1
A e sel -leade s mo e willing o men o o he s? A s udy among Indian and Spanish
uni e si y eache s
Pu pose: This s udy aims o unde s and he in luence o sel -leade ship on he in en ion o
men o among uni e si y eache s conside ing he media ing ole o sel -e icacy and he
mode a ing ole o indi idualism-collec i ism dimensions.
Design/me hodology/app oach: A s anda dized ques ionnai e was used o collec da a om
Indian and Spanish uni e si y eache s. SEM and hie a chical mul iple eg ession analysis
we e used o heo ize abou he ela ionship be ween sel -leade ship and in en ion o men o ,
and he po en ial in luence o sel -e icacy and cul u al a iables in his ela ionship.
Findings: Sel -leade ship s a egies in luence he in en ion o men o h ough uni e si y
eache s´ sel -e icacy. The posi i e ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o
becomes s onge when he esponden s a e inclined owa ds e ical collec i is ic o
ho izon al indi idualis ic alues.
Resea ch limi a ions/implica ions: The s udy ex ends men o ing li e a u e since i
inco po a es bo h indi idual and cul u al a iables, allowing obse ing hei in e play and
gi ing a holis ic unde s anding o he issue. The main limi a ion o he s udy is i s c oss-
sec ional su ey design, which is he use o da a collec ed om a single-si ing, sel - epo ing
measu e. Di e en p ocedu es we e used o con ol me hod biases.
P ac ical implica ions: In en ion o men o can help uni e si y eache s (especially he
younge s a s) and s uden s o es ablish he p ocess ha can ein o ce hei commi men
owa ds ealis ic goals. In he long e m, en e ing in o a men o ing ela ionship migh boos
sel -e icacy and sel -leade ship quali ies o he men o s hemsel es.
2
O iginali y/ alue: The comp ehensi eness and ele ance o he a iables in he con ex
chosen is he p ima y s eng h o his esea ch. In he scena io o inc easing
p o essionaliza ion and globaliza ion, he c oss-cul u al na u e o his s udy b ings in a global
pe spec i e o he esea ch p oblem.
Keywo ds: Sel -leade ship, sel -e icacy, in en ion o men o , c oss-cul u al s udy,
indi idualism-collec i ism.
A icle classi ica ion: Resea ch pape
Ci a:
Ganesh, M.P., López-Caba cos, M.Á. and Vázquez-Rod íguez, P. (2019), "A e sel -leade s
mo e willing o men o o he s? A s udy among Indian and Spanish uni e si y eache s", C oss
Cul u al & S a egic Managemen , Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 223-245.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/CCSM-04-2017-0047
3
In oduc ion
The eme gence o a knowledge-based economy has led o he inc eased p o essionaliza ion o
wo k o ce (An al In e na ional, 2015). P o essionals a e cha ac e ized by long pe iods o
ex ensi e aining and specialized educa ion (Shulman, 1998). Compa ed o indi iduals a
manage ial oles, p o essionals enjoy a high le el o au onomy in hei wo k sphe e and a e
go e ned mo e by he in e nalized e hical alues o he p o ession han by hei manage s o
o ganiza ional ules and p ocedu es (Fo sy h and Danisiewicz, 1985). Thus, p o essionalized
jobs a e conside ed o be sel -go e ned and no ex e nally go e ned (Weggeman, 1989).
Recen changes in he social s uc u es, echnology and demog aphics ha e also inc eased he
need o sel -di ec ion in mos ca ee s (Sulli an and Ba uch, 2009).
Employee sel -go e nance equi es sel -in luence in he o m o discipline and
di ec ion, he quali ies which can be g ouped unde he axonomy o sel -leade ship (Neck
and Manz, 1992). Mos heo is s ha e cons ued sel -leade ship as a sel -in luence p ocess
in ol ing a se o beha iou al and cogni i e s a egies, which a e b oadly classi ied in o h ee
g oups, namely: beha iou ocused s a egies, na u al ewa d s a egies, and cons uc i e
hough p ocess s a egies (Ande son and P ussia, 1997). Se ing goals and aligning onesel
owa ds hem, ewa ding onesel when hose goals a e achie ed, and sel -co ec ion du ing
de ia ion om hose goals a e some o ms o beha iou ocused s a egies. Na u al ewa d
s a egies aim o imp o e he pe cep ion o inhe en posi i e elemen s in a gi en ask, which
is simila o ha o inding an inna e meaning in he gi en ask a he han looking o
ex e nal ewa ds. Cons uc i e hough pa e n s a egies in ol e challenging i a ional belie
4
sys ems, men al image y o success ul pe o mance and posi i e sel - alk (Neck and
Hough on, 2006). These sel -leade ship quali ies a e highly ele an o p o essionalized jobs
wi h high le els o au onomy and sel -con ol (Manz and Sims, 1987).
F om an o ganiza ion’s poin o iew, using adi ional measu es o manage ial and
leade ship con ol may no be e ec i e in managing such sel -di ec ed wo k o ces. In he
con ex o sel -di ec ed and au onomous wo k o ce, leade ship migh in ol e encou aging
o he s o lead hemsel es. Manz and Sims (1991) call his o m o leade ship as supe -
leade ship. Being sel -leade s hemsel es, supe -leade s migh be highly mo i a ed o
inculca e hose quali ies in hei ollowe s (Hough on e al., 2003). Demons a ing he bene i s
o sel -leade ship quali ies o o he s as a ole model migh in ol e c ea ing nu u ing
ela ionships like a men o ing ela ionship. Thus, i would be e y in e es ing o analyse i
sel -leade s commi hemsel es o he idea o c ea ing leade s ou o ollowe s by men o ing
o he s in he o ganiza ion.
The ela ionship be ween sel -leade ship quali ies and willingness o men o can be
explained by he imp o ed sense o secu i y and con ol among sel -leade s. Especially, sel -
leade ship as a sel - egula o y mechanism can imp o e an indi idual’s pe cep ion o sel -
con ol and sel -con idence and his can ansla e in o highe le els o sel -e icacy (Neck and
Hough on, 2006). In his sense, sel -e icacy is one’s judgemen o “how well one can execu e
cou ses o ac ion equi ed o deal wi h p ospec i e si ua ions” (Bandu a, 1982, p. 122) and i
is also a s ong de e minan o a pe son’s beha iou , hough pa e n and emo ional esponse
in eac ion o challenging si ua ions.
Among a ious p o essionals, academic jobs a e conside ed o be p o ean ca ee s in
which he indi iduals a e sel -d i en, and hei pe sonal alues d i e hei ca ee p og ess
(Ba uch and Hall, 2004). Acco ding o Higgins and K am (2001), ela ional in luences like
5
men o ing can se e as a key esou ce o such kind o employees. So, unde s anding he
in luence o sel -leade ship on in en ion o men o h ough academicians’ sel -e icacy migh
gi e aluable insigh s, speci ically because bo h a iables a e highly ele an in he con ex o
academic p o ession (Demi , 2008).
Inc eased globaliza ion and mobili y o people ac oss na ional bounda ies ha e c ea ed
he need o unde s and he ole o cul u al o ien a ion in employees’ beha iou . Cul u al
alues can ha e a s ong in luence on he ca ee a i udes o he employees (Minko and
Ho s ede, 2011). Many con ex ual ac o s like cul u al alues, poli ical en i onmen , economy
along wi h pe sonal ac o s can in luence an indi idual’s jou ney in his/he ca ee pa h
(Sulli an and A hu , 2006). Fo example, Sege s e al. (2008) ound ha indi iduals in lowe
powe dis ance cul u es we e mo e sel -di ec ed in hei ca ee managemen . This s udy also
a gues ha employees wi h di e en cul u al o ien a ions may ha e widely di e en ca ee
needs and may be mo i a ed by di e en ca ee ac o s. Thus, unde s anding he in luence o
cul u al alues on he wo k beha iou o p o essionals like academicians can b ing in aluable
insigh s.
The signi icance o his s udy is he selec ion o a iables and he s udy con ex
because i is qui e no el o analyse he ole o sel -leade ship o eache ’s e ec i eness in
highe educa ional ins i u ions ac oss di e en na ionali ies. Selec ing uni e si y le el
eache s is a key highligh o his s udy because hei ole is expec ed o be ha o a nu u an
one. In ac , mos socie ies expec he eache o imbibe holis ic de elopmen o o he people
h ough men o ing (Da is, 2003). So, he p ima y objec i e o he p esen s udy is o
unde s and he e ec o sel -leade ship on he in en ion o men o h ough Spanish and Indian
uni e si y eache s’ sel -e icacy, conside ing di e en cul u al alues.

6
The concep o Sel -leade ship
Sel -leade ship is a p ocess in ol ing con ol and in luence o one’s own beha iou h ough
ce ain beha iou al and cogni i e s a egies (Manz, 1986). Employees who egula e hei
ac ions in a posi i e di ec ion can be an asse o he o ganiza ion, whe ein hey no only
pe o m e ec i ely bu also in luence people a ound hem as ole models (Gong e al., 2009).
The concep o sel -leade ship bo ows hea ily om he la ge heo e ical amewo k
o sel -in luence (Neck and Hough on, 2006). Acco ding o beha iou al sel - egula ion
app oach (Ca e and Scheie , 1981, 1998), indi iduals moni o and con ol he balance
be ween hei aspi a ions and ac ual beha iou h ough a sel - egula o y p ocess ha helps o
educe he disc epancy be ween one’s own pe o mance s anda d and he e o exe ed.
Bandu a’s (1986) heo y o social cogni ion also has a s ong ele ance o sel -leade ship.
Simila o sel - egula ion heo y, social cogni i e heo y es ablishes an indi idual’s sel -
egula o y sys em as a p oduc o h ee p ocesses, namely: sel -moni o ing, sel -judgmen and
sel - eac ion (Neck and Hough on, 2006). Sel -leade ship s a egies a e also closely ela ed o
he concep o in insic mo i a ion (Manz, 1986). Unlike sel -managemen s a egies, which
ocus on he ex e nal ewa ds as a esul o success ul comple ion o he ask, sel -leade ship
ocus on he na u al ewa ds which a e he ewa ding na u e o he ask i sel (Neck and
Hough on, 2006).
P e ious s udies on sel -leade ship in wo k con ex we e p ima ily ocused on he
a eas o sel -managing wo k g oups (Manz and Sims, 1986, 1987) and empowe ing
leade ship (Manz and Sims, 1991). In ac , empowe ing leade ship in con a y o mains eam
leade ship models o he 1970s insis ed on he no ion o empowe ing ollowe s and c ea ing
sel -leade s as an e ec i e leade ship p ac ice (Manz and Sims, 1991). The concep o
empowe ing leade ship is like ha o supe -leade ship, which is helping he subo dina es o
7
lead hemsel es mo e e ec i ely (Neck and Hough on, 2006). As leade ship quali ies, sel -
leade ship and supe -leade ship a e connec ed in many ways. A supe -leade no only c ea es
sel -di ec ed subo dina es bu also becomes a sel -leade him/he sel demons a ing he
bene i s o hose sel -leade ship quali ies o o he s as a ole model.
Acco ding o Hough on e al. (2012), o measu e sel -leade ship i is necessa y o
conside h ee sub-dimensions, beha iou al awa eness and oli ion (BAV), ask mo i a ion
(TM) and cons uc i e cogni ion (CC). BAV in ol ed sel -obse a ion and sel -goal se ing
which can be ca ego ized as beha iou ocused s a egies o sel -leade ship. TM ac o
in ol es isualizing success ul pe o mance and sel - ewa d and ep esen s bo h he
beha iou ocused and cons uc i e hough p ocess s a egies dimensions. The CC ac o
includes sel - alk and e alua ing belie s and hus ep esen s cons uc i e hough p ocess
s a egies o sel -leade ship.
The esea ches on sel -leade ship in uni e si y con ex and hose analysing he
ela ionship be ween sel -leade ship and o he ou comes a e sca ce. Sel -leade ship s a egies
a e highly ele an o he success ul ca ee o p o essionals including uni e si y eache s. In
mos cases, apa om he b oade o ganiza ional guidelines o ca ee ad ancemen s,
pe o mance a ge s o uni e si y eache s a e highly in e nalized and a e associa ed wi h long
e ms ca ee goals (Aus in, 2002).
In en ion o men o as an ou come
Men o ing is de ined as a p ocess h ough which he olde expe ienced indi idual (men o )
ac s as a guide, counsello and a iend o a younge o inexpe ienced indi idual (men ee),
wi h po en ial bene i s o he men ees (Koyuncu e al., 2014). Among a ious ac o s which
a ec he e ec i eness o a men o ing p og am, he men o s’ willingness o in en ion o
8
men o plays a c ucial ole (Ragins and Scandu a, 1994). Va ious heo ies in social
psychology ha e also no ed he ole o in en ions in ac ual beha iou o an indi idual
(Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Speci ically, he heo y o planned beha iou sugges s
indi iduals’ a i ude owa ds beha iou leads o in en ions which in u n leads o ac ual
beha iou (Ajzen, 1991). So, conside ing in en ion o men o can help unde s and he
indi idual’s disc e iona y p e e ences o ge in ol ed in a men o ing p ocess, aiming o a oid
al eady exis ing men o ing ela ionships po en ially in luenced by ex e nal ac o s like o mal
men o ing p og ammes p esc ibed by he own o ganiza ion. P e ious esea ch on men o ing
has used he men o s´ willingness o men o as he ou come a iable (Allen e al., 1997;
Ragins and Scandu a, 1999; Bea and Hwang, 2015; Bane jee-Ba is e al., 2019).
Being sel -awa e and ha ing he abili y o manage one’s own emo ional s a e and cope
wi h ha dships a e some o he c ucial p edisposi ions o an e ec i e men o (Leban and
Zulau , 2004). In en ion o men o is conside ed as a c ucial supe -leade ship quali y because
i ac s as a s a ing poin o nu u ing such sel -leade ship p ac ices wi hin he o ganiza ion
(K am and Hall, 1996). Based on ca ee and li e s age heo ies, Allen (2003) p oposes ha
men o s migh be mo i a ed o ge in o men o ing ela ionships p ima ily o ul il hei own
de elopmen al needs. Thus, eache s who a e high in sel -leade ship quali ies would be mo e
willing o men o o he s and help hei men ees become sel - elian . I could be hough ha a
eache ´s esponsibili ies encompass he ole o a men o o he s uden s (S anulis, 1995), bu
i men o ing is unde s ood as a p ocess ha in ol es eache s and s uden s in a deepe
ela ionship han ha based on eaching ac i i y, his kind o p ocess do no a ise in all cases.
Thus, he social expec a ion o he ole o a eache as a men o o he s uden s is an implici
one and in many cases i does no ag ee wi h a o mal job desc ip ion. So, eache s’ men o ing
beha iou s can be o en disc e iona y and ex a- ole in na u e (DeAngelo e al., 2016).
9
The need o acul y- acul y le el o men o ing is also acu e, as mos academic ca ee s
emphasize indi iduals o choose hei own ca ee pa hs and ake ca e o hei p og ess in hose
chosen pa hs (Young e al., 2005). Sel -leade ship quali ies can help in si ua ions whe e he
s uc u e and ce ain y in ca ee pa hs a e low. They may inc ease he willingness o men o ,
encou aging eache s o men o younge colleagues who a e in he ea ly s ages o hei ca ee s
(Manz and Neck, 2004). The c ucial link which connec s sel -leade ship quali ies and
willingness o men o is he le el o con ol one pe cei es o e his/he li e (Tschannen-Mo an
and Hoy, 2007), which is ela ed o he concep o sel -e icacy.
The ole o Sel -e icacy
Sel -e icacy heo y (Bandu a, 1977, 1986, 1997) p oposes ha e icacy belie s a e s ong
de e minan o people’s choice o goals, and hei e o and pe sis ence in achie ing hose
goals. Social cogni i e pe spec i e conside s sel -e icacy as a dynamic quali y which is
linked o pa icula pe o mance domains which a e ask speci ic (Bandu a, 1986). Sel -
e icacy is also conside ed as a gene alized s a e o mind (Chen e al., 2001). Gene alized
sel -e icacy ep esen s “ he indi iduals’ pe cep ion o hei abili y o pe o m ac oss a a ie y
o si ua ions” (Judge e al., 1998, p. 170). Resea ches ha e shown a posi i e impac o
leade ship on sel -e icacy and many o hese s udies ocus on ex e nal leade ship a he han
sel -leade ship (Ka l e al., 1993). As a cons uc , sel -e icacy is closely associa ed wi h sel -
leade ship. In his sense, sel - egula o y s a egies ha e p oximal connec ion o he concep o
con idence in e ms o pe cep ion o one’s own pe sonal capabili ies (Neck and Hough on,
2006). Acco ding o social lea ning heo y, modelling in he o m o sel -ins uc ional
hough s (labelled as cogni i e modelling) is an in luen ial an eceden o sel -e icacy
(Bandu a, 1977; S ajko ic and Lu hans, 1998). These sel -ins uc ional hough s a e simila o
16
Co on (1993). This scale uses a 7-poin a ing scale anging om s ongly disag ee o
s ongly ag ee. All hese i ems a e included in Table 3. Indi idualism and collec i ism we e
measu ed using he scale de eloped by T iandis and Gel land (1998). This scale measu es
indi idualism and collec i ism a wo le els namely ho izon al and e ical. The e o e, he
scale has ou subscales, namely ho izon al indi idualism (4 i ems), e ical indi idualism (4
i ems), ho izon al collec i ism (4 i ems) and e ical collec i ism (4 i ems). 9-poin a ing
scale was used whe e esponse anged om ne e /de ini ely no o always/de ini ely yes. The
coun y has been used as a con ol a iable o he model.
Resul s
The means, s anda d de ia ions, simple co ela ions and es ima ed eliabili ies (C onbach’s
alpha) o he a iables used in his s udy a e p esen ed in Table 1. All o hem showed
C onbach’s alpha alues accep able and highe han 0.60 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). Co ela ion
analysis indica ed a signi ican posi i e co ela ion be ween sel -leade ship and sel -e icacy,
in en ion o men o , ho izon al indi idualism, e ical indi idualism and e ical collec i ism.
In en ion o men o displayed a signi ican posi i e co ela ion wi h sel -e icacy, e ical
indi idualism and ho izon al collec i ism. Apa om he in en ion o men o , sel -e icacy
showed a signi ican posi i e co ela ion wi h ho izon al collec i ism. Co ela ional analysis
also no ed ha na ionali y was signi ican ly co ela ed wi h in en ion o men o , ho izon al
indi idualism, e ical indi idualism, e ical collec i ism and beha iou al awa eness and
oli ion; hence na ionali y was con olled when es ing he model (Shi e al., 2011).
(Inse Table 1 abou he e)
The e a e signi ican di e ences be ween Indian and Spanish esponden s on bo h
e ical indi idualism (M(SD) India = 5.06(1.5), M(SD) Spain = 3.6(1.5), (d ) = 6.36(193),

17
p<.01) and e ical collec i ism (M(SD) India = 7.2(1.4), M(SD) Spain = 6.6(1.4), (d ) =
3.27(194), p<.01), and also in ho izon al indi idualism (M(SD) India = 6.75(1.57), M(SD)
Spain = 6.23(1.42), (d ) = 2.42(186), p<.05). Indians eache s had highe sco es, which is in
con adic ion o he popula belie ha indi iduals belonging o eas e n coun ies a e mo e
collec i is ic han he wes e ne s. A keen look a he i ems o he ques ionnai e and he
de ini ion o he sub dimensions e eal in e es ing insigh s. The p esen s udy shows ha o
he Indian esponden s, he e ical componen is he o e powe ing a ibu e o he
indi idualism-collec i ism dimension. Indian esponden s also showed a highe alue in one
o he dimensions o sel -leade ship (namely, beha iou al awa eness and oli ion, M(SD)
India = 4.05(0.6), M(SD) Spain = 3.7(0.63), (d ) = 3.34(195), p<.001), which means, ha he
inc ease in compe i ion has c ea ed he need o be mo e sel -obse an and ocused on hei
goals. Finally, Indian esponden s showed highe in en ion o men o han he Spain
coun e pa s (M(SD) India = 5.7(1.2), M(SD) Spain = 5.2(1.08), (d ) = 3.52(185), p<.001),
which can also be associa ed wi h hei high sco es in se e al cul u al alues dimensions. The
es o he a iables did no show signi ican di e ences be ween Indian and Spanish
esponden s.
Measu emen model
Con e gen alidi y analysis showed ha all indica o s loaded on o hei espec i e la en
ac o signi ican ly (p<.001) and subs an ially (λ>.5). Mo eo e , wo addi ional indica o s
namely composi e eliabili y index and a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE) we e calcula ed in
o de o measu e he scale’s eliabili y. Thus, he scale’s eliabili y was con i med. Las ly,
disc iminan alidi y was e alua ed in wo di e en ways. Fi s , he AVE and he squa ed
co ela ions be ween cons uc s we e compa ed (Hai e al., 2009). In all cases, he AVE was
18
g ea e han he squa ed co ela ion es ima es. Second, a se ies o CFA es s we e e alua ed
on al e na i e measu emen models (Table 2). Using a chi-squa e di e ence es , he
hypo hesized h ee- ac o measu emen model was compa ed wi h hese al e na i e
measu emen models. Model 1 had a signi ican ly be e i o he da a han model 2 (Δχ2 (1) =
7.775, p <.001). Simul aneously, model 1 showed be e i o he da a han model 3 (Δχ2 (2) =
0.356, n.s.) and model 4 (Δχ2 (4) = 0.437, n.s.), al hough he di e ences we e no signi ican .
So, esul s o compa isons be ween he hypo hesized model and he al e na i e models
showed ha model 1 p o ided he bes i o he da a: χ2 (d ) = 155.886(97), p < .001, GFI =
0.910, RMSEA = 0.056, TLI = 0.946, CFI = 0.956, χ2 / d = 1.607.
(Inse Table 2 abou he e)
(Inse Table 3 abou he e)
S uc u al model
The heo e ical model was es ed. The goodness-o - i indices o he model p esen ed good
alues: χ2 (d ) = 214.971(111), p < .001, GFI = 0.888, RMSEA = 0.070, TLI = 0.909, CFI =
0.926, χ2 / d = 1.937. The s uc u al pa hs be ween sel -leade ship and sel -e icacy (β =
0.622, p < .001) and sel -e icacy and he in en ion o men o (β = 0.413, p < .05), we e
signi ican , hus con i ming H1 and H2. The s uc u al pa h be ween coun y a iable and
sel -e icacy was no signi ican (β = 0.093, p < n.s.), howe e he pa h be ween coun y
a iable and he in en ion o men o was signi ican (β = 0 .215, p < .01). The esul s indica e
ha sel -leade ship accoun s o 41.6% o he sel -e icacy in he uni e si y eache s and, in
u n, sel -e icacy accoun s o 26.3% o hei in en ion o men o .
F om he esul s i can be deduced ha sel -e icacy ully media es he ela ionship
be ween sel -leade ship and in en ion o men o . In o de o con i m his esul , wo addi ional
19
models we e p oposed (Ba on and Kenny, 1986). Table 4 p esen s he model- i s a is ics and
Table 5 shows he pa h coe icien s o he h ee models. As shown in Table 5, he ela ionship
be ween sel -leade ship and in en ion o men o was only signi ican in Model 3 (di ec
e ec s) bu disappea ed once sel -e icacy was aken in o conside a ion (Model 1). The pa hs
om sel -leade ship o sel -e icacy and om sel -e icacy o he in en ion o men o
emained signi ican in bo h models (pa ial and ull media ion). In addi ion, he Sobel es
(1982) was pe o med o assess he signi icance o he indi ec e ec s o sel -leade ship on
he in en ion o men o h ough sel -e icacy. The es suppo ed he media ing e ec o sel -
e icacy (z = 3.83; p < .001). As shown in Table 4, he chi-squa e o Model 2 ( ull media ion)
(χ2 = 215.018, d = 112) was g ea e han he chi-squa e o Model 1 (pa ial media ion) (χ2 =
214.971, d = 111), al hough no signi ican ly di e en (Δ χ2 = 0.047, Δ d = 1, n.s.), and
lowe han he chi-squa e o Model 3 (di ec e ec s) (χ2 = 281.260, d = 113) and signi ican ly
di e en (Δ χ2 = 66.242, Δ d = 1, sig). Some au ho s disag ee ha he inal decision on
media ion depends on he signi icance o a pa ame e (which is always a con en ion) and
p e e o es ablish as c i e ion o analysis whe e pa o he o al e ec o he independen
a iable on he dependen a iable is due o he media ion e ec (Va iance Accoun ed Fo -
VAF). Ou esul s showed VAF o 0.9518 and suppo ed ull media ion as i exceeded 0.80
(Hai e al., 2014). So, he abo e esul s es ablish Model 2 as a be e choice. The eby, he
hypo hesis H3 which asse s ha sel -e icacy ully media es he ela ionship be ween sel -
leade ship and in en ion o men o is suppo ed.
(Inse Table 4 abou he e)
(Inse Table 5 abou he e)
We also analysed he mode a ing e ec o cul u al dimensions in he ela ionship
be ween sel -e icacy and he in en ion o men o , conside ing hem as a p oxy o he coun y,
20
since as men ioned abo e, h ee o he ou cul u al dimensions conside ed in he s udy ha e
shown signi ican di e ences be ween bo h coun ies. Wi h his backg ound, mode a ing
e ec s o cul u al o ien a ion dimensions we e s udied using hie a chical mul iple eg ession
(Cohen and Cohen, 1983). Speci ically, ho izon al indi idualism, e ical indi idualism,
ho izon al collec i ism and e ical collec i ism we e used as sepa a e mode a o s in he
ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o . A e cen ing he p edic o
a iables o educe he co ela ion be ween hem (Dawson, 2014), ou di e en eg ession
analyses we e conduc ed. Table 6 shows ha while ho izon al indi idualism and e ical
collec i ism in e ac ed wi h sel -e icacy and had signi ican impac on in en ion o men o ,
he in e ac ion o e ical indi idualism o ho izon al collec i ism and sel -e icacy did no
ha e any signi ican impac on he in en ion o men o . The e o e, H7 was suppo ed. And H4
was suppo ed in a di e en di ec ion om he one hypo hesized, whe eas H5 and H6 we e
no suppo ed.
(Inse Table 6 abou he e)
Hence, he abo e esul s show ha he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion
o men o di e acco ding o he le el o ho izon al indi idualism o e ical collec i ism;
howe e , i was no clea how i di e s. The in e ac ion e ms we e posi i e, so i sugges s
ha he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o becomes mo e posi i e as
ho izon al indi idualism o e ical collec i ism inc eased; howe e , he size and p ecise
na u e o hese e ec s we e no easy o es ima e using only hese coe icien s. The e o e,
hese e ec s we e plo ed in o in e p e i isually (Dawson, 2014) (Figu es 1 and 2). Two
new g ouping a iables we e c ea ed, ca ego izing ho izon al indi idualism and e ical
collec i ism in o h ee le els – low, mode a e and high – o p edic he ela ionship be ween
sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o a he h ee le els o he mode a o a iables, ob aining
21
h ee di e en eg ession g oups. I was shown ha a high le el o ho izon al indi idualism
had a s ong eg ession e ec (R2 Lineal = 0.484) on sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o
ela ionship (co ela ion alue = 0.69). R2 Lineal ho izon al indi idualism mode a e = 0.147
(co ela ion alue = 0.38), and R2 Lineal ho izon al indi idualism low = 0.004 (co ela ion
alue = 0.06). Hence, i was demons a ed ha he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and
in en ion o men o is always posi i e, bu i was highe o indi iduals wi h highe le els han
o indi iduals wi h lowe le els o ho izon al indi idualism. Al hough ho izon al
indi idualism has mode a ed he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o as
we ha e hypo hesized, i does i in he opposi e di ec ion. Resul s also indica e ha a high
le el o e ical collec i ism has a s ong eg ession e ec (R2 Lineal = 0.347) on he
ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o (co ela ion alue = 0.58). R2
Lineal e ical collec i ism mode a e = 0.161 (co ela ion alue = 0.40), and R2 Lineal
e ical collec i ism low = 0.019 (co ela ion alue = 0.13). He e i is demons a ed ha he
ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o is always posi i e, bu i is
dis inc i ely heigh ened o indi iduals wi h highe le els o e ical collec i ism han o
hose wi h lowe le els.
(Inse Figu es 1 and 2 abou he e)
Figu e 3 summa izes he esul s o he hypo heses es ed.
(Inse Figu e 3 abou he e)
Discussion
The s udy esul s show ha sel -leade ship has a signi ican impac on sel -e icacy. As
p e iously discussed, sel -leade ship in ol es indi iduals exe ing conscious e o o se hei
own pe o mance goals and moni o p og ess owa ds ul illing hose goals. Du ing his
p ocess, indi iduals may in ospec on hei s eng hs and weaknesses, and be conscious abou

22
he ex e nal ac o s which can in luence hei pe o mance (Hollenbeck and Williams, 1987).
Thus, he inc ease o sel -awa eness due o in ospec ion and awa eness o he en i onmen
(ex e nal ac o s) may b ing in a sense o con ol, which in u n inc eases he indi idual’s sel -
con idence and sel -e icacy (Ka oly, 1993).
The signi ican posi i e impac o sel -e icacy on in en ion o men o among he
esponden s deno es he impo ance o sel -con idence among employees in nu u ing
leade ship quali ies like in en ion o men o o he s (Rekha and Ganesh, 2010). The ul ima e
objec i e o men o ing is o c ea e independen sel - elian indi iduals, i.e., sel -leade s.
Th ough his unde s anding men o ing can be iewed as an ac o c ea ing mo e leade s
(supe -leade ship) wi h sel -con idence which is a necessa y ai in any o m o leade ship
(Kipnis and Lane, 1962). Teache s wi h highe le els o sel -e icacy may conside men o ing
o he s as a posi i e way o gaining e e en powe in he o ganiza ion (Ca son e al., 1993).
S udies also show ha men o ing ela ionships can help men o s gain sel -con idence,
he e o e in con as o ou hypo hesis; i is possible ha employees use men o ing as an
a enue o imp o e hemsel es (Rekha and Ganesh, 2010).
Resul s also show ha sel -e icacy ully media es he ela ionship be ween sel -
leade ship and in en ion o men o . This p o es he ole o sel -e icacy as he p ocess h ough
which sel -leade ship in luence in en ion o men o . F om an o ganiza ional pe spec i e,
nu u ing sel -leade ship in ol es ce ain le el o delega ion and decen aliza ion o au ho i y
om he op, educing he dependency on ex e nal pe o mance con ol mechanisms (S ewa
and Manz, 1995). Thus, eache s can pe cei e men o ing s uden s and colleagues as a mo al
obliga ion o he o ganiza ion which has gi en hem mo e au onomy and powe (Mobe g and
Velasquez, 2004).
23
In he p esen s udy, ho izon al indi idualism and e ical collec i ism mode a e he
ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o . This esul in in line wi h ecen
esea ch which has also ound collec i ism (Chiu e al., 2018) o indi idualism (Mukhe jee e
al., 2012; Alcán a a-Pila and Del Ba io-Ga cía, 2015) play a mode a o ole in di e en
s udy con ex s. The na u e o he mode a ing e ec shows ha he posi i e ela ionship
be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o becomes s onge when he esponden s a e
inclined owa ds e ical collec i is ic o ho izon al indi idualis ic alues. The eason o he
di e en di ec ion o he mode a ing e ec o ho izon al indi idualism could be due o he
unique na u e o he con ex o academic wo k. The ac ha mos academic ins i u ions ha e
ew o mal hie a chical le els o di e en ia e be ween eache s can ins il a sense o equali y
among hem. Teache s wi h high sel -e icacy a e inclined owa ds men o ing; hei in en ion
becomes s onge when hey a e d i en by a eeling o empa hy gene a ed om he equali y
(Kalb leisch and Key on, 1995). In a knowledge-based indus y like a Uni e si y, e e se
men o ing (men o s gaining h ough men o ing) and lea ning o ien a ion a e impo an d i ing
ac o s in an indi idual’s in en ion o men o (Allen, 2003). The changing na u e o he
in e ac ion o cul u al alues wi h o he a iables o e decades ha e c ea ed di icul ies o
esea che s o hypo hesize he exac na u e o hei mode a ion e ec (Ma sumo o and an de
Vij e , 2010) i espec i e o exis ing s ong heo e ical suppo . On he o he hand, he
mode a ing e ec o e ical collec i ism shows ha he mo al obliga ion o hei oles by
complying wi h ce ain social no ms s eng hens he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and
men o ing among Uni e si y eache s.
A p e ious s udy ound ha cul u al alue o ien a ion in e ms o indi idual and
collec i is ic alues in luence he way indi iduals de ine ex a- ole pe o mances a he
wo kplace (Va ela e al., 2010). I we conside in en ion o men o as a olun a y beha iou ,
24
i can be ocused owa ds he o ganiza ion (a sense o obliga ion owa ds he o ganiza ion
d i es he employee’s pe o mance) o ocused owa ds ellow wo ke s (a sense o empa hy
d i es i ) (O gan, 1997). The esul s om he p esen s udy indi ec ly show ha some
esponden s ha e iewed men o ing as bene icial o he o ganiza ion, while o he s ha e
iewed i as p ima ily an in e pe sonal beha iou aimed a de eloping indi iduals.
Implica ions
The p ima y insigh om his esea ch is he need o o ganiza ions o encou age sel -
managemen skills among hei employees in o de o imp o e hei e ec i eness in he
wo kplace. In p ac ice, i implies ha empowe ing p o essionals o manage hei own ca ee is
impo an no only o boos hei sel -e icacy bu also o ins il olun a y beha iou s like
in en ion o men o . Also, i asse s ha sel -leade ship quali ies in he wo kplace can be
acili a ed by p o iding au onomy o academicians o choose he means o achie ing hei
goals as well as hei long- e m ca ee goals. This can be accomplished by he academic
ins i u ions p omo ing a a ied se o pe o mance s anda ds as c i e ia o ca ee
ad ancemen s and p o iding o he ewa ds o eache s, ins ead o ocusing on ew igid
s anda ds. Fo example, in he p esen scena io mos uni e si ies e alua e a eache ’s
pe o mance using hei esea ch and published pape s, which may be a sou ce o s ess o
hose academicians whose in e es s lie in p i a e o ganiza ions collabo a ion, socially ele an
p ojec s o excellence in eaching. So, by b inging in hese dimensions o he speci ica ion o
a eache s’ ole and gi ing sha ed weigh age o hese componen s he eache s would be ee
o choose hei long- e m ca ee goals and he c i e ia hey a e com o able wi h. Howe e , i
mus be no ed ha highe le els o au onomy o choose one’s own ca ee goals can lead o a
sense o lack o di ec ion, pa icula ly o academic p o essionals who a e in hei ea ly s age
25
o hei ca ee s. This can be ackled by encou aging young acul y o choose men o s wi hin
he o ganiza ion who can help hem in he sel -goal se ing p ocess. Men o ing will help
young uni e si y eache s no only o se ealis ic goals bu also o es ablish he p ocess ha
will ein o ce hei commi men owa ds hose goals. In he long un, en e ing in o a
men o ing ela ionship migh boos sel -e icacy and sel -leade ship quali ies o men o s as
well. Men o ing as a suppo is ound o help men ees con e hei esea ch e o s in o
en ep eneu ial en u es (Fe nández-Pé ez e al., 2015). P e ious esea ch clea ly s a es ha
he e is also a s ong need el among s uden s a uni e si y le els o pa icipa e in men o ing
p og ams (Luna and Cullen, 1998). Bene i s o inc easing eache s’ in en ion o men o can go
beyond s uden s’ academic ca ee and can lead o s uden s´ inc eased p o essionalism and
sensi iza ion o e hical alues (Rose e al., 2005). The e o e, eache s can play a undamen al
ole in he u u e p o essional possibili ies o hose s uden s wi h whom hey es ablish a
ela ionship ha goes beyond he ela ionship based on a me e eaching ac i i y. Rega dless o
who is he men ee, as a policy le el implica ion his s udy h ows ligh on he key challenge
o he adminis a o s while choosing be ween o mal and in o mal men o ing p og ams.
Fo mal men o ing p og ams may educe he olun a y na u e o he p ocess o men o ing, and
hus he in e nal mo i a ion associa ed wi h i dec eases. In o mal men o ing p og ams may
o e come his weakness bu in con as migh no ha e much suppo om eache s.
Mode a ion esul s show ha eache s wi h highe sel -e icacy a e d i en ei he by he
sense o equali y (ho izon al indi idualism) o mo al obliga ion ( e ical collec i ism) in hei
choice o whe he o no o men o . As a manage ial implica ion, his explains ha he
s uc u e and policies o he o ganiza ion can play an impo an ole in dissemina ing bo h
hese cul u al alues among i s employees. Fla e o ganiza ional s uc u es encou age
in e ac ion and collabo a ion and hus b idge he gap a ising due o he di e si y in age,
32
Da is, H.A. (2003), “Concep ualizing he ole and in luence o s uden - eache ela ionships
on child en's social and cogni i e de elopmen ”, Educa ional Psychologis , Vol. 38
No. 4, pp. 207-234. doi: 10.1207/S15326985EP3804_2
Dawson, J.F. (2014), “Mode a ion in managemen esea ch: wha , why, when, and how”,
Jou nal o Business and Psychology, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 1-19. doi: 10.1007/s10869-
013-9308-7
Day, R. and Allen, T.D. (2004), “The ela ionship be ween ca ee mo i a ion and sel -e icacy
wi h p o égé ca ee success”, Jou nal o Voca ional Beha io , Vol. 64 No. 1, pp. 72-
91. doi:10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00036-8
DeAngelo, L., Mason, J. and Win e s, D. (2016), “Facul y engagemen in men o ing
unde g adua e s uden s: How ins i u ional en i onmen s egula e and p omo e ex a-
ole beha io ”, Inno a i e Highe Educa ion, Vol. 41 No. 4, pp. 317-332.
doi: 10.1007/s10755-015-9350-7
Demi , K. (2008), “T ans o ma ional leade ship and collec i e e icacy: he mode a ing oles
o collabo a i e cul u e and eache s’ sel -e icacy”, Eu asian Jou nal o Educa ional
Resea ch, Vol. 33, pp. 93-112.
Feldman, D.C. and Bolino, M.C. (1999), “The impac o on-si e men o ing on expa ia e
socializa ion: a s uc u al equa ion modelling app oach”, In e na ional Jou nal o
Human Resou ce Managemen , Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 54-71. doi:
10.1080/095851999340639
Fe nández-Pé ez, V., Alonso-Galicia, P.E., Rod íquez-A iza, L. and Fuen es-Fuen es, M.M.
(2015), “P o essional and pe sonal social ne wo ks: a b idge o en ep eneu ship o
academics?”, Eu opean Managemen Jou nal, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 37-47. doi:
10.1016/j.emj.2014.07.003

33
Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. (1975), Belie , a i ude, in en ion, and beha io : an in oduc ion o
heo y and esea ch, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
Fo sy h, P.B. and Danisiewicz, T.J. (1985), “Towa d a heo y o p o essionaliza ion”, Wo k
and Occupa ions, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 59-76. doi: 10.1177/0730888485012001004
Ganesh, M.P. (2015), “Role o sel -e icacy and amily suppo i e o ganiza ional pe cep ions
in eache s’ o ganiza ional ci izenship beha iou : a s udy on enginee ing college
eache s in India”, Asian Educa ion and De elopmen S udies, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 394-
408. doi: 10.1108/AEDS-01-2015-0001
Gong, Y., Huang, J-C. and Fa h, J-L. (2009), “Employee lea ning o ien a ion,
ans o ma ional leade ship, and employee c ea i i y: he media ing ole o employee
c ea i e sel -e icacy”, Academy o Managemen Jou nal, Vol. 52 No. 4, pp. 765-778.
doi: 10.5465/AMJ.2009.43670890
Hai , J.F., Ande son, R.E., Ta ham, R.L. and Black, W.C. (2009), Mul i a ia e da a analysis -
6 h edi ion, P en ice-Hall, New Je sey.
Hai , J.F., Hul , G.T.M., Ringle, C.M. and Sa s ed , M. (2014), A p ime on pa ial leas
squa es s uc u al equa ion modeling (PLS-SEM), Sage, Los Angeles, CA.
Ha man, H.H. (1967), Modem ac o analysis, Uni e si y o Chicago, Chicago.
Higgins, M.C. and K am, K.E. (2001), “Reconcep ualizing men o ing a wo k: a
de elopmen al ne wo k pe spec i e”, Academy o Managemen Re iew, Vol. 26 No.
(2), pp. 264-288. doi: 10.5465/AMR.2001.4378023
Ho s ede, G. (1983), “The cul u al ela i i y o o ganiza ional p ac ices and heo ies”, Jou nal
o In e na ional Business S udies, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 75-89. doi:
10.1057/palg a e.jibs.8490867
34
Ho s ede, G. (1985), “The in e ac ion be ween na ional and o ganiza ional alue
sys ems”, Jou nal o Managemen S udies, Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 347-357. doi:
10.1111/j.1467-6486.1985. b00001.x
Hollenbeck, J.R. and Williams, C.R. (1987), “Goal impo ance, sel - ocus, and he goal-
se ing p ocess”, Jou nal o Applied Psychology, Vol. 72 No. 2, pp. 204-211. doi:
10.1037/0021-9010.72.2.204
Hough on, J.D., Dawley, D. and DiLiello, T.C. (2012), “The abb e ia ed sel -leade ship
ques ionnai e (ASLQ): a mo e concise measu e o sel -leade ship”, In e na ional
Jou nal o Leade ship S udies, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 216-232.
Hough on, J.D., Neck, C.P., & Manz, C.C. (2003), “Sel -leade ship and supe leade ship: he
hea and a o c ea ing sha ed leade ship in eams”, In Pea ce, C.L. and Conge , J.A.
(Eds), Sha ed leade ship: Re aming he hows and whys o leade ship, Sage
Publica ions, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp.123-140.
Johnson, R.E., Rosen, C.C. and Chang, C-H. (2011), “To agg ega e o no o agg ega e: s eps
o de eloping and alida ing highe -o de mul idimensional cons uc s”, Jou nal o
Business and Psychology, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 241–248. doi: 10.1007/s10869-011-
9238-1.
Judge, T.A., E ez, A. and Bono, J.E. (1998), “The powe o being posi i e: he ela ionship
be ween posi i e sel -concep and job pe o mance”, Human Pe o mance, Vol. 11
No. 2, pp. 167-187. doi: 10.1207/s15327043hup1102&3_4
Kalb leisch, P.J. and Key on, J. (1995), “Powe and equi y in men o ing ela ionships”, In
Kalb leisch, P.J. and Cody, M.J. (Eds.), Gende , powe , and communica ion in human
ela ionships, E lbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 189–212.
35
Ka l, K.A., O'Lea y‐Kelly, A.M. and Ma occhio, J.J. (1993), “The impac o eedback and
sel ‐e icacy on pe o mance in aining”, Jou nal o O ganiza ional Beha io , Vol. 14
No. 4, pp. 379-394. doi: 10.1002/job.4030140409
Ka oly, P. (1993), “Mechanisms o sel - egula ion: a sys ems iew”, Annual Re iew o
Psychology, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp. 23-52. doi: 10.1146/annu e .ps.44.020193.000323
Kipnis, D. and Lane, W.P. (1962), “Sel -con idence and leade ship”, Jou nal o Applied
Psychology, Vol. 46 No. 4, pp. 291-295. doi: 10.1037/h0044720
Ko sgaa d, M.A. and Robe son, L. (1995), “P ocedu al jus ice in pe o mance e alua ion: he
ole o ins umen al and non-ins umen al oice in pe o mance app aisal discussions”,
Jou nal o Managemen , Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 657-669. doi: 10.1016/0149-
2063(95)90004-7
Koyuncu, M., Bu ke, R.J., Alayoglu, N. and Wolpin, J. (2014), “Men o ing ela ionships
among manage ial and p o essional women in Tu key: po en ial bene i s?”, C oss
Cul u al Managemen , Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 2-22. doi: 10.1108/CCM-10-2012-0103
K am, K.E., & Hall, D.T. (1996), “Men o ing in a con ex o di e si y and u bulence”, In
Kossek, E.E. and Lobel, S.A. (Eds.), Managing di e si y: human esou ce s a egies
o ans o ming he wo kplace, Blackwell Business, Camb idge, MA, pp. 108-136.
Leban, W. and Zulau , C. (2004), “Linking emo ional in elligence abili ies and
ans o ma ional leade ship s yles”, Leade ship & O ganiza ion De elopmen
Jou nal, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 554-564. doi: 10.1108/01437730410561440
Luna, G. and Cullen, D. (1998), “Do g adua e s uden s need men o ing?”, College S uden
Jou nal, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 322-330.
36
Manz, C.C. (1986), “Sel -leade ship: owa d an expanded heo y o sel -in luence p ocesses
in o ganiza ions”, Academy o Managemen Re iew, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 585-600.
doi:10.5465/AMR.1986.4306232
Manz, C.C. and Neck, C.P. (2004), Mas e ing sel -leade ship: empowe ing you sel o
pe sonal excellence, Pea son P en ice-Hall, Uppe Saddle Ri e , NJ.
Manz, C.C. and Sims, H.P. (1986), “Leading sel -managed g oups: a concep ual analysis o a
pa adox”, Economic and Indus ial Democ acy, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 141-165.
doi: 10.1177/0143831X8672002
Manz, C.C. and Sims, H.P. (1987), “Leading wo ke s o lead hemsel es: he ex e nal
leade ship o sel -managing wo k eams”, Adminis a i e Science Qua e ly, Vol. 32,
pp. 106-129. doi:10.2307/2392745
Manz, C.C. and Sims, H.P. (1991), “Supe leade ship: beyond he my h o he oic leade ship”,
O ganiza ional Dynamics, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 18-35. doi:10.1016/0090-
2616(91)90051-A
Ma in, G. and T iandis, H.C. (1985), “Allocen ism as an impo an cha ac e is ic o he
beha io o La in Ame icans and Hispanics”, In Diaz Gue e o, R. (Ed.), C oss-
cul u al and na ional s udies o social psychology, No h Holland, Ams e dam, pp. 85-
114.
Ma sumo o, D. and an de Vij e , F.J.R. (Eds.) (2010), C oss-cul u al esea ch me hods in
psychology, Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, Camb idge, UK.
Ma hew, S. and Taylo , G. (2018), "Powe dis ance in India: Pa e nalism, eligion and
cas e: some issues su ounding he implemen a ion o lean p oduc ion
echniques", C oss Cul u al & S a egic Managemen , a ailable a :
h p://doi.o g/10.1108/CCSM-02-2018-0035 (accesed 8 Ma ch 2019)
37
Minko , M. and Ho s ede, G. (2011), “The e olu ion o Ho s ede's doc ine”, C oss Cul u al
Managemen : An In e na ional Jou nal, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 10-20. doi:
10.1108/13527601111104269
Minko , M., Du , P., Schachne , M., Mo ales, O., Sanchez, C., Jandoso a, J., Khassenbeko ,
Y. and Mudd, B. (2017), “A e ision o Ho s ede’s indi idualism-collec i ism
dimension: a new na ional index om a 56-coun y s udy”, C oss Cul u al & S a egic
Managemen , Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 386-404. doi: 10.1108/CCSM-11-2016-0197
Mobe g, D.J. and Velasquez, M. (2004), “The e hics o men o ing”, Business E hics
Qua e ly, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 95-122. doi: 10.5840/beq20041418
Moo man, R.H. and Blakely, G.L. (1995), “Indi idualism‐collec i ism as an indi idual
di e ence p edic o o o ganiza ional ci izenship beha iou ”, Jou nal o
O ganiza ional Beha io , Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 127-142. doi: 10.1002/job.4030160204
Mukhe jee, D., Hanlon, S.C., Kedia, B.L. and S i as a a, P. (2012), “O ganiza ional
iden i ica ion among global i ual eam membe s: he ole o indi idualism-
collec i ism and unce ain y a oidance”. C oss Cul u al Managemen : An
In e na ional Jou nal, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 526-545. doi:
10.1108/13527601211270002
Neck, C.P. and Hough on, J.D. (2006), “Two decades o sel -leade ship heo y and esea ch:
pas de elopmen s, p esen ends, and u u e possibili ies”, Jou nal o Manage ial
Psychology, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 270-295. doi: 10.1108/02683940610663097
Neck, C.P. and Manz, C.C. (1992), “Though sel ‐leade ship: he in luence o sel ‐ alk and
men al image y on pe o mance”, Jou nal o O ganiza ional Beha io , Vol. 13 No. 7,
681-699.

38
Nicholson, J.D. and S epina, L.P. (1998), “Cul u al alues: A c oss-na ional s udy”, C oss
Cul u al Managemen : An In e na ional Jou nal, Vol. 5 No. 1/2, pp. 33-47. doi:
10.1108/13527609810796880
O’Lea y, T.J. and Le inson, D. (1991), Encyclopedia o wo ld cul u es (Vol. 1), G. K. Hall &
Company, Bos on, MA.
O gan, D.W. (1997), “O ganiza ional ci izenship beha io : i 's cons uc clean-up ime”,
Human Pe o mance, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 85-97. doi: 10.1207/s15327043hup1002_2
Pe e son, R.A. (2000), “A me a-analysis o a iance accoun ed o and ac o loadings in
explo a o y ac o analysis”, Ma ke ing Le e s, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 261-275. doi:
10.1023/A:1008191211004
Podsako , P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J.Y. and Podsako , N.P. (2003), “Common me hod
biases in beha io al esea ch: a c i ical e iew o he li e a u e and ecommended
emedies”, Jou nal o Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No. 5, pp. 879-903. doi:
10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Ragins, B.R. and Co on, J L. (1993), “Gende and willingness o men o in
o ganiza ions”, Jou nal o Managemen , Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 97-111. doi:
10.1016/0149-2063(93)90047-Q
Ragins, B.R. and Scandu a, T.A. (1994), “Gende di e ences in expec ed ou comes o
men o ing ela ionships”, Academy o Managemen Jou nal, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 957-
971. doi: 10.2307/256606
Ragins, B.R. and Scandu a, T.A. (1999), “Bu den o blessing? Expec ed cos s and bene i s o
being a men o ”, Jou nal o O ganiza ional Beha io : The In e na ional Jou nal o
Indus ial, Occupa ional and O ganiza ional Psychology and Beha io , Vol. 20 No. 4,
39
pp. 493-509. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199907)20:4<493::AID-
JOB894>3.0.CO;2-T
Rekha, K.N. and Ganesh, M.P. (2010), “Do men o s lea n by men o ing o he s?”,
In e na ional Jou nal o Men o ing and Coaching in Educa ion, Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 205-
217. doi: 10.1108/20466851211279466
Richa d, O.C., Ismail, K.M., Bhuian, S.N. and Taylo , E.C. (2009), “Men o ing in supe iso –
subo dina e dyads: an eceden s, consequences, and es o a media ion model o
men o ship”, Jou nal o Business Resea ch, Vol. 62 No. 11, pp. 1110-1118. doi:
10.1016/j.jbus es.2008.09.007
Rose, G.L., Ruks alis, M.R. and Schucki , M.A. (2005), “In o mal men o ing be ween acul y
and medical s uden s”, Academic Medicine, Vol. 80 No. 4, pp. 344-348. doi:
10.1097/00001888-200504000-00007
Salancik, G.R. and P e e , J. (1977), “An examina ion o need-sa is ac ion models o job
a i udes”, Adminis a i e Science Qua e ly, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 427-456. doi:
10.2307/2392182
Sege s, J., Inceoglu, I., Vloebe ghs, D., Ba am, D. and Hende ickx, E. (2008), “P o ean and
bounda yless ca ee s: a s udy on po en ial mo i a o s”, Jou nal o Voca ional
Beha io , Vol. 73 No. 2, pp. 212-230. doi: 10.1016/j.j b.2008.05.001
Shi, J., Chen, Z. and Zhou, L. (2011), “Tes ing di e en ial media ion e ec s o sub-
dimensions o poli ical skills in linking p oac i e pe sonali y o employee
pe o mance”, Jou nal o Business Psychology, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 359-369. doi:
10.1007/s10869-010-9195-0.
Shulman, L.S. (1998), “Theo y, p ac ice, and he educa ion o p o essionals”, The Elemen a y
School Jou nal, Vol. 98 No. 5, pp. 511-526. doi: 10.1086/461912
40
Sobel, M.E. (1982), “Asymp o ic con idence in e als o indi ec e ec s in s uc u al
equa ion models”, In Leinha , S. (Ed.), Sociological me hodology, Jossey-Bass, San
F ancisco, pp. 290-312.
S ajko ic, A.D. and Lu hans, F. (1998), “Social cogni i e heo y and sel -e icacy: going
beyond adi ional mo i a ional and beha io al app oaches”, O ganiza ional
Dynamics, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 62-74. doi: 10.1016/S0090-2616(98)90006-7
S anulis, R.N. (1995), “Class oom eache s as men o s: possibili ies o pa icipa ion in a
p o essional de elopmen school con ex ”, Teaching and Teache Educa ion, Vol. 11
No. 4, pp. 331-344. doi: 10.1016/0742-051X(94)00035-5
S ewa , G.L. and Manz, C.C. (1995), “Leade ship o sel -managing wo k eams: a ypology
and in eg a i e model”, Human ela ions, Vol. 48 No. 7, pp. 747-770. doi:
10.1177/001872679504800702
Sulli an, S.E. and A hu , M.B. (2006), “The e olu ion o he bounda yless ca ee concep :
examining physical and psychological mobili y”, Jou nal o Voca ional Beha io ,
Vol. 69 No. 1, pp. 19-29. doi: 10.1016/j.j b.2005.09.001
Sulli an, S.E. and Ba uch, Y. (2009), “Ad ances in ca ee heo y and esea ch: a c i ical
e iew and agenda o u u e explo a ion”, Jou nal o Managemen , Vol. 35 No. 6, pp.
1542-1571. doi: 10.1177/0149206309350082
Te y, D.J. and O'Lea y, J.E. (1995), “The heo y o planned beha iou : he e ec s o
pe cei ed beha iou al con ol and sel ‐e icacy”, B i ish Jou nal o Social Psychology,
Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 199-220. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8309.1995. b01058.x
Tou angeau, R., Rips, L.J. and Rasinski, K. (2000), The psychology o su ey esponse,
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, New Yo k.
41
T iandis, H.C. and Gel land, M.J. (1998), “Con e ging measu emen o ho izon al and
e ical indi idualism and collec i ism”, Jou nal o Pe sonali y and Social
Psychology, Vol. 74 No. 1, pp. 118-128. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.118
Tschannen-Mo an, M. and Hoy, A.W. (2007), “The di e en ial an eceden s o sel -e icacy
belie s o no ice and expe ienced eache s”, Teaching and Teache Educa ion, Vol. 23
No. 6, pp. 944-956. doi:10.1016/j. a e.2006.05.003
Va ela, O.E., Salgado, E.I. and Lasio, M.V. (2010), “The meaning o job pe o mance in
collec i is ic and high powe dis ance cul u es: e idence om h ee La in Ame ican
coun ies”, C oss Cul u al Managemen : An In e na ional Jou nal, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp.
407-426. doi: 10.1108/13527601011086603
Webe , T.J., Sad i, G. and Gen y, W.A. (2018), “Examining di e si y belie s and leade
pe o mance ac oss cul u es”, C oss Cul u al & S a egic Managemen , a ailable
a : h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/CCSM-11-2016-0200 (accessed 4 May 2018)
Weggeman, M. (1989), “Is he p o essional sel -managing o is he e eally a need o
p o essional managemen ?”, Eu opean Managemen Jou nal, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 422-
430. doi: 10.1016/0263-2373(89)90079-0
Young, J.R., Bullough, J . R.V., D ape , R.J., Smi h, L.K. and E ickson, L.B. (2005), No ice
eache g ow h and pe sonal models o men o ing: choosing compassion o e
inqui y, Men o ing & Tu o ing: Pa ne ship in Lea ning, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 169-188.
doi: 10.1080/13611260500105477
Zimme man, B.J. (2000), “Sel -e icacy: an essen ial mo i e o lea n”, Con empo a y
Educa ional Psychology, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 82-91. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1016
48
Figu e 1. G aph o eg ession e ec s be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o depending
on di e en le els o ho izon al indi idualism (cul u al o ien a ion)

49
Figu e 2. G aph o eg ession e ec s be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o depending
on di e en le els o e ical collec i ism (cul u al o ien a ion)
50