Videoarbitraje y fútbol. Narrativas en el poder de la tecnología al servicio del espectáculo

Video refereeing and football. Narratives regarding the power of technology at the service of major sport events Videoarbitraje y fútbol. Narrativas en el poder de la tecnología al servicio del espectáculo doxa.comunicación | nº 42 | January-June of 2026 ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 How to cite this article: Cobo Durán, S. and Marín-Montín, J. (2026). Video refereeing and football. Narratives regarding the power of technology at the service of major sport events. Doxa Comunicación, 42. https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n42a2776 Sergio Cobo Durán. Senior lecturer in the Department of Audio-visual Communication and Advertising at the University of Seville. He has a Bachelor’s Degree in Audio-visual Communication and a PhD in Communication, which received a qualification of Summa Cum Laude by unanimous decision. The subjects he imparts include Audio-visual Scriptwriting, the History of Spanish Cinema, and the Theory and History of Documentaries and Advertising. He has participated on various R+D+i projects, and is currently with another endeavour entitled, New Narratives, Screens, and Social Realities in Spanish Cinema from 2011-2022. Professor Cobo Durán has given speeches at national and international conferences and congresses, and he has undertaken research stays and imparted seminars on Spanish cinema at the Universidad Austral (Buenos Aires, Argentina), Universidad de la República (Montevideo, Uruguay), and Aichi Prefectural University (Nagakute, Japón), among others. He is a member of the research group entitled, Liga de Investigación en Comunicación y Cultura. Género(S), Narrativa, Ideología y Estudios Visuales [Research association of communication and culture, gender/s, narrative, ideology, and visual studies] (LIGAINCOM-SEJ694). His main lines of research are audio-visual narratives, screenwriting, alternative cinema in Spain, contemporary fiction, and the study of documentaries and non-fiction. Universidad de Sevilla, Spain [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0003-0374-6601 Joaquín Marín-Montín. Senior lecturer in the Department of Audio-visual Communication and Advertising at the University of Seville. PhD in Audio-visual Communication and a BA in the same discipline. He was a pre-doctoral fellow on the Intercampus Programme of the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation at the Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (Brazil), and later participated in the Socrates-Erasmus Programme for Third Cycle Studies at Aarhus Universitet (Denmark). He has completed post-doctoral stays at the Centre for Olympic Studies (UAB) and the Universidade Feevale (Brazil). Professor Marín-Montín is a member of the research team, Image and Visual Culture in the Field of Audio-visual Communication (EIKON). He teaches on the Bachelor’s Degree in Audio-visual Communication, the dual Bachelor’s Degree in Journalism and Audio-visual Communication, and on the Master’s Degree in Screenwriting, Narratives, and Audio-visual Creativity. His main lines of research are audio-visual content and the relationship between communication and sport. He has published several articles in the following scientific journals: Communication & Sport; International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship; adComunica; Revista científica de estrategias, tendencias e innovación en comunicación; L’Atalante; and index.comunicación. He has also authored several book chapters issued by renowned publishers such as Routledge, Peter Lang, and IGI Global. Universidad de Sevilla, Spain [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0001-7869-4469 This content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0 | nº 42 | doxa.comunicación January-June of 2026 Video refereeing and football. Narratives regarding the power of technology at the service of major sport events ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 1. Introduction The technological development of audio-visual production has historically led to many changes in sports. When sport became a business, the rules were transformed, as it was forced to adapt to the requirements of television (Whannel, 1992). The live broadcast of major sporting events includes the most typical features of televised sport, as these programmes are transmitted in real time. Moreover, they break the routine, take place in remote locations, and require meticulous planning (Dayan and Katz, 1995). Such events include the Olympic Games and the Football World Cup, which attract record audiences, largely due to their grandiose nature, the ability to attract large crowds, and their international impact (Roche, 2000). The commercialisation of broadcasting rights for sports competitions has allowed audio-visual operators to invest in sophisticated resources to improve the viewer’s experience, such as developing interactive options using second screens (Kroon, 2017; Marín-Montín, 2020; Elishar-Malka, et al., 2021). The advent of video streaming platforms for the broadcast of sporting events, along with business agreements between television operators, has increased the number of subscriptions for the main competitions and raised the quality of coverage, thereby arousing more interest among the audience (Owens, 2021; Moya-López et al., 2024). The technical resources devoted to sports broadcasting have not only grown, but they have continuously incorporated innovation into audio-visual production as well (Roger Monzó, 2015). One such novelty is offering the audience various simultaneous content signals through multi-screen viewing (Hutchins et al., 2019), which was introduced into the television coverage of motorsports such as Formula One Racing, and later extended to other sports like football. This resource is incorporated into the broadcast narrative, thereby increasing the entertaining nature and excitement of televised sports (Wyver, 20 22). Thus, by Recibido: 18/09/2024 - Aceptado: 06/12/2024 - En edición: 04/02/2025 - Publicado Resumen: Los deportes más profesionalizados utilizan herramientas audiovisuales para agilizar decisiones arbitrales, modificando el desarrollo reglamentario de diferentes disciplinas (Benítez, 2019). A pesar de su popularidad, el fútbol ha sido de los últimos deportes en adoptar la revisión de vídeo al reglamento de sus principales competiciones. Este artículo analiza la aplicación del videoarbitraje en el fútbol (VAR) considerando el caso español. De igual forma, el trabajo busca examinar cómo el VAR modifica el relato narrativo de las retransmisiones en directo. Para su elaboración se han seleccionado situaciones del VAR correspondientes a LaLiga 2023-24 (públicos en el canal YouTube LaLiga, DAZN y Movistar). A partir de los registros seleccionados se podrá valorar la manera formal, estética y narrativa en la que la televisión refleja el momento del VAR. Palabras clave: Realización audiovisual; videoarbitraje (VAR); narrativa; fútbol; tecnología. Received: 18/09/2024 - Accepted: 06/12/2024 - Early access: 04/02/2025 - Published: Abstract: Nowadays, top professional sports use audio-visual tools to speed up referee decision-making, thereby modifying the regulatory development of various sporting domains (Benítez, 2019). Despite its popularity, football was one of the last sports to implement video replay as part of the regulations of its main competitive events. This article analyses the use of Video Assistant Referee (VAR) in football, with a particular focus on Spain. The study also examines how VAR modifies the narrative of live broadcasts. To carry out the research, the authors have selected certain VAR situations from the 2023-24 LaLiga football season, which are available on the YouTube channels of LaLiga, DAZN, and Movistar. Based on the recordings chosen, it is possible to evaluate the way in which television reflects VAR situations in terms of form, aesthetics, and narration. Keywords: Audio-visual production; video assistant referee (VAR); narrative; football; technology. doxa.comunicación | nº 42 | January-June of 2026 Sergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 using a screen divided into multiple squares, fans can follow an event from different angles, along with statistics and graphic animation, which generally require a subscription when offered as an interactive tool (Marín-Montín, 2021). A key ingredient in the audio-visual production of sports is the replay, which involves “inserting parts of the deferred story into different independent blocks” (Benítez, 2013: 357), which is used to clarify actions that have gone unnoticed during the live broadcast. In football, replay is a common resource of television broadcasts, which is used to settle disputes such as being offsides, as well as other rules violations such as the use of hands and other types of fouls. The replay is used during interruptions in the game, at which point the sequence of shots regarding the questionable play is immediately available for review in order to understand exactly what has happened (Perry et al., 2019). Furthermore, technological advances have provided other options for sports production, such as super slow-motion cameras, which enable high-quality images to be captured thanks to a recording system of 75 or more frames per second (Owens, 2021). This resource makes it possible to record the most impressive moves and include them as bonus content in the broadcast of important matches. An additional resource used in football coverage is the 3D replay system. This technology was brought in from major US sports federations such as the NFL and NBA, and it was implemented in the Spanish football league during the 2016/17 season. It is based on the computer processing of a system of 38 ultra-high-definition cameras, which offers 360º volumetric replays from any angle and position (Torres-Martín et al., 2022). On the other hand, graphics are another important feature of audio-visual sport production, which are used to provide as much information as possible in order to complement the images captured by the cameras, along with the voices of the sports commentators. Moreover, there is a difference between text and illustration graphics, which can either be stationary or moving (Owens, 2021). In the case of football, the most common graphic feature in a broadcast or summary of a match is the sign in the top left-hand corner, which shows the score and time (Marín-Montín, 2021). Sometimes additional information is provided depending on the type of action that has taken place, whether a foul, substitution, offsides, or other occurrence. Likewise, graphics also provide initial line-ups and sport statistics, which is highly valued by sports fans (Cummins et al., 2016). As in most key football competitions, the graphics for Spain’s La Liga are developed by an external company, which is sub-contracted to provide this service to television operators. In addition to the aforementioned visual aspects, televised sports includes sound components that are mainly comprised of narration, commentary, and ambient sound. Thus, the narrator leads the description of what is happening in the event, sometimes accompanied by commentators who complement the story, and whose number varies depending on the type of coverage in question. In this regard, it is common for one of the speakers to be on the ground in order to offer a closer account of the action, and to conduct interviews as well. On the other hand, ambient sound refers to sound that is directly linked to the sporting event, such as that of kicking the ball, or the occasional shout of a coach (Marín-Montín, 2021), as well as to the audience in the stands, whose reactions and chants contribute significantly to the authenticity, immediacy, and liveliness of the soundscape (Graakjær, 2020). Based on the features mentioned above, the audio-visual production of a football match integrates image and sound composed of repetition, graphic elements, and commentaries, which try to provide the spectator with a coherent analysis, evaluation and assessment of the action taking place, since the fans are not physically present at the event (Barnfield, 2013). As such, it must be pointed out that sports broadcasts on television have become a complete | nº 42 | doxa.comunicación January-June of 2026 Video refereeing and football. Narratives regarding the power of technology at the service of major sport events ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 communicative process, either involving the journalistic process (constructing the event), or reception (reconstructing the same act) (Blanco, 2012). 2. Video assistant refereeing in the world of sport Major sports competitions have benefited from advances in television production tools by incorporating them into refereeing methods, which has even changed the development of rules in different sporting environments (Benítez, 2013). Thus, the rules of some mega-events in sports allow the official judge of the competition to use video technology and computer tools to make decisions regarding certain plays in the game, thereby avoiding mistakes at crucial moments that can have an undue impact on the results (Petersen-Wagner & Lee Ludvigsen, 2023). For this reason, these major competitions have a system of regulated technical assistance for referee decisions, which varies according to the sport as follows: American football has Replay Official; Rugby uses Television Match Official, or TMO; Basketball has Instant Replay, and so on. The premier American football league is the NFL, which is the longest-standing user of instant replay for supporting referees’ decisions. Moreover, this technology has been a regular part of the game since 1999. According to Oates (2014), the use of instant replay by the NFL is not only for enforcing the rules of a complex sport, but is also a key component of television entertainment. Instant replay has become part of the spectacle for both viewers and live fans, who can even watch replays on big screens in the sports stadiums where the games are played. However, in recent years doubts have been raised about its use, such as whether the technology can adequately correct erroneous decisions without becoming a hindrance (Chen & Davidson, 2022), due to images being fragmented, the search for multiple angles for repetition, and other cumbersome actions as a result of innovation. As for rugby, TMO technology has been used since 2001 in certain competitions overseen by the international federation known as World Rugby. Its implementation is an attempt to reduce the number of incorrect referee decisions made during a match, yet at the same time its use has given the sport more media coverage as well (Frandsen, 2020). Along the same lines, rugby fans are calling for more information during the TMO decision-making process in the stadium, requesting that the sound of the referees’ discussions and subsequent decision using the video assistant should be broadcast over the stadium’s sound system throughout the review process. Of course, this depends on the images and camera angles provided by the television signal broadcasting the match (Stoney & Fletcher, 2021). On the other hand, basketball uses instant replay as a support tool for referees, which was implemented in the NBA in the 2002-2003 season. Moreover, it is now an integral part of the narrative framework of this sport, as fans in their homes, local bars, and live sports venues anxiously await the referee’s decision after viewing the replays (Tingle, 2020). In addition to instant replay, basketball has incorporated the challenge system for coaches during the games, which allows them to request instant replays to verify certain key moves, provided that a series of requirements are met, although the final verdict on the play still resides with the referee (López, 2019). Along with video replays, many sports now use computer tools to enhance referee decision-making which, when combined with video cameras, can generate virtual 3D simulations of the action. One sport that stands out in this regard is tennis, which has been using the Hawk-Eye system for live television coverage of the main tournaments since 2006, the main objective doxa.comunicación | nº 42 | January-June of 2026 Sergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 of which is to accurately follow the trajectory of the ball to see if it falls inside or outside the line. The technology ended up being incorporated into the official regulations of the professional tennis circuit as a verification system (Bal & Dureja, 2012; Lingenti, 20 24). This technology has made it possible to reduce controversies in the decision-making of line judges. Moreover, it a valuable part of refereeing and a benefit to television viewers as well (Collins & Evans, 2008). The success of the Hawk-Eye has led to its use in other sports such as cricket, volleyball, and football, in order to accurately follow the trajectory of the ball at decisive moments, thereby reducing referee errors. Despite its popularity, football (soccer) was one of the last sports to incorporate technological tools into its major competitions to support referee reviews. The first technology officially implemented by the FIFA was during the 2014 World Cup in Brazil. The tool is known as Goal-Line Technology (GLT), and it immediately informs the referee when a goal has been scored, or in other words, when the ball has completely crossed the goal line into the goal (Simon, 2020). By using a set of cameras surrounding the field, the GLT does not aim to replace the referee, but to help them in critical situations to make the right decision (Spagnolo et al., 2015). In addition to the FIFA World Cup, this goal technology is also being used by the UEFA, as well as national competitions such as the Premier League, Bundesliga, and Italy’s Serie A. In spite of the foregoing, there are critical voices as well. Many fans believe that such technology distorts the atmosphere of football by reducing the debate surrounding crucial decisions about controversial goals (Winand & Fergusson, 2016). On the other hand, the system of video assisted refereeing (VAR) was officially approved and authorised by FIFA in March 2018 after being tested in 2017 at the Confederations Cup. The introduction of VAR technology is intended to assist referees in making decisions at controversial and crucial moments of a game, although in many cases it is also used to resolve general disputes related to a match (Petersen-Wagner & Lee Ludvigsen, 2023). Furthermore, the regulations state that VAR cannot make decisions, and is only used to support the decisions of the head referee (FIFA, 2018). Major football championships have incorporated VAR into their regulations, although its use has stirred debate, with counterarguments stating that it sometimes disrupts the rhythm and negatively affects the natural flow of the game (Bao & Han, 2023). While this may be true, the fact is that behind the refereeing decisions in today’s professional football there is a lucrative, worldwide industry where many interests are at stake, ranging from players’ salaries to club revenues, and from shareholder profits to gambling proceeds (Nuhrat, 2023). Nevertheless, there is an element of emotional attachment and fan enthusiasm in football, where VAR is still not seen as a technological aid to a fairer game, but rather an artefact with the power to produce unforeseen consequences (Petersen-Wagner & Lee Ludvigsen, 2023; Schwab, Steverding, & Rein, 2023). Furthermore, the implementation of video refereeing in football has led to a discrepancy between fans watching the game from the stadium, who rely mainly on the first impression and perceive less transparency regarding VAR decisions, and the spectators watching from home, who receive quantitatively more information with many slow-motion replays, in addition to the commentaries from the TV channel itself (Märtins, Westmattelmann, & Schewe, 2023). Moreover, with regard to VAR, we should also mention the tool known as Semi-Automated Offside Technology (SAOT), an instrument used to support both video assistant and on-field referees to make accurate offside decisions more quickly (FIFA, 2023). SAOT made its debut in the 2022 European Super Cup Final, and since then its use has spread not only to FIFA matches, but gradually to other top leagues as well. Thanks to 3D animation, the so-called semi-automatic offside technology avoids | nº 42 | doxa.comunicación January-June of 2026 Video refereeing and football. Narratives regarding the power of technology at the service of major sport events ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 adding to the confusion in explanations between broadcasters (Viswanathan et. al, 2023) by improving communication with both spectators at home and fans in the stadium who can visualise very clearly when there is an offside foul (Moñino, 2022). In short, the broadcast of football matches on television has been incorporating all of this revolutionary technology into the sports narrative, which has led to referee reviews through VAR and the variety of tools associated with it. This situation has turned refereeing into a new element for enhancing audience interest, an example of which is showing a replay sequence to clarify controversial decisions, or displaying aspects of the game that have gone unnoticed live (Owens, 2021; Benítez, 2020). Authors such as Umberto Eco (1986) have reflected on how the presence of television cameras has modified various events, whether related to politics, ceremonies, or spectacular encounters such as football matches. In this sense, the inclusion of an entire meta-narrative in sport through video refereeing undoubtedly enhances the suspense involved (Prósper, 2019) by making it a setting in which new narrative structures can be incorporated. In an increasingly globalised environment, large business conglomerates tend to rely on content that will ensure a mass audience. As such, the advent of new narrative structures through the interpretation of the refereeing meta-narrative will only increase the content, number of screens, and readings of the same action, thereby leading to more debate and discussion on television. Given its high degree of audience loyalty, televised football matches are a driving force for the sale of products by the main media conglomerates who are eager to establish links with major football brands, especially through the purchase of broadcasting rights (Ginesta, 2021). 3. Methodology and corpus This research takes an initial approach of an exploratory nature to the issue, focusing on the various platforms that hold the broadcasting rights of the so-called Liga de Fútbol Profesional [professional football league], or La Liga. These platforms include the official website of the football league, as well as Movistar Plus and DAZN. This study has one overall objective, and two secondary objectives derived from the initial one. Firstly, the authors intend to carry out a comparative analysis of the summaries available on each platform after the conclusion of the matches. The main objective of this study is to examine the plays that have undergone referee review during matches, and how each platform addresses this issue in the overall context of each summary. To this end, an analysis protocol will be used in order to consider both visual and sound elements, whether diegetic or extradiegetic. Regarding the secondary objectives, the aim is to verify whether each media outlet uses video referee analysis in diverse ways, either by generating their own content on the subject or by simply incorporating it as another feature of the game’s narrative. Likewise, a related aim is to establish an initial categorisation of the different uses of video refereeing within the final narrative of the matches, if possible. For this research, the decision was made to carry out an analysis of the summaries of the matches of the Liga de Fútbol Profesional Española [Spanish professional football league], in which Real Madrid and FC Barcelona take part, in the period from 1 January to 30 April of 2024. The study began in January 2024, which is the month when VAR audios are made public in Spain, provided that a referee has reviewed them on a monitor. This time period covers a total of 13 league matchdays, which include a direct clash between the two teams mentioned on the 32nd day. Thus, among the three platforms mentioned above, a total of 27 matches were analysed, along with a total of 81 match summaries of the twenty-seven games. doxa.comunicación | nº 42 | January-June of 2026 Sergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 Table 1. Corpus table Matchday Match 1 Match 2 Matchday 20 FC Barcelona – Osasuna Getafe – Real Madrid Matchday 21 Real Betis Balompié – FC Barcelona Real Madrid – Almería Matchday 22 FC Barcelona – Villarreal Las Palmas – Real Madrid Matchday 23 Alavés – FC Barcelona Real Madrid – Atlético Matchday 24 FC Barcelona Granada Real Madrid – Girona Matchday 25 Celta – FC Barcelona Rayo Vallecano – Real Madrid Matchday 26 FC Barcelona – Getafe Real Madrid – Sevilla FC Matchday 27 Athletic Bilbao – FC Barcelona Valencia – Real Madrid Matchday 28 FC Barcelona – Mallorca Real Madrid – Celta de Vigo Matchday 29 Atlético de Madrid – FC Barcelona Osasuna – Real Madrid Matchday 30 FC Barcelona – Las Palmas Real Madrid – Athletic Matchday 31 Cádiz – FC Barcelona Mallorca – Real Madrid Matchday 32 Real Madrid – FC Barcelona Real Madrid – FC Barcelona Matchday 33 FC Barcelona – Valencia Real Sociedad – Real Madrid Source: prepared by the authors To carry out the analysis, a worksheet was used that includes the key features of the audio-visual production such as the types of shots, repetition of the replays, use of slow-motion cameras, and the number of shots included in the final editing. Regarding sound, both diegetic (e.g. ambient sound or fans) and extradiegetic (e.g. commentators’ narration) were analysed. The template of the worksheet used in the analysis can be seen below. | nº 42 | doxa.comunicación January-June of 2026 Video refereeing and football. Narratives regarding the power of technology at the service of major sport events ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 Table 2. Analysis worksheet Match analysed Platform VAR action. Match minute. Audio-visual production Type of shot Repetition Slow motion Other effects One or more of a single shot Sound features Diegetic sound Narrator or narrators Textual features Titles. Typography Overprints. Other notes Source: prepared by the authors 4. Results Some of the main findings of the analysis of the 27 matches, along with 81 summaries, are outlined below. Again, they were all taken from the three selected platforms. It is important to note that for this study, only plays in which VAR was directly involved in one of the three platforms have been analysed. Of the 27 matches examined, 11 do not include any video refereeing in the summaries of the three platforms. This is a significant, because plays are sometimes included on one platform, yet not on others, which will be explained in more detail later. Given the context, it is striking to see how certain summaries from Movistar and DAZN intentionally omit key plays in some of the matches. Consequently, viewers who only watch these highlights might receive only a partial view of the match, and possibly one that is incorrect. Furthermore, these omissions cannot be justified by the short duration of the reports. Although doxa.comunicación | nº 42 | January-June of 2026 Sergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978 they rarely exceed three minutes, there is time enough to avoid omissions. An example can be seen on Matchday 22, during the game between FC Barcelona and Villarreal. In this case, the summary of La Liga includes both the VAR lines and the disallowed Villarreal goal, as shown in Image 1. Image 1. Summary of La Liga’s EA [elite academy]. Matchday 22. FC Barcelona-Villarreal Source: YouTube, 2024A The same play is narrated differently by the Movistar platform, which does not include the offside lines in the goal, although it does include a replay and a brief, narrated commentary about the goal that was disallowed due to an offside foul, yet there was no mention of VAR in this case. This stands in contrast to the coverage on DAZN, which does not even include the disallowed goal in its summary. As a result, there are no goal lines, nor remarks from the commentators on this platform. This same situation occurs with Raphinha’s disallowed goal on Matchday 30 in the game between FC Barcelona and Las Palmas, which appears in full in the summary of La Liga, only briefly on Movistar, and is omitted on DAZN. On Matchday 27, during the game between Valencia and Real Madrid, neither DAZN’s nor Movistar’s coverage offered audio or visual explanations related to the disallowed goal scored by Vinicius. However, the official La Liga summary includes a sequence of images that shed light on the reasons behind this referee’s decision. Firstly, there is a double-screen montage showing an infographic with the offside line superimposed, together with a shot of the exact moment of the pass. Next, the goal review process is displayed, after which the situation returns to full screen mode and the referee is seen awarding the goal. | nº 42 | doxa.comunicación January-June of 2026 Video refereeing and football. 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