Are self-leaders more willing to mentor others? A study among Indian and Spanish university teachers

1 A e sel -leade s mo e willing o men o o he s? A s udy among Indian and Spanish uni e si y eache s Pu pose: This s udy aims o unde s and he in luence o sel -leade ship on he in en ion o men o among uni e si y eache s conside ing he media ing ole o sel -e icacy and he mode a ing ole o indi idualism-collec i ism dimensions. Design/me hodology/app oach: A s anda dized ques ionnai e was used o collec da a om Indian and Spanish uni e si y eache s. SEM and hie a chical mul iple eg ession analysis we e used o heo ize abou he ela ionship be ween sel -leade ship and in en ion o men o , and he po en ial in luence o sel -e icacy and cul u al a iables in his ela ionship. Findings: Sel -leade ship s a egies in luence he in en ion o men o h ough uni e si y eache s´ sel -e icacy. The posi i e ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o becomes s onge when he esponden s a e inclined owa ds e ical collec i is ic o ho izon al indi idualis ic alues. Resea ch limi a ions/implica ions: The s udy ex ends men o ing li e a u e since i inco po a es bo h indi idual and cul u al a iables, allowing obse ing hei in e play and gi ing a holis ic unde s anding o he issue. The main limi a ion o he s udy is i s c oss- sec ional su ey design, which is he use o da a collec ed om a single-si ing, sel - epo ing measu e. Di e en p ocedu es we e used o con ol me hod biases. P ac ical implica ions: In en ion o men o can help uni e si y eache s (especially he younge s a s) and s uden s o es ablish he p ocess ha can ein o ce hei commi men owa ds ealis ic goals. In he long e m, en e ing in o a men o ing ela ionship migh boos sel -e icacy and sel -leade ship quali ies o he men o s hemsel es. 2 O iginali y/ alue: The comp ehensi eness and ele ance o he a iables in he con ex chosen is he p ima y s eng h o his esea ch. In he scena io o inc easing p o essionaliza ion and globaliza ion, he c oss-cul u al na u e o his s udy b ings in a global pe spec i e o he esea ch p oblem. Keywo ds: Sel -leade ship, sel -e icacy, in en ion o men o , c oss-cul u al s udy, indi idualism-collec i ism. A icle classi ica ion: Resea ch pape Ci a: Ganesh, M.P., López-Caba cos, M.Á. and Vázquez-Rod íguez, P. (2019), "A e sel -leade s mo e willing o men o o he s? A s udy among Indian and Spanish uni e si y eache s", C oss Cul u al & S a egic Managemen , Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 223-245. h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/CCSM-04-2017-0047 3 In oduc ion The eme gence o a knowledge-based economy has led o he inc eased p o essionaliza ion o wo k o ce (An al In e na ional, 2015). P o essionals a e cha ac e ized by long pe iods o ex ensi e aining and specialized educa ion (Shulman, 1998). Compa ed o indi iduals a manage ial oles, p o essionals enjoy a high le el o au onomy in hei wo k sphe e and a e go e ned mo e by he in e nalized e hical alues o he p o ession han by hei manage s o o ganiza ional ules and p ocedu es (Fo sy h and Danisiewicz, 1985). Thus, p o essionalized jobs a e conside ed o be sel -go e ned and no ex e nally go e ned (Weggeman, 1989). Recen changes in he social s uc u es, echnology and demog aphics ha e also inc eased he need o sel -di ec ion in mos ca ee s (Sulli an and Ba uch, 2009). Employee sel -go e nance equi es sel -in luence in he o m o discipline and di ec ion, he quali ies which can be g ouped unde he axonomy o sel -leade ship (Neck and Manz, 1992). Mos heo is s ha e cons ued sel -leade ship as a sel -in luence p ocess in ol ing a se o beha iou al and cogni i e s a egies, which a e b oadly classi ied in o h ee g oups, namely: beha iou ocused s a egies, na u al ewa d s a egies, and cons uc i e hough p ocess s a egies (Ande son and P ussia, 1997). Se ing goals and aligning onesel owa ds hem, ewa ding onesel when hose goals a e achie ed, and sel -co ec ion du ing de ia ion om hose goals a e some o ms o beha iou ocused s a egies. Na u al ewa d s a egies aim o imp o e he pe cep ion o inhe en posi i e elemen s in a gi en ask, which is simila o ha o inding an inna e meaning in he gi en ask a he han looking o ex e nal ewa ds. Cons uc i e hough pa e n s a egies in ol e challenging i a ional belie 4 sys ems, men al image y o success ul pe o mance and posi i e sel - alk (Neck and Hough on, 2006). These sel -leade ship quali ies a e highly ele an o p o essionalized jobs wi h high le els o au onomy and sel -con ol (Manz and Sims, 1987). F om an o ganiza ion’s poin o iew, using adi ional measu es o manage ial and leade ship con ol may no be e ec i e in managing such sel -di ec ed wo k o ces. In he con ex o sel -di ec ed and au onomous wo k o ce, leade ship migh in ol e encou aging o he s o lead hemsel es. Manz and Sims (1991) call his o m o leade ship as supe - leade ship. Being sel -leade s hemsel es, supe -leade s migh be highly mo i a ed o inculca e hose quali ies in hei ollowe s (Hough on e al., 2003). Demons a ing he bene i s o sel -leade ship quali ies o o he s as a ole model migh in ol e c ea ing nu u ing ela ionships like a men o ing ela ionship. Thus, i would be e y in e es ing o analyse i sel -leade s commi hemsel es o he idea o c ea ing leade s ou o ollowe s by men o ing o he s in he o ganiza ion. The ela ionship be ween sel -leade ship quali ies and willingness o men o can be explained by he imp o ed sense o secu i y and con ol among sel -leade s. Especially, sel - leade ship as a sel - egula o y mechanism can imp o e an indi idual’s pe cep ion o sel - con ol and sel -con idence and his can ansla e in o highe le els o sel -e icacy (Neck and Hough on, 2006). In his sense, sel -e icacy is one’s judgemen o “how well one can execu e cou ses o ac ion equi ed o deal wi h p ospec i e si ua ions” (Bandu a, 1982, p. 122) and i is also a s ong de e minan o a pe son’s beha iou , hough pa e n and emo ional esponse in eac ion o challenging si ua ions. Among a ious p o essionals, academic jobs a e conside ed o be p o ean ca ee s in which he indi iduals a e sel -d i en, and hei pe sonal alues d i e hei ca ee p og ess (Ba uch and Hall, 2004). Acco ding o Higgins and K am (2001), ela ional in luences like 5 men o ing can se e as a key esou ce o such kind o employees. So, unde s anding he in luence o sel -leade ship on in en ion o men o h ough academicians’ sel -e icacy migh gi e aluable insigh s, speci ically because bo h a iables a e highly ele an in he con ex o academic p o ession (Demi , 2008). Inc eased globaliza ion and mobili y o people ac oss na ional bounda ies ha e c ea ed he need o unde s and he ole o cul u al o ien a ion in employees’ beha iou . Cul u al alues can ha e a s ong in luence on he ca ee a i udes o he employees (Minko and Ho s ede, 2011). Many con ex ual ac o s like cul u al alues, poli ical en i onmen , economy along wi h pe sonal ac o s can in luence an indi idual’s jou ney in his/he ca ee pa h (Sulli an and A hu , 2006). Fo example, Sege s e al. (2008) ound ha indi iduals in lowe powe dis ance cul u es we e mo e sel -di ec ed in hei ca ee managemen . This s udy also a gues ha employees wi h di e en cul u al o ien a ions may ha e widely di e en ca ee needs and may be mo i a ed by di e en ca ee ac o s. Thus, unde s anding he in luence o cul u al alues on he wo k beha iou o p o essionals like academicians can b ing in aluable insigh s. The signi icance o his s udy is he selec ion o a iables and he s udy con ex because i is qui e no el o analyse he ole o sel -leade ship o eache ’s e ec i eness in highe educa ional ins i u ions ac oss di e en na ionali ies. Selec ing uni e si y le el eache s is a key highligh o his s udy because hei ole is expec ed o be ha o a nu u an one. In ac , mos socie ies expec he eache o imbibe holis ic de elopmen o o he people h ough men o ing (Da is, 2003). So, he p ima y objec i e o he p esen s udy is o unde s and he e ec o sel -leade ship on he in en ion o men o h ough Spanish and Indian uni e si y eache s’ sel -e icacy, conside ing di e en cul u al alues. 6 The concep o Sel -leade ship Sel -leade ship is a p ocess in ol ing con ol and in luence o one’s own beha iou h ough ce ain beha iou al and cogni i e s a egies (Manz, 1986). Employees who egula e hei ac ions in a posi i e di ec ion can be an asse o he o ganiza ion, whe ein hey no only pe o m e ec i ely bu also in luence people a ound hem as ole models (Gong e al., 2009). The concep o sel -leade ship bo ows hea ily om he la ge heo e ical amewo k o sel -in luence (Neck and Hough on, 2006). Acco ding o beha iou al sel - egula ion app oach (Ca e and Scheie , 1981, 1998), indi iduals moni o and con ol he balance be ween hei aspi a ions and ac ual beha iou h ough a sel - egula o y p ocess ha helps o educe he disc epancy be ween one’s own pe o mance s anda d and he e o exe ed. Bandu a’s (1986) heo y o social cogni ion also has a s ong ele ance o sel -leade ship. Simila o sel - egula ion heo y, social cogni i e heo y es ablishes an indi idual’s sel - egula o y sys em as a p oduc o h ee p ocesses, namely: sel -moni o ing, sel -judgmen and sel - eac ion (Neck and Hough on, 2006). Sel -leade ship s a egies a e also closely ela ed o he concep o in insic mo i a ion (Manz, 1986). Unlike sel -managemen s a egies, which ocus on he ex e nal ewa ds as a esul o success ul comple ion o he ask, sel -leade ship ocus on he na u al ewa ds which a e he ewa ding na u e o he ask i sel (Neck and Hough on, 2006). P e ious s udies on sel -leade ship in wo k con ex we e p ima ily ocused on he a eas o sel -managing wo k g oups (Manz and Sims, 1986, 1987) and empowe ing leade ship (Manz and Sims, 1991). In ac , empowe ing leade ship in con a y o mains eam leade ship models o he 1970s insis ed on he no ion o empowe ing ollowe s and c ea ing sel -leade s as an e ec i e leade ship p ac ice (Manz and Sims, 1991). The concep o empowe ing leade ship is like ha o supe -leade ship, which is helping he subo dina es o 7 lead hemsel es mo e e ec i ely (Neck and Hough on, 2006). As leade ship quali ies, sel - leade ship and supe -leade ship a e connec ed in many ways. A supe -leade no only c ea es sel -di ec ed subo dina es bu also becomes a sel -leade him/he sel demons a ing he bene i s o hose sel -leade ship quali ies o o he s as a ole model. Acco ding o Hough on e al. (2012), o measu e sel -leade ship i is necessa y o conside h ee sub-dimensions, beha iou al awa eness and oli ion (BAV), ask mo i a ion (TM) and cons uc i e cogni ion (CC). BAV in ol ed sel -obse a ion and sel -goal se ing which can be ca ego ized as beha iou ocused s a egies o sel -leade ship. TM ac o in ol es isualizing success ul pe o mance and sel - ewa d and ep esen s bo h he beha iou ocused and cons uc i e hough p ocess s a egies dimensions. The CC ac o includes sel - alk and e alua ing belie s and hus ep esen s cons uc i e hough p ocess s a egies o sel -leade ship. The esea ches on sel -leade ship in uni e si y con ex and hose analysing he ela ionship be ween sel -leade ship and o he ou comes a e sca ce. Sel -leade ship s a egies a e highly ele an o he success ul ca ee o p o essionals including uni e si y eache s. In mos cases, apa om he b oade o ganiza ional guidelines o ca ee ad ancemen s, pe o mance a ge s o uni e si y eache s a e highly in e nalized and a e associa ed wi h long e ms ca ee goals (Aus in, 2002). In en ion o men o as an ou come Men o ing is de ined as a p ocess h ough which he olde expe ienced indi idual (men o ) ac s as a guide, counsello and a iend o a younge o inexpe ienced indi idual (men ee), wi h po en ial bene i s o he men ees (Koyuncu e al., 2014). Among a ious ac o s which a ec he e ec i eness o a men o ing p og am, he men o s’ willingness o in en ion o 8 men o plays a c ucial ole (Ragins and Scandu a, 1994). Va ious heo ies in social psychology ha e also no ed he ole o in en ions in ac ual beha iou o an indi idual (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Speci ically, he heo y o planned beha iou sugges s indi iduals’ a i ude owa ds beha iou leads o in en ions which in u n leads o ac ual beha iou (Ajzen, 1991). So, conside ing in en ion o men o can help unde s and he indi idual’s disc e iona y p e e ences o ge in ol ed in a men o ing p ocess, aiming o a oid al eady exis ing men o ing ela ionships po en ially in luenced by ex e nal ac o s like o mal men o ing p og ammes p esc ibed by he own o ganiza ion. P e ious esea ch on men o ing has used he men o s´ willingness o men o as he ou come a iable (Allen e al., 1997; Ragins and Scandu a, 1999; Bea and Hwang, 2015; Bane jee-Ba is e al., 2019). Being sel -awa e and ha ing he abili y o manage one’s own emo ional s a e and cope wi h ha dships a e some o he c ucial p edisposi ions o an e ec i e men o (Leban and Zulau , 2004). In en ion o men o is conside ed as a c ucial supe -leade ship quali y because i ac s as a s a ing poin o nu u ing such sel -leade ship p ac ices wi hin he o ganiza ion (K am and Hall, 1996). Based on ca ee and li e s age heo ies, Allen (2003) p oposes ha men o s migh be mo i a ed o ge in o men o ing ela ionships p ima ily o ul il hei own de elopmen al needs. Thus, eache s who a e high in sel -leade ship quali ies would be mo e willing o men o o he s and help hei men ees become sel - elian . I could be hough ha a eache ´s esponsibili ies encompass he ole o a men o o he s uden s (S anulis, 1995), bu i men o ing is unde s ood as a p ocess ha in ol es eache s and s uden s in a deepe ela ionship han ha based on eaching ac i i y, his kind o p ocess do no a ise in all cases. Thus, he social expec a ion o he ole o a eache as a men o o he s uden s is an implici one and in many cases i does no ag ee wi h a o mal job desc ip ion. So, eache s’ men o ing beha iou s can be o en disc e iona y and ex a- ole in na u e (DeAngelo e al., 2016). 9 The need o acul y- acul y le el o men o ing is also acu e, as mos academic ca ee s emphasize indi iduals o choose hei own ca ee pa hs and ake ca e o hei p og ess in hose chosen pa hs (Young e al., 2005). Sel -leade ship quali ies can help in si ua ions whe e he s uc u e and ce ain y in ca ee pa hs a e low. They may inc ease he willingness o men o , encou aging eache s o men o younge colleagues who a e in he ea ly s ages o hei ca ee s (Manz and Neck, 2004). The c ucial link which connec s sel -leade ship quali ies and willingness o men o is he le el o con ol one pe cei es o e his/he li e (Tschannen-Mo an and Hoy, 2007), which is ela ed o he concep o sel -e icacy. The ole o Sel -e icacy Sel -e icacy heo y (Bandu a, 1977, 1986, 1997) p oposes ha e icacy belie s a e s ong de e minan o people’s choice o goals, and hei e o and pe sis ence in achie ing hose goals. Social cogni i e pe spec i e conside s sel -e icacy as a dynamic quali y which is linked o pa icula pe o mance domains which a e ask speci ic (Bandu a, 1986). Sel - e icacy is also conside ed as a gene alized s a e o mind (Chen e al., 2001). Gene alized sel -e icacy ep esen s “ he indi iduals’ pe cep ion o hei abili y o pe o m ac oss a a ie y o si ua ions” (Judge e al., 1998, p. 170). Resea ches ha e shown a posi i e impac o leade ship on sel -e icacy and many o hese s udies ocus on ex e nal leade ship a he han sel -leade ship (Ka l e al., 1993). As a cons uc , sel -e icacy is closely associa ed wi h sel - leade ship. In his sense, sel - egula o y s a egies ha e p oximal connec ion o he concep o con idence in e ms o pe cep ion o one’s own pe sonal capabili ies (Neck and Hough on, 2006). Acco ding o social lea ning heo y, modelling in he o m o sel -ins uc ional hough s (labelled as cogni i e modelling) is an in luen ial an eceden o sel -e icacy (Bandu a, 1977; S ajko ic and Lu hans, 1998). These sel -ins uc ional hough s a e simila o 16 Co on (1993). This scale uses a 7-poin a ing scale anging om s ongly disag ee o s ongly ag ee. All hese i ems a e included in Table 3. Indi idualism and collec i ism we e measu ed using he scale de eloped by T iandis and Gel land (1998). This scale measu es indi idualism and collec i ism a wo le els namely ho izon al and e ical. The e o e, he scale has ou subscales, namely ho izon al indi idualism (4 i ems), e ical indi idualism (4 i ems), ho izon al collec i ism (4 i ems) and e ical collec i ism (4 i ems). 9-poin a ing scale was used whe e esponse anged om ne e /de ini ely no o always/de ini ely yes. The coun y has been used as a con ol a iable o he model. Resul s The means, s anda d de ia ions, simple co ela ions and es ima ed eliabili ies (C onbach’s alpha) o he a iables used in his s udy a e p esen ed in Table 1. All o hem showed C onbach’s alpha alues accep able and highe han 0.60 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). Co ela ion analysis indica ed a signi ican posi i e co ela ion be ween sel -leade ship and sel -e icacy, in en ion o men o , ho izon al indi idualism, e ical indi idualism and e ical collec i ism. In en ion o men o displayed a signi ican posi i e co ela ion wi h sel -e icacy, e ical indi idualism and ho izon al collec i ism. Apa om he in en ion o men o , sel -e icacy showed a signi ican posi i e co ela ion wi h ho izon al collec i ism. Co ela ional analysis also no ed ha na ionali y was signi ican ly co ela ed wi h in en ion o men o , ho izon al indi idualism, e ical indi idualism, e ical collec i ism and beha iou al awa eness and oli ion; hence na ionali y was con olled when es ing he model (Shi e al., 2011). (Inse Table 1 abou he e) The e a e signi ican di e ences be ween Indian and Spanish esponden s on bo h e ical indi idualism (M(SD) India = 5.06(1.5), M(SD) Spain = 3.6(1.5), (d ) = 6.36(193), 17 p<.01) and e ical collec i ism (M(SD) India = 7.2(1.4), M(SD) Spain = 6.6(1.4), (d ) = 3.27(194), p<.01), and also in ho izon al indi idualism (M(SD) India = 6.75(1.57), M(SD) Spain = 6.23(1.42), (d ) = 2.42(186), p<.05). Indians eache s had highe sco es, which is in con adic ion o he popula belie ha indi iduals belonging o eas e n coun ies a e mo e collec i is ic han he wes e ne s. A keen look a he i ems o he ques ionnai e and he de ini ion o he sub dimensions e eal in e es ing insigh s. The p esen s udy shows ha o he Indian esponden s, he e ical componen is he o e powe ing a ibu e o he indi idualism-collec i ism dimension. Indian esponden s also showed a highe alue in one o he dimensions o sel -leade ship (namely, beha iou al awa eness and oli ion, M(SD) India = 4.05(0.6), M(SD) Spain = 3.7(0.63), (d ) = 3.34(195), p<.001), which means, ha he inc ease in compe i ion has c ea ed he need o be mo e sel -obse an and ocused on hei goals. Finally, Indian esponden s showed highe in en ion o men o han he Spain coun e pa s (M(SD) India = 5.7(1.2), M(SD) Spain = 5.2(1.08), (d ) = 3.52(185), p<.001), which can also be associa ed wi h hei high sco es in se e al cul u al alues dimensions. The es o he a iables did no show signi ican di e ences be ween Indian and Spanish esponden s. Measu emen model Con e gen alidi y analysis showed ha all indica o s loaded on o hei espec i e la en ac o signi ican ly (p<.001) and subs an ially (λ>.5). Mo eo e , wo addi ional indica o s namely composi e eliabili y index and a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE) we e calcula ed in o de o measu e he scale’s eliabili y. Thus, he scale’s eliabili y was con i med. Las ly, disc iminan alidi y was e alua ed in wo di e en ways. Fi s , he AVE and he squa ed co ela ions be ween cons uc s we e compa ed (Hai e al., 2009). In all cases, he AVE was 18 g ea e han he squa ed co ela ion es ima es. Second, a se ies o CFA es s we e e alua ed on al e na i e measu emen models (Table 2). Using a chi-squa e di e ence es , he hypo hesized h ee- ac o measu emen model was compa ed wi h hese al e na i e measu emen models. Model 1 had a signi ican ly be e i o he da a han model 2 (Δχ2 (1) = 7.775, p <.001). Simul aneously, model 1 showed be e i o he da a han model 3 (Δχ2 (2) = 0.356, n.s.) and model 4 (Δχ2 (4) = 0.437, n.s.), al hough he di e ences we e no signi ican . So, esul s o compa isons be ween he hypo hesized model and he al e na i e models showed ha model 1 p o ided he bes i o he da a: χ2 (d ) = 155.886(97), p < .001, GFI = 0.910, RMSEA = 0.056, TLI = 0.946, CFI = 0.956, χ2 / d = 1.607. (Inse Table 2 abou he e) (Inse Table 3 abou he e) S uc u al model The heo e ical model was es ed. The goodness-o - i indices o he model p esen ed good alues: χ2 (d ) = 214.971(111), p < .001, GFI = 0.888, RMSEA = 0.070, TLI = 0.909, CFI = 0.926, χ2 / d = 1.937. The s uc u al pa hs be ween sel -leade ship and sel -e icacy (β = 0.622, p < .001) and sel -e icacy and he in en ion o men o (β = 0.413, p < .05), we e signi ican , hus con i ming H1 and H2. The s uc u al pa h be ween coun y a iable and sel -e icacy was no signi ican (β = 0.093, p < n.s.), howe e he pa h be ween coun y a iable and he in en ion o men o was signi ican (β = 0 .215, p < .01). The esul s indica e ha sel -leade ship accoun s o 41.6% o he sel -e icacy in he uni e si y eache s and, in u n, sel -e icacy accoun s o 26.3% o hei in en ion o men o . F om he esul s i can be deduced ha sel -e icacy ully media es he ela ionship be ween sel -leade ship and in en ion o men o . In o de o con i m his esul , wo addi ional 19 models we e p oposed (Ba on and Kenny, 1986). Table 4 p esen s he model- i s a is ics and Table 5 shows he pa h coe icien s o he h ee models. As shown in Table 5, he ela ionship be ween sel -leade ship and in en ion o men o was only signi ican in Model 3 (di ec e ec s) bu disappea ed once sel -e icacy was aken in o conside a ion (Model 1). The pa hs om sel -leade ship o sel -e icacy and om sel -e icacy o he in en ion o men o emained signi ican in bo h models (pa ial and ull media ion). In addi ion, he Sobel es (1982) was pe o med o assess he signi icance o he indi ec e ec s o sel -leade ship on he in en ion o men o h ough sel -e icacy. The es suppo ed he media ing e ec o sel - e icacy (z = 3.83; p < .001). As shown in Table 4, he chi-squa e o Model 2 ( ull media ion) (χ2 = 215.018, d = 112) was g ea e han he chi-squa e o Model 1 (pa ial media ion) (χ2 = 214.971, d = 111), al hough no signi ican ly di e en (Δ χ2 = 0.047, Δ d = 1, n.s.), and lowe han he chi-squa e o Model 3 (di ec e ec s) (χ2 = 281.260, d = 113) and signi ican ly di e en (Δ χ2 = 66.242, Δ d = 1, sig). Some au ho s disag ee ha he inal decision on media ion depends on he signi icance o a pa ame e (which is always a con en ion) and p e e o es ablish as c i e ion o analysis whe e pa o he o al e ec o he independen a iable on he dependen a iable is due o he media ion e ec (Va iance Accoun ed Fo - VAF). Ou esul s showed VAF o 0.9518 and suppo ed ull media ion as i exceeded 0.80 (Hai e al., 2014). So, he abo e esul s es ablish Model 2 as a be e choice. The eby, he hypo hesis H3 which asse s ha sel -e icacy ully media es he ela ionship be ween sel - leade ship and in en ion o men o is suppo ed. (Inse Table 4 abou he e) (Inse Table 5 abou he e) We also analysed he mode a ing e ec o cul u al dimensions in he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and he in en ion o men o , conside ing hem as a p oxy o he coun y, 20 since as men ioned abo e, h ee o he ou cul u al dimensions conside ed in he s udy ha e shown signi ican di e ences be ween bo h coun ies. Wi h his backg ound, mode a ing e ec s o cul u al o ien a ion dimensions we e s udied using hie a chical mul iple eg ession (Cohen and Cohen, 1983). Speci ically, ho izon al indi idualism, e ical indi idualism, ho izon al collec i ism and e ical collec i ism we e used as sepa a e mode a o s in he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o . A e cen ing he p edic o a iables o educe he co ela ion be ween hem (Dawson, 2014), ou di e en eg ession analyses we e conduc ed. Table 6 shows ha while ho izon al indi idualism and e ical collec i ism in e ac ed wi h sel -e icacy and had signi ican impac on in en ion o men o , he in e ac ion o e ical indi idualism o ho izon al collec i ism and sel -e icacy did no ha e any signi ican impac on he in en ion o men o . The e o e, H7 was suppo ed. And H4 was suppo ed in a di e en di ec ion om he one hypo hesized, whe eas H5 and H6 we e no suppo ed. (Inse Table 6 abou he e) Hence, he abo e esul s show ha he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o di e acco ding o he le el o ho izon al indi idualism o e ical collec i ism; howe e , i was no clea how i di e s. The in e ac ion e ms we e posi i e, so i sugges s ha he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o becomes mo e posi i e as ho izon al indi idualism o e ical collec i ism inc eased; howe e , he size and p ecise na u e o hese e ec s we e no easy o es ima e using only hese coe icien s. The e o e, hese e ec s we e plo ed in o in e p e i isually (Dawson, 2014) (Figu es 1 and 2). Two new g ouping a iables we e c ea ed, ca ego izing ho izon al indi idualism and e ical collec i ism in o h ee le els – low, mode a e and high – o p edic he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o a he h ee le els o he mode a o a iables, ob aining 21 h ee di e en eg ession g oups. I was shown ha a high le el o ho izon al indi idualism had a s ong eg ession e ec (R2 Lineal = 0.484) on sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o ela ionship (co ela ion alue = 0.69). R2 Lineal ho izon al indi idualism mode a e = 0.147 (co ela ion alue = 0.38), and R2 Lineal ho izon al indi idualism low = 0.004 (co ela ion alue = 0.06). Hence, i was demons a ed ha he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o is always posi i e, bu i was highe o indi iduals wi h highe le els han o indi iduals wi h lowe le els o ho izon al indi idualism. Al hough ho izon al indi idualism has mode a ed he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o as we ha e hypo hesized, i does i in he opposi e di ec ion. Resul s also indica e ha a high le el o e ical collec i ism has a s ong eg ession e ec (R2 Lineal = 0.347) on he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o (co ela ion alue = 0.58). R2 Lineal e ical collec i ism mode a e = 0.161 (co ela ion alue = 0.40), and R2 Lineal e ical collec i ism low = 0.019 (co ela ion alue = 0.13). He e i is demons a ed ha he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o is always posi i e, bu i is dis inc i ely heigh ened o indi iduals wi h highe le els o e ical collec i ism han o hose wi h lowe le els. (Inse Figu es 1 and 2 abou he e) Figu e 3 summa izes he esul s o he hypo heses es ed. (Inse Figu e 3 abou he e) Discussion The s udy esul s show ha sel -leade ship has a signi ican impac on sel -e icacy. As p e iously discussed, sel -leade ship in ol es indi iduals exe ing conscious e o o se hei own pe o mance goals and moni o p og ess owa ds ul illing hose goals. Du ing his p ocess, indi iduals may in ospec on hei s eng hs and weaknesses, and be conscious abou 22 he ex e nal ac o s which can in luence hei pe o mance (Hollenbeck and Williams, 1987). Thus, he inc ease o sel -awa eness due o in ospec ion and awa eness o he en i onmen (ex e nal ac o s) may b ing in a sense o con ol, which in u n inc eases he indi idual’s sel - con idence and sel -e icacy (Ka oly, 1993). The signi ican posi i e impac o sel -e icacy on in en ion o men o among he esponden s deno es he impo ance o sel -con idence among employees in nu u ing leade ship quali ies like in en ion o men o o he s (Rekha and Ganesh, 2010). The ul ima e objec i e o men o ing is o c ea e independen sel - elian indi iduals, i.e., sel -leade s. Th ough his unde s anding men o ing can be iewed as an ac o c ea ing mo e leade s (supe -leade ship) wi h sel -con idence which is a necessa y ai in any o m o leade ship (Kipnis and Lane, 1962). Teache s wi h highe le els o sel -e icacy may conside men o ing o he s as a posi i e way o gaining e e en powe in he o ganiza ion (Ca son e al., 1993). S udies also show ha men o ing ela ionships can help men o s gain sel -con idence, he e o e in con as o ou hypo hesis; i is possible ha employees use men o ing as an a enue o imp o e hemsel es (Rekha and Ganesh, 2010). Resul s also show ha sel -e icacy ully media es he ela ionship be ween sel - leade ship and in en ion o men o . This p o es he ole o sel -e icacy as he p ocess h ough which sel -leade ship in luence in en ion o men o . F om an o ganiza ional pe spec i e, nu u ing sel -leade ship in ol es ce ain le el o delega ion and decen aliza ion o au ho i y om he op, educing he dependency on ex e nal pe o mance con ol mechanisms (S ewa and Manz, 1995). Thus, eache s can pe cei e men o ing s uden s and colleagues as a mo al obliga ion o he o ganiza ion which has gi en hem mo e au onomy and powe (Mobe g and Velasquez, 2004). 23 In he p esen s udy, ho izon al indi idualism and e ical collec i ism mode a e he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o . This esul in in line wi h ecen esea ch which has also ound collec i ism (Chiu e al., 2018) o indi idualism (Mukhe jee e al., 2012; Alcán a a-Pila and Del Ba io-Ga cía, 2015) play a mode a o ole in di e en s udy con ex s. The na u e o he mode a ing e ec shows ha he posi i e ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and in en ion o men o becomes s onge when he esponden s a e inclined owa ds e ical collec i is ic o ho izon al indi idualis ic alues. The eason o he di e en di ec ion o he mode a ing e ec o ho izon al indi idualism could be due o he unique na u e o he con ex o academic wo k. The ac ha mos academic ins i u ions ha e ew o mal hie a chical le els o di e en ia e be ween eache s can ins il a sense o equali y among hem. Teache s wi h high sel -e icacy a e inclined owa ds men o ing; hei in en ion becomes s onge when hey a e d i en by a eeling o empa hy gene a ed om he equali y (Kalb leisch and Key on, 1995). In a knowledge-based indus y like a Uni e si y, e e se men o ing (men o s gaining h ough men o ing) and lea ning o ien a ion a e impo an d i ing ac o s in an indi idual’s in en ion o men o (Allen, 2003). The changing na u e o he in e ac ion o cul u al alues wi h o he a iables o e decades ha e c ea ed di icul ies o esea che s o hypo hesize he exac na u e o hei mode a ion e ec (Ma sumo o and an de Vij e , 2010) i espec i e o exis ing s ong heo e ical suppo . On he o he hand, he mode a ing e ec o e ical collec i ism shows ha he mo al obliga ion o hei oles by complying wi h ce ain social no ms s eng hens he ela ionship be ween sel -e icacy and men o ing among Uni e si y eache s. A p e ious s udy ound ha cul u al alue o ien a ion in e ms o indi idual and collec i is ic alues in luence he way indi iduals de ine ex a- ole pe o mances a he wo kplace (Va ela e al., 2010). I we conside in en ion o men o as a olun a y beha iou , 24 i can be ocused owa ds he o ganiza ion (a sense o obliga ion owa ds he o ganiza ion d i es he employee’s pe o mance) o ocused owa ds ellow wo ke s (a sense o empa hy d i es i ) (O gan, 1997). The esul s om he p esen s udy indi ec ly show ha some esponden s ha e iewed men o ing as bene icial o he o ganiza ion, while o he s ha e iewed i as p ima ily an in e pe sonal beha iou aimed a de eloping indi iduals. Implica ions The p ima y insigh om his esea ch is he need o o ganiza ions o encou age sel - managemen skills among hei employees in o de o imp o e hei e ec i eness in he wo kplace. In p ac ice, i implies ha empowe ing p o essionals o manage hei own ca ee is impo an no only o boos hei sel -e icacy bu also o ins il olun a y beha iou s like in en ion o men o . Also, i asse s ha sel -leade ship quali ies in he wo kplace can be acili a ed by p o iding au onomy o academicians o choose he means o achie ing hei goals as well as hei long- e m ca ee goals. This can be accomplished by he academic ins i u ions p omo ing a a ied se o pe o mance s anda ds as c i e ia o ca ee ad ancemen s and p o iding o he ewa ds o eache s, ins ead o ocusing on ew igid s anda ds. Fo example, in he p esen scena io mos uni e si ies e alua e a eache ’s pe o mance using hei esea ch and published pape s, which may be a sou ce o s ess o hose academicians whose in e es s lie in p i a e o ganiza ions collabo a ion, socially ele an p ojec s o excellence in eaching. So, by b inging in hese dimensions o he speci ica ion o a eache s’ ole and gi ing sha ed weigh age o hese componen s he eache s would be ee o choose hei long- e m ca ee goals and he c i e ia hey a e com o able wi h. Howe e , i mus be no ed ha highe le els o au onomy o choose one’s own ca ee goals can lead o a sense o lack o di ec ion, pa icula ly o academic p o essionals who a e in hei ea ly s age 25 o hei ca ee s. This can be ackled by encou aging young acul y o choose men o s wi hin he o ganiza ion who can help hem in he sel -goal se ing p ocess. Men o ing will help young uni e si y eache s no only o se ealis ic goals bu also o es ablish he p ocess ha will ein o ce hei commi men owa ds hose goals. In he long un, en e ing in o a men o ing ela ionship migh boos sel -e icacy and sel -leade ship quali ies o men o s as well. Men o ing as a suppo is ound o help men ees con e hei esea ch e o s in o en ep eneu ial en u es (Fe nández-Pé ez e al., 2015). P e ious esea ch clea ly s a es ha he e is also a s ong need el among s uden s a uni e si y le els o pa icipa e in men o ing p og ams (Luna and Cullen, 1998). Bene i s o inc easing eache s’ in en ion o men o can go beyond s uden s’ academic ca ee and can lead o s uden s´ inc eased p o essionalism and sensi iza ion o e hical alues (Rose e al., 2005). The e o e, eache s can play a undamen al ole in he u u e p o essional possibili ies o hose s uden s wi h whom hey es ablish a ela ionship ha goes beyond he ela ionship based on a me e eaching ac i i y. Rega dless o who is he men ee, as a policy le el implica ion his s udy h ows ligh on he key challenge o he adminis a o s while choosing be ween o mal and in o mal men o ing p og ams. 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