The predictive power of social support’s sources and types for school engagement

Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 165 Educación XX1 ISSN: 1139-613X · e-ISSN: 2174-5374 The predictive power of social support’s sources and types for school engagement Capacidad predictiva de fuentes y tipos de apoyo social sobre implicación escolar Iker Izar-de-la-Fuente 1 * Arantza Rodríguez-Fernández 1 Naiara Escalante 1 Oihane Fernández-Lasarte 1 1 Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU), Spain * Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] How to reference this article/Cómo referenciar este artículo: Izar-de-la-Fuente, I., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Escalante, N., & Fernández-Lasarte, O. (2023). The predictive power of social support’s sources and types for school engagement. Educación XX1, 26(1), 165-183. https://doi.org/10.5944/ educxx1.31876 Fecha de recepción: 13/10/2021 Fecha de aceptación: 22/04/2022 Publicado online: 02/01/2023 ABSTRACT Social support has been found to play a key role in certain adolescent school behaviours and it is widely accepted that it fosters school engagement. On the contrary, more recent theoretical contributions regarding the principal sources and types of social support during adolescence suggest that this relationship may vary. To respond to this gap in the research the aim of the present study is to determine the predictive power of social support for school engagement (behavioural, emotional and cognitive) in accordance with the source (family, friends, and teachers) and type (emotional, material and informational) of the support provided to determine the most influential ones and to test through a structural model the combined statistical effect of both perspectives. Participants were 323 compulsory secondary school students from the Basque Autonomous Community, aged between 13 and 18 years (M = 14.41, SD = 1.18), being 40% boys and 60% girls. Participants completed 07 Izar trad.indd 165 20/12/22 17:51 Izar-de-la-Fuente et al. (2023) 166 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 two questionnaires, one measuring perceived social support and one measuring school engagement. The results of the present study show that perceived support from all sources and all types of support predict at least one of the three dimensions of school engagement. The results also indicate that support from teachers and emotional support were the source and type of support (respectively) that most strongly predicted school engagement, whose combined effect has been tested using SEM methodology. These findings may be particularly useful for designing future educational intervention programmes that seek to foster school engagement through social support. For example, intervention designs focusing on encouraging certain changes in teachers’ practice to foster a learning experience based on closer relations characterised by trust and recognition are suggested. Keywords: social support groups, learner engagement, teacher guidance, multiple regression analysis, structural equation models RESUMEN Se ha descubierto que el apoyo social juega un papel clave en ciertos comportamientos escolares de los adolescentes y está ampliamente aceptado que fomenta la implicación escolar. Por contra, los aportes teóricos más recientes sobre las principales fuentes y tipos de apoyo social en la adolescencia sugieren que la relación entre ambos puede variar. Para dar respuesta a este vacío de conocimiento, el objetivo del presente trabajo es precisar la capacidad predictiva del apoyo social, según las fuentes (familia, amistades y profesores) y los tipos (emocional, material e informacional) de apoyo sobre la implicación escolar (conductual, emocional y cognitiva) para determinar los más influyentes y probar mediante un modelo estructural el efecto estadístico combinado de ambas perspectivas. Participaron 323 estudiantes de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria de la Comunidad Autónoma Vasca con edades comprendidas entre los 13 y 18 años (M = 14.41, DT = 1.18), siendo el 40% chicos y el 60% chicas. Los participantes completaron dos cuestionarios, uno para evaluar el apoyo social percibido y otro para la implicación escolar. Los resultados del presente estudio muestran que el apoyo percibido de todas las fuentes y todos los tipos de apoyo predicen al menos una de las tres dimensiones de la implicación escolar. Los resultados también indican que son los profesores y el apoyo emocional la fuente y el tipo de apoyo respectivamente que en mayor grado predicen la implicación escolar cuyo efecto combinado se ha probado mediante metodología SEM. Esto podría resultar de gran utilidad para el diseño de futuros programas de intervención educativos que busquen una mejora de la implicación escolar mediante el apoyo social. Por ejemplo, se sugieren diseños de intervención enfocados a incentivar ciertos cambios en la práctica docente para propiciar una experiencia de aprendizaje basada en relaciones más cercanas caracterizadas por la confianza y el reconocimiento. Palabras clave: fuentes de apoyo social, implicación escolar, orientación del profesorado, análisis de regresión múltiple, modelos de ecuaciones estructurales 07 Izar trad.indd 166 20/12/22 17:51 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 167 The predictive power of social support’s sources and types for school engagement INTRODUCCIÓN Since the 1970s, when, thanks to the work of Cassel (1974a, 1974b), Cobb (1976) and Caplan (1974) social support first began to be regarded as an object of interest, many studies have sought to explore this construct (Diao, 2019). However, the concept of social support is hard to define and there is a lack of consensus regarding what exactly the term means, mainly due to the existence of many different definitions and the multidimensional nature of the construct (da Silva et al., 2019). Lin (1986) took the most widely-accepted proposals and summarised them into what is generally considered to be one of the most comprehensive and accepted definitions to date (González & Mercado, 2019): the perceived or actual instrumental and/or expressive provisions supplied by the community, social networks, and confiding partners. This definition distinguishes between three elements: (1) whether the support is perceived or actual; (2) the source of said support (community, social networks and/or confiding partners); and (3) the type of support received (instrumental and/or expressive). Although Lin (1986) proposed community, social networks and confiding partners as the three sources of support, it is generally accepted that during adolescence, the most important sources are family, friends and teachers (Hombrados-Mendieta & Castro, 2013), and it is these three sources that are taken into account in an increasing number of studies today (Mischel & Kitsantas, 2020). In relation to the different types of support, although Lin (1986) distinguished between instrumental and expressive, he also recognised other classifications, such as that proposed by Schaefer et al. (1981), which is currently considered to be the most widely-used (Yang, 2021). Schaefer et al. distinguish between (1) emotional support, which includes actions and feelings of attachment and trust, etc.; (2) material support, which includes direct support such as money or other assistance services; and (3) informational support, which refers to information or advice, as well as to feedback on one’s actions. Social support has been found to play a key role in certain adolescent school behaviours, such as, for example, school engagement (Siu et al., 2021). School engagement is considered indicative of good academic functioning since it is vital to achieving optimal outcomes and reflects the student’s commitment to their school, as well as their desire to learn (Benito et al., 2021). No consensus has yet been reached regarding the definition of school engagement (Nouwen & Clycq, 2019), although there is broad acceptance of the fact that it is a multifaceted construct with the three-dimensional model proposed by Fredricks et al. (2004) being the most popular and widely-used at present (Buzzai et al., 2021). This model distinguishes between (a) behavioural engagement, referring to active participation and attention; (b) emotional engagement, which 07 Izar trad.indd 167 20/12/22 17:51 Izar-de-la-Fuente et al. (2023) 168 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 encompasses positive and negative reactions to the school environment (feelings, trust, etc.), leading to a sense of connection and identification with the school; and (c) cognitive engagement, which reflects the student’s level of investment in learning and their eagerness to learn. Due to the variety of different definitions and theoretical conceptions of social support, few studies have explored this variable in light of the most recent theoretical-empirical findings, and while some authors have reported a general association between social support and school engagement (Tougas et al., 2016), the data presented vary in accordance with the approach adopted (sources or types of support). Many studies have analysed the correlational relationship between social support considered in accordance with its source (family, friends and teachers) and school engagement, finding that all three sources correlate with at least one dimension of school engagement (Estell & Perdue, 2013; Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Perdue et al., 2009; Ramos-Díaz, 2015), although the extent and effect of these correlations vary, so the relation between the variables is not entirely clear. For example, although support from teachers seems to have a stronger impact on behavioural and cognitive engagement (Ramos-Díaz, 2015), and a far stronger impact on emotional engagement (Fernández-Lasarte et al., 2019), those predictive studies indicate that social support from teachers and family predict all the dimensions of engagement. Conversely, there is also evidence of the incapacity of support from family to predict emotional engagement (Cheng et al., 2020). Regarding the support from friends it has been found by some studies to predict only emotional engagement (Estell & Perdue, 2013), although in others it has been shown to have also predictive power for cognitive engagement (Ramos-Díaz, 2015). Despite it does not, however, appear to predict behavioural engagement (Estell & Perdue, 2013), recent studies guarantee the capacity of the support from friends to predict the three types of engagement (Cheng et al., 2020). As regards the different types of support (emotional, material and informational), to the best of our knowledge, no studies have analysed their direct relationship with or direct predictive power for school engagement, since the few studies that do specify what type of support they are analysing, do so only in relation to its source. Some correlational studies (Cooper, 2014) argue that emotional support (from parents and teachers) is associated with school engagement, although others observe no relationship at all between the two, regardless of the source of support analysed (Tougas et al., 2016). However, if the results reported by studies conducting predictive analyses are considered, it can be seen that some argue that only material support (from teachers) predicts school engagement (Strati et al., 2017), while others (Furrer & Skinner, 2003) sustain that this variable is only predicted by emotional support (also from teachers). However, the most recent studies highlight the importance of teachers’ emotional support in school engagement (Romano et al., 2021). 07 Izar trad.indd 168 20/12/22 17:51 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 169 The predictive power of social support’s sources and types for school engagement To respond to these gaps in the research, the present study aims to explore the predictive power of both sources and types of social support for school engagement in general and its different dimensions and to verify through a structural model the statistical impact of the most important source and type of social support acting jointly on the three types of school engagement. For this, the most recent theoretical findings in the field of perceived social support are taken into account. METHOD Participants Among all the students planned to administer the scales, 11 (3.21% of the total available) did not provide signed informed consent and were therefore unable to complete the scales. Consequently, 331 students responded to the scales although two were eliminated for not answering more than 1% of the items and six were eliminated because of odd or inconsistent response patterns. Missing values (0.9% of the total) were replaced using the linear trend estimation at the point method, based on regression estimates. The final sample comprised 323 compulsory secondary education students from 13 different classes (four from 1st level, three from 2nd level, four from 3rd level and two from 4th level) from the Basque Autonomous Community, aged between 13 and 18 years (M = 14.41; SD = 1.18) with a medium/medium-high socioeconomic level. As regards sex, 39.6% were boys and 60.4% were girls, with both groups being evenly balanced (χ² = 4.87, p > .05). The sample was selected using an incidental procedure. Instruments The APIK questionnaire (Izar-de-la-Fuente et al., 2019) was used to measure perceived social support. The items of this instrument refer to the source (family, friends and teachers) and type of support (emotional, material and informational). It can therefore be used to measure both variables, and in all cases comprises a total of 27 items measuring three dimensions composed of nine items each. Responses are given on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from ‘completely disagree’ to ‘completely agree’. In this study, the instrument has an internal consistency value of α = .90 and a McDonald’s Omega coefficient of ω = .96 based on the sources of support, and of α = .90 and ω = .89 based on the types of support. Regarding the dimensions, they obtain values of family α = .89, friends α = .88, teachers α = .91, emotional α = .78, material α = .73 and informational α = .75. 07 Izar trad.indd 169 20/12/22 17:51 Izar-de-la-Fuente et al. (2023) 170 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 The validated Spanish language version of the School Engagement Measure (SEM; Ramos-Díaz et al., 2016) was used to assess school engagement. This 19-item scale measures three dimensions of engagement: cognitive (eight items), emotional (six items) and behavioural (five items). Responses are given on a five-point Likerttype scale ranging from ‘never’ to ‘all the time’. In this study, the scale was found to have an internal consistency of α = .83 and a McDonald’s Omega of ω = .90. The dimensions obtained values of cognitive α = .76, emotional α = .80 and behavioural α = .63. Procedure After planning the study taking into consideration the Declaration of Helsinki and obtaining approval from the Ethics Board for Research with Human Beings at the University of the Basque Country (CEISH-UPV/EHU - M10_2018_261) which certifies compliance with ethical and data protection standards, management teams of schools were contacted to present the research and request participation. After the acceptance to participate, informed consent forms were sent out to students’ parents or legal guardians, informing them of the altruistic nature of their child’s participation, the study aims, the procedure and the questionnaires they would be asked to complete. Special care was taken to emphasise the ethical use that would be made of the data, the voluntary nature of students’ participation, confidentiality, anonymity, the exclusive use of the data for research purposes and the fact that they could withdraw at any time. Information was also provided regarding data protection and access to the results, respecting the ethical norms necessary to carry out an investigation. The instruments were administered individually during class time in a single session only to students presenting the signed informed consent and took about 20 minutes to complete. The authors of the study were present during completion and reminded participants prior to beginning that their answers would be totally anonymous and that their participation was strictly voluntary. In order to reduce threats to the validity of the study, its objective was not disclosed to participants. Statistical analysis First, univariate and multivariate normality was assessed, with the results revealing normal values on some occasions but not in all cases, which may indicate a violation of the normality assumption and the need for non-parametric tests. However, asymmetry and kurtosis were not too far removed from a normal distribution. Since parametric tests have been shown to be robust enough for use in 07 Izar trad.indd 170 20/12/22 17:51 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 171 The predictive power of social support’s sources and types for school engagement the event of a violation of the normality assumption (Schmider et al., 2010), it was decided to use them rather than non-parametric ones. As a necessary step prior to carrying out the predictive study, Pearson correlation analyses (statistically significant with a p of .05) were conducted between all variables to verify the existence of possible associations. Next, to analyse the predictive statistical effect of perceived social support on school engagement, regression analyses were performed including as independent variables all those that had been found to have a statistically significant relationship or a p < .20 in previous correlations. This is a frequently accepted criterion (Mirghafourvand et al., 2014). The regression analyses followed the steps described below. First, a visual inspection of the dispersion graph point curves was conducted, observing that scores were distributed around a straight line with an upwards trend. Therefore, a linear regression analysis using the entry method was carried out. Second, the equation that best fit the data was identified calculating different statistics, including the determination coefficient (adjusted R2) and the explanatory β coefficient, and checking that the relationship was statistically significant with a p of .05 (Pulido-Acosta & Herrera-Clavero, 2019). Finally, after constructing the regression model, it was verified that it fit the data used for its estimation. This was done by checking the following residual assumptions: (A) The normal distribution of residuals, verified by means of a histogram and a standardised residual P-P plot. This process checks whether the errors are normally distributed for each independent variable value, following the Gaussian function in the histogram and with the accumulated proportions of the variable coinciding with those of a normal distribution, represented by a line in the P-P plot (Lester et al., 2014). (B) The linearity of residuals in the standardised residuals dispersion diagram, compared with the standardised estimated values. If the residuals are randomly distributed for each value of the expected scores, this assumption is deemed to be met. Any other non-random pattern is taken to indicate some degree of non-linearity and a possible violation of the model (Lester et al., 2014). (C) The homoscedasticity of the residuals in the same diagram. For this assumption to be deemed to be met, scores must follow a random pattern within a horizontal band, thereby indicating that variance is constant. Any specific pattern or grouping of scores is considered a violation of this assumption and indicates the presence of heteroscedasticity (Lester et al., 2014). 07 Izar trad.indd 171 20/12/22 17:51 Izar-de-la-Fuente et al. (2023) 172 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 (D) It was also verified multicollinearity between regressor variables, which is frequently analysed to check the goodness of fit of a multiple linear regression (Guerrero & Melo, 2017). Multicollinearity indicates the existence of redundant variables in the model and, in this case, was identified using the Tolerance index and its VIF (variance inflation factor). A tolerance of less than .10 is deemed to indicate a multicollinearity problem, as is a VIF of over 10. The effect size for the regressions was also calculated using Cohen’s f 2 (Cohen, 1988), estimated using the R2 coefficient and categorised as small (f 2 ≥ .02), medium (f 2 ≥ .15) or large (f 2 ≥ .35). Finally, robust estimators were used for the analysis of the structural regression model since the normed estimate of Mardia’s multivariate coefficient (19.90) deviated from a normal distribution. As goodness-of-fit indices, the normed version of the Satorra-Bentler Chi-Square (SBχ2/df) was used, whose values of less than 3 are considered adequate; the NFI, NNFI and CFI whose values are recommended to exceed .90; the RMSEA together with its 90% confidence interval whose value of less than .08 is acceptable; and the AIC and CAIC (Kline, 2015). The SPSS statistical package (version 25 for Windows) was used for all statistical analyses except the effect size calculations for the linear regression for which the G*Power statistical program was used and the structural regression model analysis which was conducted using the EQS program (version 6.2 for Windows). RESULTS Prior to the regression analyses, the correlations between the dimensions of school engagement (behavioural, emotional and cognitive) and perceived social support in accordance with the sources (family, friends and teachers) and types (emotional, material and informational) were analysed. Regarding the sources of support, all correlated positively and significantly with the dimensions of engagement except for support from friends with behavioural and cognitive engagement (p < .20). The strongest correlations were obtained for support from teachers (r = .359 - .576), followed by family (r = .266 - .386) and finally by friends (r = .096 - .265). With respect to the types of support, all of them correlated significantly and positively with the dimensions of school engagement, with emotional support being the one that obtained the strongest correlations (r = .341 - .530), followed by informational support (r = .342 - .515) and finally by the material (r = .336 - .503). 07 Izar trad.indd 172 20/12/22 17:51 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 173 The predictive power of social support’s sources and types for school engagement Regressions between sources of support and school engagement To calculate the multiple linear regression models, all sources of social support were added as independent variables, since they were all found to correlate significantly or with a p < .20 with school engagement. However, not all independent variables were found to have significant values, which is why only those predictive models with the best fit are presented here, without the non-significant variables. Table 1 shows the linear regressions between sources of perceived social support and school engagement and its dimensions. Table 1 Regressions between sources of support and school engagement V. D. Model ANOVA f2 Regression coefficients RR2 adjusted F (d. f.) pBeta t p Overall engagement .608 .366 94.02 (2, 320) .000 .58 10.16 .000 Con .210 4.439 .000 Fam .502 10.600 .000 Tea Behavioural engagement .434 .183 37.18 (2, 320) .000 .23 14.864 .000 Con .260 4.839 .000 Fam .268 4.992 .000 Tea Cognitive engagement .445 .193 39.52 (2, 320) .000 .24 4.509 .000 Con .132 2.474 .014 Fam .381 7.134 .000 Tea Emotional engagement .553 .299 46.86 (3, 319) .000 .44 3.617 .000 Con .116 2.255 .025 Fam .126 2.550 .011 Fri .453 9.002 .000 Tea Note. D. V. = Dependent variable; d. f. = Degrees of freedom; Con = Constant; Fam = Support from family; Fri = Support from friends; Tea = Support from teachers Only support from family and teachers were found to significantly predict overall school engagement, but teachers had more than twice as much power as support from family (Δβ = .292). The effect size of the model was large (f 2 = .58). 07 Izar trad.indd 173 20/12/22 17:51 Izar-de-la-Fuente et al. (2023) 180 Educación XX1, 26 (1), 165-183 REFERENCES Benito, H., Llop, E., Verdaguer, M., Comas, J., Lleonart, A., Orts, M., Amadó, A., & Rostan, C. (2021). Multidimensional research on university engagement using a mixed method approach. Educación XX1, 24(2), 65-96. https://doi.org/10.5944/ educXX1.28561 Buzzai, C., Filippello, P., Costa, S., Amato, V., & Sorrenti, L. (2021). Problematic internet use and academic achievement: A focus on interpersonal behaviours and academic engagement. 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