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Chap e 8
Mul ina ional Mig a ion in heGlobal
Sou h: Complex andNon-linea
T ajec o ies o Senegalese Mig an s
inB azil
PhilippRomanJung
8.1 In oduc ion
Since he 1990s, B azil has g adually aken a complex and impo an , al hough in
quan i a i e e ms pe iphe al, posi ion in Senegalese mig a ions and is mo e widely
spoken o in he con ex o Senegalese mobili ies. Highe educa ion s uden s we e
he i s o mig a e in small numbe s o B azil in he 1990s. This mig a ion was
pa ly p omo ed h ough go e nmen p og ammes and, al hough la e mo emen s
a e ba ely connec ed o i , a clea sepa a ion is no easible. The second impo an
mo emen in ol ed B azil as a ansi coun y o mig a ion o A gen ina, which
s a ed in he la e 1990s (Min ielle, 2015; Vammen, 2019). Due o he absence o an
A gen inian diploma ic mission in Senegal, mig an s ins ead applied o a isa a he
B azilian Embassy in Daka , wi h he objec i e o using he coun y as an en y
poin in Sou h Ame ica. The e a e oughly 3000 Senegalese li ing in B azil’s sou h-
e n neighbou ing coun y and many o hem en e ed A gen ina by c ossing he bo -
de om B azil (Kleide mache , 2016).
Al hough he e ha e been isola ed cases o Senegalese se ling ea lie in B azil,
he a ailable s a is ics as well as in e iews and con e sa ions wi h Senegalese
immig an s and B azilian mig a ion schola s all indica e ha he numbe o
Senegalese esiding in Sou h Ame ica’s bigges coun y s a ed o g ow slowly
a ound 2008 and inc eased s ongly be ween 2013 and 2016 (Jung, 2019). Some
824 esidence pe mi s we e issued o Senegalese in B azil be ween 2010 and 2017.
The s a is ics o asylum eques s by Senegalese since 2010 indica e a highe num-
be and g ea e inc ease o Senegalese immig a ion– in o al, 8486 Senegalese
applied o asylum be ween 2010 and 2018 (BRASIL, 2020). Howe e , o
Senegalese, he likelihood o gaining asylum is e y small. Only 14 ou o 5281
P. R. Jung (*)
Ins i u e o Geog aphy and Spa ial Planning (IGOT), Uni e sidade de Lisboa,
Lisbon, Po ugal
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
© The Au ho (s) 2023
J. Ah ens, R. King (eds.), Onwa d Mig a ion and Mul i-Si ed T ansna ionalism,
IMISCOE Resea ch Se ies, h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-12503-4_8
160
eques s had been g an ed by May 2017.1 Ne e heless, mos Senegalese use his
p ocess o gain empo a y pe mission o s ay and wo k in B azil and, la e , o y o
ge a esidence pe mi h ough o he p ocedu es. Special si ua ions o cases omi ed
om he law we e he legal ame o mos esidence pe mi s issued o Senegalese
be ween 2010 and 2015 (Sil a e al., 2018). In No embe 2019 he B azilian go -
e nmen decided o allow Senegalese wi h an open asylum eques o apply o a
esidence pe mi h ough a special p ocedu e (BRASIL, 2019). I is impo an o
poin ou ha he s a is ics only ep esen hose who a e o icially egis e ed in
B azil o ha e applied o asylum. ‘Illegal’ en ies and Senegalese who had al eady
le he coun y a e no cap u ed by hese s a is ics. Consequen ly, only a ough
es ima e o he Senegalese communi y is possible.
Senegalese immig a ion in B azil is closely linked o economic and geopoli ical
de elopmen s on di e en scales, including B azil’s high na ional economic g ow h
du ing he i s decade o he wen y- i s cen u y and he 2008 economic c isis–
wi h i s s ong impac on coun ies like Spain and I aly, bo h impo an des ina ions
o Senegalese mig an s (see Flikwee e al. Chap. 4). Mo eo e , his pe iod is
cha ac e ised by inc easing di icul ies o Senegalese in mig a ing, whe he ‘ egu-
la ly’ o ‘i egula ly’, o Eu ope due o es ic i e immig a ion policies and mig a-
ion con ol (Adepoju e al., 2009; Fino elli & Scio ino, 2013; Casas-Co es e al.,
2014). Many o my in e iewees s a ed ha hey applied i s o a isa o a
Eu opean coun y o he USA bu hei eques s we e denied. B azil, oge he wi h
Cape Ve de and A gen ina, om whe e mig an s mo ed la e o B azil, we e consid-
e ed as al e na i es o emig a ion. Some au ho s also sugges ha B azil is an
impo an ansi poin o mig an s ying o mo e o No h Ame ica (Ma celino &
Ce u i, 2011; Min ielle, 2015).
B azil se es as a hub o Senegalese mul ina ional mig a ion, bo h as a des ina-
ion and as he o igin o mo emen s ha a e connec ed o a a ie y o egions,
including coun ies in A ica, Eu ope and Sou h and No h Ame ica. Some
Senegalese pionee s did no come om hei home coun y bu om hei las coun-
y o esidence. These mul ina ional mig a ions a e an impo an ac o which
helped o pu B azil on he ‘mig a o y map’ o Senegalese. They a e acili a ed
h ough and shaped by ansna ional ne wo ks and ies ha connec people om
di e en na ional backg ounds a di e en places bu a e, simul aneously, he cause
o he o ma ion o hese ansna ional spaces (Fais , 2000) by c ea ing connec ions
o new places. These mo emen s ques ion he dicho omy o coun y o o igin and
des ina ion in mig a ion s udies and he assump ion o mig a ion as a unique and
linea ac , which s a s wi h he de elopmen o mig a o y aspi a ions in he coun y
o o igin and ends wi h he a i al and in eg a ion a he des ina ion.
This chap e ocuses on mul ina ional mig a ions by Senegalese mig an s in
B azil, add essing, on he one hand, al eady-occu ed mo emen s om Cape Ve de
and A gen ina o B azil and, on he o he , aspi a ions o mig a e u he – o Eu ope,
1 In e iew wi h Diego Nepomuceno Na di, Du able Solu ions Assis an a UNHCR B azil (09
May 2017, B asília).
P. R. Jung
161
No h Ame ica o Aus alia. The s udy d aws on empi ical da a esul ing om quali-
a i e, e hnog aphic ieldwo k in ou e y di e en B azilian ci ies: São Paulo,
P aia G ande, Caxias do Sul and Passo Fundo. The esul s show how ansna ional
ies and p ac ices, in ol ing a plu ali y o ac o s and places, in luence mul ina ional
mig a ion. The s udy hus ques ions no only he ocus on ies which connec coun-
y o o igin and des ina ion bu also he e hnic lens in mig a ion esea ch (Glick
Schille e al., 2008). Mo eo e , i highligh s how mig a o y capi al (Paul, 2015)
de elops a di e en places and momen s o he mig a o y ajec o y. Finally, he
esul s d aw a en ion o he impac o empo a y o ms o mobili y and mig a o y
expe iences on decisions, in en ions and s a egies o onwa d mo emen .
8.2 Aspi a ions andCapabili y inMul ina ional Mig a ion
A g owing numbe o schola ly accoun s call o a conside a ion o he luidi y and
non-linea i y o mig a ion p ocesses (Ami & Knowles, 2017; Am i h, 2020) and
he dynamic na u e o mig a ion in en ions and decisions (Wissink e al., 2013). Due
o s uc u al ac o s, such as immig a ion laws and economic oppo uni ies, mig a-
ion has become inc easingly complex, o en including long and pe ilous jou neys,
ansi ing h ough a a ie y o coun ies and egions and consis ing o phases o
mobili y and immobili y, emplacemen and displacemen . In his con ex a clea
dis inc ion be ween ansi and des ina ion coun y becomes less e iden and he
o igin–des ina ion model e eals i sel as inc easingly unable o cap u e mig a ion
s a egies and he complexi y o mig a ion p ocesses. Mo eo e , mig a ion in en-
ions and aspi a ions o eseen in mig a o y p ojec s canno be unde s ood as closed
o de ined a he beginning o a jou ney (Janssens, 2018). Mig an s adap o chang-
ing condi ions. They e lec cons an ly on he ci cums ances hey encoun e , iden-
i y new oppo uni ies and obs acles and eac o hem (Schapendonk & S eel, 2014;
Zeleke, 2017). Mig a o y aspi a ions may also change du ing he mig a ion and he
li e cou se, o ins ance by becoming a pa en . Consequen ly, mig a ion i sel should
no be unde s ood as a linea p ocess– as i mig an s ollow and execu e, s ep by
s ep, a plan elabo a ed a he place o o igin– o solely as he unique mo emen
om one coun y o ano he . Mig an s aspi e o achie e some hing by mo ing and
no jus o mo e. He nández-Ca e e o (2017) a gues ha emig a ion and e u n
should be unde s ood as s ages in he same p ojec o socio-economic p ospe i y. In
his sense, mul ina ional mig a ion can be examined as u he s ages o he same
p ojec and no as a new one.
Mul iple mo emen s be ween a a ie y o coun ies and se lemen in mo e han
wo coun ies in one’s li e cou se a e no a e cases in oday’s wo ld. The e exis s a
ange o di e en names and concep s o desc ibe he con inua ion o mig a o y
mo emen s, mos p ominen ly he e ms ‘onwa d’ and ‘s epwise’ mig a ion (see he
e iew by Ah ens and King, Chap. 1). While he e a e many simila i ies be ween
hem, hey a e no in e changeable. Onwa d mig a ion can be de ined as a seconda y
mig a o y mo emen , which occu s a e li ing o a ce ain pe iod o ime in one
8 Mul ina ional Mig a ion in he Global Sou h: Complex and Non-linea T ajec o ies…
162
des ina ion coun y and is di ec ed o ano he coun y, which is no he one o o igin
(King & Ka amoschou, 2019). I is no planned o in ended in ad ance on depa u e
om he coun y o o igin. Some au ho s emphasise ha onwa d mig a ion is a
eac ion o changing ci cums ances a he des ina ion. The 2008 economic c isis, o
ins ance, igge ed mo emen s wi hin he Eu opean Union o mig an s who se led
i s in Sou he n Eu opean coun ies (Ramos, 2018; King & Ka amoschou, 2019) o
esul ed in in en ions o he desi e o do so (Es e es e al., 2017). Howe e , onwa d
mig a ion is no only caused by ex ao dina y e en s. The desi e o sel -
imp o emen – o example educa ional o economic– and he sea ch o a be e
u u e o one’s child en o amily can be impo an easons o mo ing again o
ano he coun y. These desi es esul pa ly om a dissa is ac ion wi h oppo uni ies
in he hos socie y and expe iences o disc imina ion (Ah ens e al., 2016). Wi h
ega ds o onwa d mo emen s wi hin he EU, a ious au ho s highligh how he
acquisi ion o EU membe -s a e ci izenship is a decisi e elemen bo h as a acili a o
and a mo i e o onwa d mig a ion (Ah ens e al., 2016; McGa igle & Ascensão,
2017; De Hoon e al., 2019; Della Puppa & Mo ad, 2019). Fa ou able economic
condi ions and immig a ion policies may no be ound a he same place and
mig an s use mul iple mo emen s as a s a egy o achie e hem in di e en coun ies.
S epwise mig a ion desc ibes he mo emen o a coun y wi h he in en ion o
lea e i again and con inue he mig a o y ajec o y a a la e s age. I ‘includes mul-
iple s ops (o subs an i e du a ion) in a ious in e media e loca ions as pa o an
in en ional, hie a chical p og ession owa d an indi idual mig an ’s p e e ed des i-
na ion’ (Paul, 2011, 1844). S epwise mig a ion can be unde s ood as a mul is age
mig a ion s a egy, which mig an s apply o mo e up a hie a chy o des ina ions.
Insu icien mig a o y capi al o o e come di e en ypes o ba ie s, o ins ance
es ic i e immig a ion policies, p e en s mig an s om going di ec ly o a p e-
e ed des ina ion. S epwise mig a ion allows mig an s o acqui e and accumula e
mig a o y capi al in i s di e en o ms (Bou dieu, 1986), which can suppo u he
mo emen s. In he esea ch abou s epwise mig a ion by Filipino mig an s, Paul
(2015) shows ha he nex s ep o a mig a o y p ojec is no always p edic able and
p e iously planned. The p ojec needs o be open o al e a ions and allow he mig an
o be lexible and eac o he ci cums ances. Paul also indica es ha a mig an may
ha e a ange o p e e ed des ina ions and no jus one. Des ina ion hie a chies o i-
en mig a ion jou neys. They o de he wo ld acco ding o a no ma i e scale o
alues, expec a ions and meanings. This ‘cosmology o des ina ions’ ‘connec s
sha ed imagina ies abou places wi h mo al judgemen s and alues ela ed o mig a-
ion des ina ions and goals’ (Belloni, 2020, 7). Values, expec a ions and meanings
a e no only a ibu ed o a coun y bu also o he mig an . In o he wo ds, he mo al
wo hiness o a mig an o e laps wi h he a ac i eness o he coun y which he/she
was able o each (Belloni, 2020, 2).
While, in heo y, he iming o he in en ion o mo e again d aws a clea line
be ween onwa d and s epwise mig a ion, in eali y, his di e en ia ion may be mo e
blu ed. The di e en pe iods o s epwise mig a ion can ex end o se e al yea s. A
he same ime, a mig an may lea e he supposed des ina ion al eady a e a sho
pe iod o ime. Se e al s udies abou ansi mig a ion and mig a ion ajec o ies
P. R. Jung
163
show ha in en ions need o be concep ualised in conside a ion o hei dynamic
and luid na u e (Collye & de Haas, 2012; Wissink e al., 2013; Schapendonk,
2017; Zeleke, 2017). Paul and Yeoh (2020) sugges mul ina ional mig a ion as an
umb ella e m o emb ace he di e en ypes o mul iple mo emen s wi hin one’s
li e ime. They de ine mul ina ional mig a ion as he mo emen s o in e na ional
mig an s ac oss mo e han one o e seas des ina ion wi h signi ican ime spen in
each coun y. These mo emen s a e composed o ‘complex, dynamic, and open-
ended ajec o ies ha a e con ingen on shi ing and une en capi als, s uc u ed by
luid mul ina ional mig a ion in as uc u es, and shaped by mig an s’ e ol ing
geog aphical imagina ies, aspi a ions and sense o hemsel es’ (Paul & Yeoh, 2020,
p.3). The ajec o ies do no necessa ily mo e up a hie a chy o coun ies bu can
also include downwa ds and la e al mo emen s. They can consis o ci cula and
epe i i e mo emen s, no only unidi ec ional ones. In en ions o mul ina ional
mig a ion can be planned be o e lea ing he coun y o o igin o a ise du ing he
jou ney. Finally, Paul and Yeoh highligh ha , beside mig an s’ capi al, i is he
embeddedness in mig a ion in as uc u es (Xiang & Lindquis , 2014; Lin e al.,
2017), which enables o es ains mul ina ional mig a ion.
The concep o mul ina ional mig a ion desc ibes mig a ion as open-ended a-
jec o ies du ing which mig a ion aspi a ions and in en ions as well as he abili y o
mo e e ol e and change. These e olu ions and changes a e o en de e mined by
speci ic ci cums ances which he mig an s encoun e du ing hei ajec o y. G aw
and Schielke’s (2012) concep ualisa ion o mig a ion as a ho izon o imagina ion
and ac ion is a use ul ool wi h which o app oach he embeddedness o mig a ion
p ocesses a places. A ho izon, in i s li e al sense as he ou e ealm o he ision,
changes wi h mo emen . Following G aw and Schielke’s unde s anding, ho izon
e e s also o wha is amilia , known and imaginable o a pe son. In his sense,
mo emen indica es no only a change o he ho izon o he physical space bu also
a possible change o pe spec i e and expec a ions. These shi s o he ho izon esul ,
o example, om new acquain ances, new in o ma ion, exposu e o di e en
sou ces o media o he acqui ing o new mig a o y capi al. Howe e , hey can also
be an ou come o eme ging oppo uni ies and speci ic ci cums ances. These oppo -
uni ies can channel mo emen s in di ec ions ha we e no p e iously in ended o
o eseen and can igge unplanned depa u es. Ca ling and Haugen (2020) sugges
he concep o ci cums an ial mig a ion o desc ibe he unp edic able ways in which
mig a ion ajec o ies and expe iences un old unde he in luence o coincidence
and mic o-le el con ex s. Coinciden al ac o s ha ac a he mic o-le el include
chance encoun e s wi h o he s, good o bad luck a c i ical junc u es and he acci-
den al disco e y o oppo uni ies. The au ho s a gue ha he conside a ion and
analysis o coincidence and mic o-le el con ex s allows us o unde s and ‘ he wis s
and u ns as cons i u i e elemen s o many mig a ion expe iences’– i.e., he non-
linea i y o mig a ion– as well as he ‘p ominen ole ci cums ances play unde
ce ain mig a ion egimes’ (Ca ling & Haugen, 2020, p.2780). Mo eo e , i allows
he examina ion o he in e ela ion be ween plans and se endipi ies. The mo e-
men s o Senegalese mig an s in B azil include bo h onwa d and s epwise mig a ion
and o en can be de ined as ci cums an ial mig a ion. I decided o op o he e m
8 Mul ina ional Mig a ion in he Global Sou h: Complex and Non-linea T ajec o ies…

164
‘mul ina ional mig a ion’, since i s de ini ion inco po a es he mo emen o all
h ee ypes.
8.3 Me hodology
The empi ical da a p esen ed in his chap e esul om ou pe iods o ieldwo k,
each las ing om 2 o 4 mon hs and conduc ed be ween 2017 and 2019. Using bio-
g aphical in e iews and e hnog aphic me hods, I s udied he ajec o ies o
Senegalese mig an s in he ci y o São Paulo and in P aia G ande– a coas al own
which is loca ed abou 80km eas o he me opolis– and in he wo medium-sized
ci ies o Caxias do Sul and Passo Fundo, which a e impo an indus ial and ag icul-
u al si es in B azil’s mos sou he n s a e o Rio G ande do Sul. The ou ci ies we e
chosen due o hei impo ance in Senegalese immig a ion in B azil. São Paulo,
Caxias do Sul and Passo Fundo all ha e ela i ely la ge Senegalese communi ies bu
a e also impo an o o he o ms o mobili y and ci cula ion o Senegalese wi hin
he coun y. P aia G ande is a popula , empo a y des ina ion o Senegalese s ee -
hawke s, who sell hei p oduc s on he beaches du ing he B azilian summe
mon hs. The esea ch was pa o a wide doc o al p ojec abou Senegalese mig a-
ion o B azil. Fo his chap e , I ocus on 11 in e iews wi h Senegalese mig an s
who ei he ha e expe ience o mul ina ional mig a ion o exp essed hei in en ion
o mo e again o ano he coun y. Excep o one in e iew ia Skype wi h a
Senegalese who mo ed om B azil o Po ugal, all in e iews we e conduc ed du -
ing my ieldwo k in B azil, using ei he Po uguese o F ench. I ansla ed he in e -
iew passages used in his chap e o English. Addi ionally, a mig a ion his o y
cha o MHC (Ca ling, 2012) was elabo a ed oge he wi h he mig an s (see
Fig.8.1).
In e nal mo emen s– bo h in Senegal and B azil– and in e na ional mo emen s
we e eco ded in he MHC and a e ep esen ed as ho izon al segmen s o he ajec-
o y. Ve ical segmen s indica e he ime spen a a speci ic place. The empo al axis
o he MHC was di ided in yea s and consequen ly mo emen s o sho e du a ion
we e no eco ded. Howe e , du ing he in e iews i became clea ha hese sho -
e m mo emen s we e o en impo an o la e decisions abou mul ina ional mig a-
ion. In he beginning he objec i e was o collec in o ma ion abou he amily’s
mig a ion his o y bu he size o many amilies wi h membe s who eside in a g ea
a ie y o coun ies complica ed his ask. Ins ead, he MHC ocused on he li e
ajec o y o he mig an and hose amily membe s o iends who in luenced i
mo e di ec ly. Figu e8.1 is an example o a digi alised e sion o he MHC and
shows he ajec o ies o Sadio2 (S.), who will be p esen ed below. Sadio has 13
siblings in o al, all om his a he ’s polygamous ma iage, bu only his olde
b o he (O.B.) and his younges b o he (Y.B.) emig a ed oo and a e included in he
2 Names a e changed o gua an ee he anonymi y o he pa icipan s.
P. R. Jung
165
Fig. 8.1 Example o a mig a ion his o y cha
8 Mul ina ional Mig a ion in he Global Sou h: Complex and Non-linea T ajec o ies…
166
MHC.Fu he mo e, he MHC indica es he yea o Sadio’s ma iage and di o ce,
which bo h in luenced his mo emen s, and he bi h o his daugh e (D.). F. is a
iend, whose acquain ance Sadio made in Cape Ve de in 2009, and who in luenced
his mo emen o B azil.
MHC and in e iews a e complemen a y ools o he s udy o mig a ion ajec-
o ies. The MHC helped he in e iewee o ecall he iming o mo emen s by ela -
ing hem o e en s, yea o age (see Ca ling, 2012, pp.150–151). I s isual aspec
acili a es he iden i ica ion o s ages o li e, he in e connec ions be ween di e en
indi idual ajec o ies and ansna ional social ela ions. In mos cases, he elabo a-
ion o he MHC ook place be o e conduc ing he in e iew. The mo emen s and
s ages o li e iden i ied h ough he MHC la e se ed as an o ien a ion du ing he
in e iew. In he wo cases in which he MHC was only elabo a ed a a la e s age,
i allowed o c oss check he iming o mo emen s indica ed in he in e iew. Mo e
in-dep h in o ma ion abou mig a ion decisions and mo emen s we e collec ed
h ough he in e iews. Mo eo e , e hnog aphical me hods in he o m o in o mal
con e sa ions and obse a ions we e impo an o he da a collec ion and no ed in
a ield dia y.
Wi h one excep ion, all he cases analysed he e a e men. This e lec s he gende
dis ibu ion o Senegalese immig an s in B azil, who a e mainly men be ween 19
and 50yea s old (Tedesco & Mello, 2015; He édia & Gonçal es, 2017). Only 1.6
pe cen o an immig a ion s ock o 3173 Senegalese in he s a e o Rio G ande do
Sul a e women (Uebel, 2017). This is no su p ising, since Senegalese emig a ion is
gene ally a he a male domain (SENEGAL, 2018). The pa icipan s a e mainly
om he egion o Daka , di e en ci ies in he so-called peanu basin and he
Casamance and ha e di e se e hnic backg ounds. Thei age anges om 22 o
47yea s and hei ci il s a us includes unma ied, ma ied and sepa a ed. Some
mig an s o igina e om poo amilies, while o he s ha e a middle-class backg ound
wi h a he s who wo ked as public se an s. The class backg ound e lec s i sel in
some cases in he le el o educa ion, which include quali ica ions in p ima y and
seconda y school and academic diplomas as well as Qu an schools.
8.4 Mul ina ional Mig a ion oand omB azil
8.4.1 Mul ina ional Mig a ion omCape Ve de
The Cape Ve de a chipelago lies abou 500km wes o Senegal’s coas . The mul i-
na ional mig a ion o (Wes ) A ican mig an s om Cape Ve de o B azil can be
unde s ood as a new chap e in he a chipelago’s long his o y as an in e sec ion
be ween A ica, Sou h Ame ica and Eu ope. Due o hei s a egic posi ion in he
A lan ic, he islands we e an impo an ansi poin in bo h he ansa lan ic sla e
ade and, la e , o s eamships, which needed o eload coal o hei oyages
be ween Eu ope and Sou h Ame ica. Cape Ve de is widely known o i s long
P. R. Jung
167
his o y o emig a ion (Ba alha & Ca ling, 2008) bu , since he second hal o he
1990s, he coun y has wi nessed he a i al o ci izens o ECOWAS membe s a es.3
Especially in he beginning, he islands we e conside ed as a s epping-s one o
mig an s aiming o each he EU.Howe e , es ic i e mig a ion policies in EU
coun ies, oge he wi h inc easing bo de con ols in Cape Ve dean wa e s– o
example, in he o m o mili a y coope a ion wi h Eu opean coun ies– hinde ed
hese mo emen s (Ma celino & Fa ahi, 2011; Fu ado, 2013). Addi ionally, a con-
s an economic g ow h, especially due o he booming cons uc ion and ou ism
sec o s and bo h lowe inancial bu dens wi h ega ds o he mig a ion and legal
en y ba ie s in Cape Ve de, a ac ed a g owing numbe o Wes A ican mig an s,
among hem Senegalese, who a e he second bigges g oup o ci izens om o he
ECOWAS coun ies (Jung, 2015). As mo emen s om Cape Ve de o Eu ope
became mo e di icul , mig an s s a ed o look wes wa ds o al e na i es. The ol-
lowing h ee cases a e examples o his eo ien a ion.
Sadio is a 47-yea -old Fulani om he egion o Kolda in he Casamance. I was
di icul o gain a li ing and suppo he amily in Senegal and, a e he sepa a ed
om his wi e, wi h whom he has one child, he decided o emig a e o Cape Ve de in
2008. He mo ed o he capi al, P aia, whe e a iend and his olde b o he al eady
li ed, wi h he expec a ion ha i would be easie o gain a li ing he e. Howe e ,
om he beginning he did no see Cape Ve de as his inal des ina ion. Ins ead, he
in ended o mo e again o Spain, Po ugal o B azil. In P aia he wo ked in cons uc-
ion bu his e enue was no enough o eally imp o e his and his amily’s li e. The
si ua ion became e en mo e di icul wi h he decline o job oppo uni ies in he
building sec o . ‘I had o lea e he e, o he wise no hing would ge be e ’, Sadio old
me. His in en ion o mo e o Spain, Po ugal o B azil emained s ong bu i was
no easy o ealise. Ge ing a isa o he wo Eu opean coun ies was oo di icul
and soon he abandoned he idea o mo e he e. Th ough Guinea-Bissauan and
Senegalese me chan s who a elled egula ly o hei comme ce be ween Cape
Ve de and B azil and a iend who had al eady mig a ed o B azil in 2012, he
in o med himsel abou he possibili ies and egula ions o mo e o Sou h Ame ica
ins ead. Visa egula ions o B azil we e much easie bu his nex mig a o y s ep
was delayed. He explained o me he inancial easons o his delay. ‘[M]oney was
e y di icul o ea n. I also had o help my amily in Senegal. I needed some ime
o sa e he money necessa y o lea e. I ook a while’.
I ook him 8 yea s be o e he was inally able o lea e Cap Ve de. He a elled o
B azil on a one-mon h business isa in Oc obe 2016. A e a i ing in Reci e, in he
no h-eas o B azil, Sadio wen o Fo aleza, whe e a Senegalese iend wi h whom
he had wo ked in Cape Ve de li ed. The iend helped him o apply o asylum. He
s ayed o 4 mon hs in Fo aleza, wai ing o news om ano he Senegalese, also an
acquain ance om Cape Ve de, who was looking o a job o him in Passo Fundo,
he ci y whe e Saido now li es and wo ks. Sadio did no only conside Cape Ve de
3 The p o ocol on he F ee Mo emen o Pe sons, Residence and Es ablishmen pe mi s na ionals
o he 15 Economic Communi y o Wes A ican S a es (ECOWAS) membe s a es ee mo emen
in he egional bloc.
8 Mul ina ional Mig a ion in he Global Sou h: Complex and Non-linea T ajec o ies…
174
Abou one yea la e , he was ying o ge a isa o Aus alia and a p i a e en e -
p ise was aking ca e o his eques . Assis is one o wo mig an s whom I me in
B azil, who applied se e al imes o a isa o di e en coun ies bu , un il now,
we e ne e success ul. While his isa lo e y could be unde s ood as a s ong wish
o lea e B azil, Assis’ in en ions a e dynamic and adap hemsel es o he ci cum-
s ances. Mig a ion is as an ac i e lea ning p ocess. As we saw abo e, Assis a i ed
as a young 20-yea -old in Sou h Ame ica and, acco ding o him, wi h absolu ely
no idea o wha o expec . The expe ience ha imagined oppo uni ies can di e
om he eali y encoun e ed in a coun y and his knowledge o he di icul ies o
s a ing om ze o impac ed on his app oach o u he mo emen s– he does no
wan o ake isks.
I only hink abou lea ing o h ee mon hs. Only h ee mon hs. A e h ee mon hs, I will
come back. Go ou o see and come back. [….] I go he e jus o analyse. I analyse, see how
i is he e and hen I come back he e. […] I could imagine some hing else and (when) I ge
he e, he eali y is di e en . So i s I wan o keep my s o e, le someone ake ca e o i .
Then I will isi ano he [coun y] and see wha happens on he o he side and i i ’s be e
I’ll come back he e and see how I’m going o sol e i .
Assis in ends o le someone, p e e ably a ela i e, look a e his s o e du ing his
ime away. This s a egy esembles ha used by Mamadou o his mig a ion om
Cape Ve de o B azil. A empo a y mo emen o explo a ion pu poses as a s a -
egy o minimise he isk o disillusionmen and ailu e was also men ioned by o he
mig an s, especially hose who a e doing ela i ely well in B azil. Mig a ion expe-
iences a e a c ucial elemen o his app oach. The conce n o e s a ing again in
a new coun y and unde going he same di icul ies ha hey success ully had o e -
come in B azil, lead o an a emp o minimise he isks. By con as , mig an s who
ha e no hing o lose o no o he obliga ions in B azil– o example a amily–
would o en no hesi a e o mo e again o ano he coun y. Moussa, who exp essed
his disappoin men wi h his mig a o y expe ience in B azil, has no doub s and
in ends o lea e B azil as soon as possible and mo e o Canada. ‘I I ge a isa
omo ow mo ning, I’m lea ing omo ow’, he old me wi hou showing any ea
ha mig a ing o Canada could be unsuccess ul as well. Howe e , I ecen ly spoke
wi h Moussa5 and his si ua ion in B azil has comple ely changed. He has mo ed
om Sou h B azil o he No h and cu en ly li es in Belém in he Amazon Del a.
The e he once helped a Senegalese woman who a elled o B azil o buy chili pep-
pe s. Th ough his expe ience he disco e ed, almos by coincidence, a new income
oppo uni y and now wo ks as a middleman be ween Senegalese and Chinese buy-
e s and B azilian p oduce s. A leas o he ime being, his in en ion o onwa d
mig a ion is suspended. This and he o he cases show he he e ogenei y and luid-
i y o mul ina ional mig a ion in en ions and p epa a ions by Senegalese immi-
g an s in B azil.
5 Telephone call on 03 Janua y 2021.
P. R. Jung

175
8.5 Conclusion
In one o m o ano he , mul ina ional mig a ion is an in eg al pa o Senegalese
mig a ion o B azil. Onwa d mig a ion om Cape Ve de, he mo emen ac oss he
bo de om A gen ina o he in en ion o mo e o an EU coun y o No h Ame ica,
all demons a e how Senegalese immig a ion in B azil is embedded in wide con-
ex s o (global) mobili y. Mul ina ional mig a ions o B azil a e a cen al ac o in
he disco e y o B azil by Senegalese mig an s and gene ally also pa ed he way
o he di ec mig a ion om Senegal o B azil which s a ed la e . Sel -imp o emen
is he main mo i e o mul ina ional mig a ion di ec ed o and om B azil. He e,
aspi a ions wi h ega ds o be e employmen oppo uni ies and highe income a e
e y impo an . Howe e , sel -imp o emen also e e s o pe sonal g ow h esul -
ing om expe iences in a new coun y o con inen and he sea ch o new chal-
lenges. While B azil’s economic g ow h i s a ac ed Senegalese mig an s in Cape
Ve de and A gen ina, he ongoing economic c isis c ea es in en ions o lea e B azil.
The e is, ne e heless, no clea -cu poin in ime when mo emen s changed di ec-
ion. Un il now, mo emen s in bo h di ec ions happened simul aneously. This indi-
ca es ha each mig an e alua es condi ions di e en ly. While some mig an s a e
disappoin ed wi h he si ua ion in B azil, o he s ound be e condi ions han a
hei las place o esidence. Impo an o he unde s anding o mul ina ional
mig a ion in en ions om B azil is he di e en s a us which is associa ed wi h
each des ina ion as well as he s a us ha is acco ded o mig an s hemsel es o
eaching pa icula des ina ions (Belloni, 2020). The USA is highe on he des ina-
ion hie a chy and a Senegalese who managed o go he e is ega ded di e en ly o
one who li es in B azil.
Aspi a ions o onwa d mo emen a e cons uc ed in ansna ional spaces. Many
o he in e iewees ha e ela i es and iends in se e al coun ies. These kinship o
iendship ies connec di e en places and a e a pa o hose ansna ional spaces
which span mo e han wo coun ies. While ela ionships based on kinship o com-
mon o igin a e especially impo an in he decision o lea e Senegal, in he cases
p esen ed he e, people’s in en ions o mul ina ional mig a ion a e o en embedded
in ela ionships which de eloped du ing he mig a ion jou ney and o en include
iends and acquain ances o a di e en na ionali y. The esul s show ha in en ions
o onwa d mo emen s and he s a egies o do so a e si ua ed in speci ic locali ies.
The examples o Mamadou– who uses his s o e in Cape Ve de as a sa e y-ne – o
o Abdoulaye and how his in en ion o mo e o B azil was cons uc ed in P aia,
demons a e his si ua edness. A Senegalese who mo ed o Cape Ve de may ha e
ne e imagined ha , a some poin in his li e, he would isi B azil– much less li e
he e. Howe e , he mig a ion o Cape Ve de changed he mig a o y ho izon. The
spa ial and empo al dimensions o he mig a o y ajec o y a e open-ended and no
ixed. This openness also implies ha a mig an may no mo e a all o may decide
o e u n o his home coun y o las coun y o esidence. Mig a ion in en ions a e
dynamic. They change o e ime and adap o ci cums ances and he eme gence o
8 Mul ina ional Mig a ion in he Global Sou h: Complex and Non-linea T ajec o ies…
176
oppo uni ies. Finally, he s udy demons a es how di e en o ms o mobili y in e -
sec . Tempo a y mo emen s ei he esul in in en ions o mul ina ional mig a ion
o a e used o explo a ion pu poses.
Acknowledgemen s I would like o hank Russell King, Jill Ah ens and he anonymous e iew-
e s o hei help ul eedback. My special g a i ude goes o he Senegalese mig an s, who sha ed
hei expe iences and his o ies wi h me. This esea ch was suppo ed by he Po uguese Founda ion
o Science and Technology (FCT) (g an numbe PD/BD/128347/2017) and he Diaspo aLink
P og am inanced by he Resea ch Execu i e Agency (g an numbe 645471).
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