Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture

ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 35 Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture Abstract The evolution of Latino print media in Spain has coincided with the demographic increase of Latin American immigrants in the country since the early 1990s. Starting with one publication in 1992, the market started to grow in 2003 and reached its peak in 2007 with the edition of more than 100 titles. The advertising crisis of 2008 ended this trend, and the number of publications began a continuous and permanent decline in the following years despite a demographic recovery of Latin Americans in Spain after 2016. This research presents a quantitative analysis of the contents of 1,500 news items from 14 Latino newspapers and magazines that survived the 2008 advertising downfall. Six of these 14 media outlets continue publishing in 2023. The objective of this study is to show the connections between the contents of the analyzed Latino print media and the cultural identities of their readers. The results show that the prevalent themes related to culture, society and politics represent the identities of their Latino readers. Latino publications give visibility to Latinos as the protagonists of their contents. In addition, the origin of the protagonists shows the wide range of Latin American countries in correlation with the diverse Latin American origins of the readers. We discuss the implications of these findings within the volatile context of Latino print media in Spain, the growing Latin American demographics, and the formation of diverse Latino identities. Keywords Latino print media, Latin Americans, Spain, news contents, cultural identities. 1. Introduction and state of the issue At the start of the 20 th century, Park (1922) claimed that immigrants coming from Europe to the United States wanted to read newspapers in their own language due to the lack of freedom of the press in their countries of origin. Ethnic media began to fulfill an informative role, because they told readers how to incorporate into their new host country (Park, 1922). Today ethnic media provide information that includes community and cultural celebrations as well as practical advice to help immigrants find employment and housing, enroll their children in school, open a bank account, or apply for medical assistance and social services, among others (Matsaganis, Katz & Ball-Rokeach, 2016). Ana María Mendieta - Bartolomé https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2305-1786 anamaria.mendie[email protected] Universidad del País Vasco José-Luis Argiñano https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8191-6309 joseluis.argu[email protected] Universidad del País Vasco Submitted October 6th, 2020 Approved March 8th, 2023 © 2023 Communication & Society ISSN 0214-0039 E ISSN 2386-7876 doi: 10.15581/003.36.3.35-51 www.communication-society.com 2023 – Vol. 36(3) pp. 35-51 How to cite this article: Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. (2023). Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture, Communication & Society, 36(3), 3551. Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 36 Ethnic media reflect the worries of their readers and exercise social control by drawing attention to what is and isn’t acceptable within the dominant rules and values of the community they target. Gutiérrez (1977) said many of the first newspapers in Spanish in the United States were already institutions of social control connected to political parties which published lifestyle news and reprinted stories from other newspapers. In connection with the exercise of social control, ethnic media can carry out a watchdog role, acting as a radar and warning system of external threats to their community of readers, including information about the legal rights of immigrants or changes in migratory laws. Ethnic media can also foster a positive and successful image of the members of the community (Viswanath & Arora, 2000). Thus, media for migrants, also conceptualized as diasporic media, can be platforms of self-representation and protest for migrant communities against the negative stereotypes they endure in the public sphere (Ogunyemi, 2015). In regard to their cultural role, ethnic media can promote the cultural identity of their readers, expressed in the use of their own languages, customs and religious practices, their links with family, friends and neighbors, and their participation in ethnic organizations (Jeffres, 2000). Ethnic media can reinforce ethnic identity through the lessons taught by older members of the ethnic group in the cognitive dimension, in accordance with group norms in the behavioral dimension, and through the feelings of belonging to that group in the emotional dimension (Matsaganis, Katz & Ball-Rokeach, 2011). Having studied the use of ethnic media by Arabs and Russian migrants in Israel, Adoni, Caspi, and Cohen (2006) show that the construction of the cultural identity of migrant communities increases with the use of their native languages in ethnic media. 1.1. Latino media and cultural identity As other ethnic media do, Latino media can function as vehicles of the cultural identities that their Latin American readers bring from their homelands to their host countries, in this case Spain. Their identities, many of indigenous descent, are as diverse as the Spanish-speaking countries which they come from, comprising a population of more than 600 million people. Latino media in Spain reach all Latin Americans living in the country, with topics that represent elements of cultural identity that most Latin Americans regard as their own. Some of these Latino cultural elements would include the Spanish language, the importance of family and community, the cultural activities that show their ancestral and indigenous traditions, their cuisine, their practice of religion as a devotion to local patrons and saints from Latin America, and their deep attachment to patriotic symbols of their homeland, like the flag and the national anthem. Dávila (2000) says that when media address Latinos as one, they reaffirm the existence of a common Latino identity. Latinos constitute “‘a nation within a nation’ with unique family values, communal disposition, traditionalism, spirituality, etc.,” and the Spanish language is the primary tool to define their uniqueness and need for culturally specific media and advertising (pp. 38-39). Ethnic media reproduce cultural identity “as an ‘essence’ shared by all Latin American migrants, focusing on three topics: the indigenous origins, the Catholic religion and the ‘Latino’ popular music” (Echevarría Vecino, Ferrández Ferrer & Dallemagne, 2015, p. 93). Ethnic media create a specific Latino cultural identity connecting past and present media cultures: In short, the linking of the traditional and mass cultures enables the media to create a specific “Latino” cultural identity. “Latino” identity integrates a pan-national imaginary built upon an indigenous (traditional) common identification as a particularity shared by most Latin American countries that implies a shared colonial history, common religious practices and a musical mass culture (p. 95). Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 37 Based on an analysis of the contents of La Raza newspaper in Chicago, González-Veléz (2002) says that Latino media express Latinidad as a unified discourse that legitimizes the Latino community as being one. The discourse of Latinidad in Latino media in the United States describes Latinos as a cohesive but at the same time diverse community that honors their cultural heritage through the Spanish language, their homeland, and Catholicism, but also as a community of productive citizens who subscribe to the American dream (Silber Mohamed, 2017). Although women are traditionally considered the backbone of Latino families, Latinidad is mostly framed within a hypersexualized representation of Latina women, which is focused on their physical attributes, as we can see in showbiz celebrities like singer Jennifer Lopez or actress Sofia Vergara (Hurtado, 2017; Lugo-Lugo, 2015; Negrón-Muntaner, 2017). The concept of Latinidad as a homogenous Latino cultural identity is being questioned because it may lead to the ghettoization of Latinos (Suárez Navaz & Ferrández Ferrez, 2012) and to the commodification of Latino identities (Guedes Bailey, 2007). In addition, the term ‘Latinx’ has emerged in the last few years as a gender-neutral alternative to ‘Latino’ or ‘Latina’ in social media and academia (Noe-Bustamante, Mora & López, 2020). Latinx (for some, LatinX) constructs identities that include a wide variety of racial, national and even genderbased identifications (Morales, 2019), and the X works as a symbolic nexus that questions conventional groupings of Latino, Latina, and Latin@ (Milian, 2019). Our study looks further into the specific contents published by Latino print media in Spain to establish the presence of common cultural traits that can develop a Latino or Latinx identity. 1.2. Publications for Latinos in Spain The creation of publications geared to Latin Americans in Spain reveals the new consumer demands made by the first flow of immigrants arriving in the country from Latin America in the beginning of the 1990s. Journalistic production began in 1992 with the magazine Revista Pueblo Nuevo. In 1995, the magazine considered the dean of the Latino print media in Spain, Ocio Latino, was created in Madrid, and the magazine Mujeres del Mundo-munduko emakumeak and the newspaper Resumen Latinoamericano y del Tercer Mundo came out in the Basque Country. The rising demographics of Latinos in Spain bring on the emergence of an associative movement, and some Latin American groups begin to publish newsletters with useful information and institutional activities. The number of new titles increased, reaching 17 in the year 2000 (Mendieta-Bartolomé, 2018). The number of Latin Americans living in Spain multiplied by 4,7 times between 2000 (364.998) and 2005 (1.721.371) (INE, 2023). Following this demographic growth, Latino publications increased by 53% between 2002 and 2003. In 2004 and 2005, the free weekly publications Sí, Se Puede and Latino were created, marking a milestone in the Latino publishing market because each one had a weekly circulation of more than 100,000 copies in different cities in Spain. Between 2005 and 2006 alone, 30 new publications appeared, and in 2007 the Latino press market reached its threshold with a total of 105 publications in Spain. In 2007, the first daily national newspaper El Nuevo Ciudadano was born in Madrid, but it lasted only five months before becoming a weekly. As far as the topics covered, Latino newspapers and magazines focus on the latest news from the immigrant’s viewpoint, and highlight practical matters such as home buying and renting, employment, health care, social benefits, and administrative procedures to adjust an immigrant’s legal status. The language of these Latino publications incorporates Latin American slang and expressions, and their design shows big headlines and photos, with lots of color and short texts, normally used in free publications (Gómez-Escalonilla et al., 2008). Almost 20 of these publications were geared specifically at readers from specific Latin American countries. Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 38 But the year 2008 represented a turning point in the evolution of Latino publications. The 105 publications edited in 2007 dropped by almost 45%, and only 58 survived. Some of the publications that had to close down had been in the market since the mid-1990s. The drastic reduction in advertising investment, both private and institutional, explained the downturn in the Latino press, both in number of pages and in circulation and distribution (Retis, 2014). This publishing crisis took place within a context of an economic recession, which also affected the Latin American community in Spain. In fact, the number of Latin Americans living in Spain decreased by almost 8% between 2010 (2.312.148) and 2016 (2.122.813) (INE, 2023). The editorial market continued to plummet after 2008. In six years, between 2008 and 2014, the number of Latino publications reduced by more than half, from 58 to 25, and the market stabilized with the publication of 25 newspapers and magazines. The closings of the weeklies Latino and Sí, Se Puede in 2012 were very significant, due to their national ranking and circulation. In 2023, eight of the 14 newspapers and magazines printed in 2014 were no longer publishing. The volatility of Latino print media in Spain has made it difficult for researchers to develop a comprehensive census of the Latino newspapers and magazines since 1992 to date. Several authors have elaborated maps of Latino media outlets in Spain (Ferrández-Ferrer, 2014; Forero Bordamalo, 2015; Navarro, 2008; Retis, 2006). Figure 1 shows the evolution in the number of Latino publications in Spain in a 26-year-long period, based on a census elaborated by the authors with the titles found in paper or digital format between 1992 and 2018. Figure 1. Evolution in the number of Latino publications in Spain (1992-2018). Source: Own elaboration. 2. Research design Shortly after the rapid growth of Latino media in Spain, research began to focus on the construction of differentiated Latino identity patterns in these media. The research design of this article is based, in part, on the works of Retis (2008) and the concept of “latinoamericaneidad” (the essence of being Latin American); Sabés Turmo (2009) and the term “nación latina” (Latin nation); Suárez Navaz (2011) and the Latino identity as manifested in shared experiences of migration, history and discrimination; and the integration of Latino media in local communities (Agirreazkuenaga & Larrondo, 2018). The objective of this article is to study the contents of a sample of Latino-oriented newspapers and magazines in Spain to determine if these contents represent the Latino cultural identity of their readers. Considering the complexity to define what constitutes the Latino cultural identity, defined by many as Latinidad but today also as Latinx, different authors point out the importance of family, race and language, and ethnic celebrations (Aparicio, 2019). But other Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 39 concepts are key to understand Latinos, and those involve the consideration of Latinos and/or Latinas as subjects of commodification (sexualization or criminalization, among others), the food and the music as indicators of a deep sense of community and regionalism, and the immigration as it pertains to the laws that affect the incorporation of Latinos in the country of destination (Aldama & González, 2019). The first hypothesis in this article links Latino media contents with the identity of their readers. H1. The prevalent themes in the Latino publications in Spain represent the main elements related to the Latino identity. Despite the rise of Latin American migrations around the world, Latinos are underrepresented and portrayed by negative stereotypes in the media, both in the United States (Reis, 2017) and Spain (Romero-Rodríguez et al., 2018). Latinos have been made invisible in mainstream media, they are newsworthy if they are involved in topics of social conflict, and they are perceived as a market but less as content producers (González de Bustamante & Retis, 2017). The media portrayal of Latinos in mainstream media leads us to our second hypothesis regarding the role of Latinos in Latino media. H2. Latinos have visibility as the protagonists of the prevalent themes of Latino culture, society and politics in the contents of Latino publications in Spain. The diversity of the Latin American countries which Latino protagonists come from proves their heterogeneous nature and vast national, regional and ethnic differences (Del Río, 2017), despite the public discourse that implements pan-ethnic labels such as Latino, Hispanic, or Latinoamericano (Retis, 2019). The third hypothesis is grounded on the diversity of the Latino media protagonists. H3. The diversity of the Latino protagonists in the contents of Latino publications in Spain corresponds with the variety of the Latin American countries represented in Spain. In order to tackle these hypotheses, we have selected a diverse and heterogeneous group of Latino titles in regards to their nature (mostly informative or entertaining), contents, targeted readers, format, frequency, circulation, and area of distribution. The market of Latino publications in Spain has been volatile since its inception in 1992. Our work has verified the existence of 131 Latino publications edited in Spain between 1992 and 2018. The year chosen for this study was 2014 because it was the first year in which the number of Latino print titles in Spain didn’t decrease after the crisis of 2008. Our sample selected 14 of the 25 Latino newspapers and magazines edited in Spain in 2014 and available in either paper or digital format. Only content available to the researcher was analyzed using a nonprobabilistic and convenience sampling (Zabaleta Urkiola, 1997). The 14 publications included the political left-wing newspapers Resumen Latinoamericano y del Tercer Mundo and Hola Latinoamérica, the political left-wing magazine Encuentros, the bimonthly newspaper Baleares sin fronteras, the feminist magazine Mujeres del mundomunduko emakumeak, the Bolivian-oriented newspaper Bolivia Es and magazine Haz Bolivia, the Paraguayan-oriented newspaper Guay del Paraguay, the Argentinean-oriented magazine Argentinos.es, the Venezuelan-oriented magazine Yo Soy Venezolano, the cultural magazine Aquí Latinos, the entertainment oriented magazines Ocio Latino and Somos Latinos, and the entertainment/erotic magazine Shock Magazine. This last magazine had a double cover, the front cover for men and the back cover for women, with 80 pages each. For the codification we divided the magazine into two, Shock Magazine Man and Shock Magazine Woman, to make the analysis more manageable. Following the convenience sampling, our study included four issues published by each of the 14 publications in 2014. For each of those 56 issues, we analyzed all the news items from front to back page, which amounted to 1,507 items. These 1,507 informative items were categorized according to three variables, which are Themes, Protagonists, and Origin of the protagonists. We wanted to determine if the contents of Latino publications correspond with Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 40 the themes related to the identity of their Latino readers, if they give visibility to Latinos as protagonists in the media, and if they represent the diversity of Latino nationalities. The three variables and their corresponding subvariables are included in Table 1. Table 1. Variables and subvariables for this study. Source: Own elaboration. The following codebook explains all the subvariables above with their respective variables. Themes: 1. Politics in origin: Themes related to the politics in the country of origin, always a Latin American country. 2. Politics in destination: Themes related to the politics in the country of destination, always Spain, since the analyzed publications and their readers are in Spain. 3. Politics in third countries: Themes related to the politics of third countries which are neither Spain nor a Latin American country. However, they affect Latin Americans in Spain, mostly in regard to their immigration status. 4. Migrations: Themes related to migratory issues in general, and immigration laws. 5. Economy/labor: Themes related to economy or labor, either in origin or destination. 6. Culture: Themes related to cultural traditions and activities, including cuisine, from the Latin American countries of origin. 7. Sports: Themes related to any sports or sports players, in the country of origin or in Spain. 8. Society: A variety of themes that would appear in the Society section, related to women, celebrations and festivities (mostly from the country of origin but held in Spain), as well as beauty, health, sex or environment. 9. Science and technology: Themes related to science and technology, either in the Latin American country of origin or in Spain. 10. Others: Diverse themes that can’t be categorized in any of the above subvariables. In the variables of Protagonists and Origin of the protagonists, all the subvariables are self-explanatory except for these ones. Themes Protagonists Origin of the protagonists Politics in origin Politicians/government Spain Politics in destination Journalists/communicators Colombia Politics in third countries Writers Ecuador Migrations Activists/NGOs Perú Economy/labor Cultural associations Bolivia Culture Football players Argentina Sports Singers Paraguay Society Other artists Uruguay Science and technology Animals and objects Cuba Others Others Venezuela Chile Europa USA México Other Latin American countries Others Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 41 Protagonists: 1. Other artists: Different types of artists who are not singers, including actors, dancers, painters, sculptors, photographers, filmmakers, models, or beauty pageant contestants. 2. Animals and objects: Protagonists who are either animals or objects, such as technological devices or vehicles, among others. 3. Others: Diverse types of protagonists that can’t be categorized in any of the above subvariables. Origin of the protagonists: 1. Other Latin American countries: The Latin American countries that are not singled out in the table, such as Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Panamá, Guatemala, El Salvador or Brazil. 2. Others: Countries in Asia and Africa, Australia or New Zealand. To process the collected data we followed two steps. In the first step, we calculated the annual average percentage obtained by each subvariable of the variables Themes, Protagonists, and Origin of the protagonists in each publication. To do that, we added up the percentages of the subvariables in the four issues analyzed per publication, and then divided each amount by four. In the second step, we calculated the annual total average for each subvariable of the variables Themes, Protagonists and Origin of the protagonists in all publications by adding all the items by subvariable in all the 56 issues analyzed for the 14 publications, and then dividing each amount by the total of 1,507 items categorized. The codification analysis was conducted by the authors of the article. In order to ensure the accuracy of the results, an inter-coder reliability test was performed with 10% of the sampling. For that matter, a social science researcher who was not involved with this study used the same coding book and the average result obtained was 0,83 (SD = 0,11) in the Kappa Cohen’s coefficient. 3. Results In the first variable analyzed (Theme), data demonstrates that the three prevalent themes or topics (68% of the total) are culture, society, and politics in origin connected with Latin America (see Table 2). Table 2. Predominant themes in Latino publications in Spain. Source: Own elaboration. Number of items Percentage Culture 411 27,3% Society 356 23,6% Politics in origin 258 17,1% Migrations 94 6,2% Economy/labor 90 6% Sports 64 4,3% Politics in destination 49 3,3% Politics in third countries 49 3,3% Science and technology 31 2,1% Others 105 6,9% 1.507 100% Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 42 Culture is the predominant theme in five publications. Of those, Ocio Latino, and Somos Latinos have the highest percentages of culture-related contents. The main cultural contents in these two magazines, which always feature a Latino artist in their front page, are musical. They include the releases of new songs or videos by Latino pop singers such as Jennifer Lopez or Shakira, and coverage of Latino music related events like the Latin Grammys or the Billboard Latin Music Awards. Indigenous folklore and cuisine also occupy an important place in the cultural coverage of Latino print media because they are two major traits of their Latin American readers’ cultural identity, which trace back to their indigenous roots. The culture related stories in Bolivia Es showcase traditional carnival parades held by Bolivian cultural associations in different parts of Spain, as well as traditional dishes based on the quinoa seed. The magazine Yo Soy Venezolano has different stories on the Venezuelan cornbread arepas, and Shock Magazine Woman features Chef Pepín’s section of Cuban dishes. The second overall prevalent theme, Society, is the principal one in the contents of Yo Soy Venezolano, Shock Magazine Man, and Shock Magazine Woman, which are mostly centered on the physical attributes and sex appeal of their protagonists. Beauty queens crowned as Miss Universe or Miss World in different years are the face of almost all covers in Yo Soy Venezolano. They represent women’s physical beauty as an element of cultural identity and national pride based on the fact that Venezuela is the country with the highest number of beauty crowns. Shock Magazine Man and Shock Magazine Woman feature many male and female models in erotic poses. Social celebrations, like Mother’s Day, and religious festivities of local patron saints from Latin America, also have a relevant place in the contents of Society as the second prevalent theme. As for the third prevalent theme, Politics in origin is the most important one in the political left-wing newspapers Resumen Latinoamericano y del Tercer Mundo and Hola Latinoamérica. Their political coverage centers on the success of left-wing regimes in Latin America, especially in Venezuela with Nicolás Maduro, and in Bolivia with now ex-president Evo Morales. Haz Bolivia and Bolivia Es devote a large part of their political coverage to the registration of Bolivian voters in Spain for the presidential elections in their home country. The political contents of Hola Latinoamérica give relevance to the peace talks between the government and the guerrillas in Colombia. In regard to the second variable analyzed, the most mentioned protagonists are animals and objects, politicians and government, other artists, singers, activists, and cultural associations, as detailed in Table 3. Table 3. Predominant protagonists in Latino publications in Spain. Number of items Percentage Animals and objects 462 30,7% Politicians/governments 324 21,5% Other artists 157 10,4% Singers 141 9,4% Activists/NGOs 125 8,3% Cultural associations 71 4,7% Writers 52 3,5% Journalists/communicators 49 3,3% Football players 33 2,2% Others 93 6,1% 1.507 100% Source: Own elaboration. Mendieta-Bartolomé, A. M. & Argiñano, J.-L. Identity orientations of Latino print media in Spain: the reinforcement of Latino popular culture ISSN 2386-7876 – © 2023 Communication & Society, 36(3), 35-51 43 Politicians are the main characters in the Bolivian-oriented publications Bolivia Es and Haz Bolivia, and in the political left-wing newspapers Hola Latinoamérica and Resumen Latinoamericano y del Tercer Mundo. Politicians in Bolivia Es and Haz Bolivia include the Bolivian president and his cabinet, electoral candidates, and members of the diplomatic corps (ambassadors and consuls) based in Spain. Other Latin American presidents (often Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro) and elected officials are the political protagonists in Hola Latinoamérica and Resumen Latinoamericano y del Tercer Mundo. Politicians are closely followed as protagonists by singers and other artists, mostly in the entertainment-oriented magazines. Singers are the leading figures in Ocio Latino and Somos Latinos. Other artists are the main protagonists in Shock Magazine Woman, featuring male and female models and actors and actresses, and also in Yo Soy Venezolano, featuring former Venezuelan beauty queens. Activists are the leading protagonists in the feminist magazine Mujeres del mundomunduko emakumeak and in Hola Latinoamérica. Bolivia Es, which includes most if not all the events held by Bolivian associations in Spain, is the publication with the highest percentage of cultural associations as protagonists. Regarding the third variable analyzed, the Origin of the protagonists, data indicates that more than 60% come from almost the entire spectrum of different Latin American countries (see Table 4). Of those countries, the highest individual percentages of protagonists correspond to Bolivia, Paraguay, Colombia, Argentina and Venezuela, because there are two publications specifically oriented to Bolivians (Bolivia Es and Haz Bolivia), one to Paraguayans (Guay del Paraguay), one to Argentineans (Argentinos.es), and one to Venezuelans (Yo Soy Venezolano). Although the percentage of Colombians and Argentineans is very similar, there are no publications specifically targeting Colombians in the analyzed sample. Table 4. Origin of the protagonists in Latino publications in Spain. Number of items Percentage Bolivia 275 15% Others 270 21,8% Other Latin American countries 187 9,4% Spain 139 9,2% Paraguay 110 7,3% Colombia 83 5,8% Argentina 75 5% USA 75 4,9% Venezuela 67 4,5% Perú 61 4,2% Ecuador 49 3,2% Cuba 33 2% México 31 1,6% Europa 30 1,7% Chile 13 0,8% Uruguay 10 0,7% 1.507 100% Source: Own elaboration. 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