e e iew o echnol- ogy use by unde se ed s uden s. S an o d Cen e o Oppo uni y Policy in Educa ion. Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a ilia ions.