Legal Challenges for OWI and Search Engine Use

LEGAL CHALLENGES FOR OWI AND SEARCH ENGINE USE*
P. C. Johannes†, H. Koulani‡, ITeG, Uni e si y o Kassel, Ge many
L. Bee §, Open Sea ch Founda ion e.V., Munich, Ge many
Abs ac
Opening up he cu en sea ch engine ma ke , would
c ea e di e si y and eedom o choice when sea ching he
in e ne , hus s eng hening o e all in o ma ional sel -
de e mina ion. The Eu opean Open Web Index (OWI) aims
o se e as an al e na i e o he closed, non- anspa en
sys ems o la ge pla o ms and sea ch engines. I would
p o ide a basis o he se ices o a la ge numbe o (new)
sea ch engines and o he applica ion de elope s. This
a icle ocuses on he applicable Eu opean legal
amewo k. A e a sho in oduc ion o he OWI and i ’s
business uses, i concen a es on he use case “ e ical
sea ch engines”. Add essed a e he mos impo an legal
challenges o his use case om he pe spec i e o he OWI
as well as he e ical sea ch engine de elope s. Based
upon his, he a icle in es iga es he use pe spec i e, i.e.
wha is equi ed o an OWI o be us ed and used. I
concludes wi h an o e all assessmen and u u e ou look.
OWI BUSINESS MODELS
The business models o sea ch engines a e based on he
a ge ed ma ke ing o use da a, o example o
pe sonalised online ad e ising. The collec ion and
analysis o use da a makes people e y p edic able o
ad e ise s. This makes he use s o sea ch engines
ulne able o manipula ion, o example by online
ad e ising ha is speci ically ailo ed o he indi idual
su ing beha iou , in e es s and ci cums ances o he
in e ne use s. The sea ch engine ma ke is cu en ly
domina ed wo ldwide by only ou p o ide s who ha e
hei own so-called web indexes. An OWI as an al e na i e
o he closed, non- anspa en sys ems o he la ge
pla o ms will p o ide a basis o he se ices o a la ge
numbe o (new) sea ch engines. I can also be used o
esea ch and inno a ion, o example in he ield o
a i icial in elligence (see [1] o mo e de ails). The OWI
is in ended o s eng hen he EU's digi al so e eign y by
educing dependence on he sea ch engine monopolis s
h ough a sus ainable, eely accessible web index [2].
Simila o o he indexes, he OWI is being c ea ed by
sys ema ically c awling he web, analysing he c awled
con en and s o ing i wi h me ada a in a da abase [3].
In o de o his eme ging open sea ch in as uc u e o
be ully e ec i e, i mus be designed in a way ha is
compa ible wi h undamen al igh s and can be ope a ed
wi hin he cu en Eu opean legal amewo k[4]. Fo
example ques ions a ise in he con ex o he ‘ igh o de-
indexing’ and he e ec s and applica ion o he Eu opean
legal amewo k on da a, digi al se ices and online
pla o ms. The aim is o align he design o an open sea ch
in as uc u e wi h he undamen al igh s and p inciples
ha he Eu opean Commission has also decla ed as he
benchma k o he ‘Digi al Decade’ [5]. The P iDI p ojec
[6] is esea ching how an OWI can be designed in a way
ha is complian wi h undamen al igh s o use s and
ope a o s and is p o ec i e o p i acy.
To achie e his, possible use cases o an OWI we e
de eloped and examined. This allowed o analyse legal
challenges om he pe spec i e o he use s o an OWI.
Use cases we e ini ially based on he s udy by
Nowakowski/Zimme mann [7]. Tha s udy g oups
possible use cases in o he ca ego ies web sea ch,
en e p ise sea ch, in o ma ion po als, alue-adding
se ices, con en managemen and e-comme ce. Web
sea ch and alue-adding se ices a e by a he la ges
ca ego ies. The s udy con ains a lis o possible
applica ions, al hough i should be no ed ha his is no
comp ehensi e. These applica ions a e mos ly only agged
and b ie ly desc ibed in he s udy, bu no de ined in de ail.
The P iDI s udy builds upon hose and hus closes he gap
o ce ain use cases and lays he ounda ion o u he
legal e alua ion [8]. The de ailed use cases always consis
o he goal o he use case and he ele an ac o s wi hin
he speci ic use case. In his con ex , a dis inc ion is also
made be ween a use and an ac o .
When assessing he OWI om a legal and use
accep ance pe spec i e, a dis inc ion mus be made
be ween di e en s akeholde s. A wide ange o people
and en i ies can be conside ed as ac o s. In he case o he
OWI, his migh be an o ganisa ion ha ac s as a da a
e ie e /consume o he ins i u ions ha de elop he
OWI as index de elope s. Fo he pu poses o his s udy
he ollowing oles we e de ined:
Fi s o all, he e a e he da a subjec s. This ole
desc ibes pe sons o companies whose pe sonal da a and
in ellec ual p ope y (IP) a e s o ed in he OWI and a e
used o can be ound by ools o sea ch engines based on
he OWI.
___________________________________________
*
Based on esea ch o “P i acy-enhancing digi al in as uc u es” (P iDI), unded by he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch
(BMBF). The esponsibili y o he con en o his publica ion lies wi h he au ho s.
This pape s con ains pa s ha ha e al eady been submi ed o
publica ion o CPDP.AI 2025.
† paul.johannes@uni
-kassel.de
‡ koulani@uni
-kassel.de
§ lb@opensea ch ounda ion.o g
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17229609
The index i sel is de eloped and main ained by he OWI
de elope . The OWI de elope s ha e by na u e o
collabo a ion alone o med an ope a o conso ium. Fo he
pu poses o his s udy i is assumed hey ha e o med a
legal en i y o some kind.
The da a e ie e s o da a consume s o he in o ma ion
con ained in he OWI a e e e ed o as applica ion
de elope s. They a e pe sons o o ganisa ions ha eques
he e ie al o web da a om he index in o de o c ea e
and de elop a ious ools and models based on he
e ie ed da a o hei own applica ions and se ices, e.g.
o a sea ch engine.
Las ly, end use s also come in o con ac wi h he index
and he applica ions buil on i ’s use. These a e he na u al
o legal pe sons who use he ools and sys ems de eloped
by he applica ion de elope s.
USE CASE “VERTICAL SEARCH
ENGINE”
The OWI can se e as a basis o he de elopmen o new
( e ical) sea ch engines. Fo example, sea ch engines
could be c ea ed o speci ic use g oups, geog aphical
a eas o opics. The OWI c ea es he basis o his by
p o iding a comp ehensi e da abase. De elope s o
specialised sea ch engines can access he index and il e
ou exac ly he da a ha is ele an o he espec i e
pu pose. This means ha smalle o ganisa ions and
companies can also de elop sea ch engines and he eby
inc ease di e si y in he sea ch engine ma ke .
O ganisa ions and companies do no ha e o de o e
eno mous esou ces o c awling and indexing he en i e o
a pa o he web, bu can deli e p ecise and ele an
esul s o speci ic opics based on he OWI. As he sou ce
code o he OWI is publicly a ailable, de elope s can
unde s and he unde lying algo i hms and adap hem o
hei speci ic needs. Fo example, he OWI can be used o
c ea e news sea ch engines ha p o ide indi iduals wi h
news abou bo h cu en and pas e en s. In addi ion, p ess
e iews on a ious opics, e en s o e en companies could
be compiled.
Fo he pu pose o his s udy, he ollowing assump ions
o he use case we e made:
The p ima y objec i e o his use case is o de elop a
news sea ch engine ailo ed o indi iduals and businesses
by e ie ing web da a on cu en news. This ini ia i e
in ol es se e al key ac o s: applica ion de elope s, da a
subjec s (such as a icle au ho s, newspape s, and
indi iduals men ioned in news a icles), OWI de elope s,
and end use s.
I is also assumed ha he applica ion de elope s a e a
sole p op ie o ship whose clien s include companies and
au ho i ies seeking o moni o media co e age o
indi iduals and businesses. Addi ionally, non-
go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) in e es ed in speci ic
poli ical opics, such as legisla ion, clima e p o ec ion, and
s udy esul s, also u ilize hei se ices.
The in e ac ion p ocess begins wi h he applica ion
de elope engaging wi h he OWI sys em o eques access
o a p e-buil news index. The de elope speci ies ha he
da a will be used o de eloping a news web sea ch
engine . Upon ecei ing he eques , he sys em p ocesses
i and, i echnically easible, no i ies he da a subjec s
abou he in ended use o hei da a. Once p ocessed, he
applica ion de elope ecei es he eques ed da a,
concluding he in e ac ion.
End use s in e ac wi h he news sea ch engine by
submi ing que ies ela ed o e en s, pe sons, o
companies. The sys em displays ele an esul s along
wi h hei espec i e sou ces. Use s may also be in o med
ha he sea ch engine elies on OWI da a and he ime
pe iod om which he da a is sou ced, ensu ing
anspa ency in he da a usage p ocess. This in e ac ion
concludes once he use has e iewed he sea ch esul s.
LEGAL CHALLENGES
The complexi y o he OWI and i ’s use by p ospec i e
e ical sea ch engine applica ion de elope s aises many
ques ions as o how i alls unde he law o he Eu opean
Union and he laws o i ’s membe s a es.
Eu opean law on da a and online se ices has
unde gone majo changes in ecen yea s. The Gene al
Da a P o ec ion Regula ion (GDPR, Regula ion (EU)
2016/679) lays down de ailed ules on he handling o
pe sonal da a. Now a egula o y ne wo k o mo e o less
specialized, di ec ly applicable legal ac s o da a and
digi al se ices has eme ged. Among o he s he Digi al
Se ices Ac (DSA, Regula ion (EU) 2022/2065), he
Da a Go e nance Ac (DGA, Regula ion (EU) 2022/868),
he Da a Ac (DA, Regula ion (EU) 2022/868), he Digi al
Ma ke s Ac (DMA, Regula ion (EU) 2022/1925) and he
AI Ac (AIA, Regula ion (EU) 2024/1689) o m a legal
amewo k o digi al se ices and on da a (see mo e
de ailed [9]). Regula ions a e di ec ly and uni o mly
applicable in all membe s a es. Complexi y is added by
he a ious laws o membe s a es, es ablishing na ional
amewo ks o implemen ing hese egula ions, e.g. in
Ge many he Digi ale Diens e Gese z (DDG) o he DSA
and he Bundesda enschu zgese z (BDSG) o he GDPR.
O he s ques ions a ise om he legal amewo k o
copy igh . In he EU his is p ima ily go e ned by a
combina ion o EU Di ec i es, in e na ional ea ies, and
na ional laws o membe s a es (also see [1]).
This a icle ocuses on legal challenges aced by he
OWI de elope and he e ical sea ch engine applica ion
de elope s ac oss he egula o y domains o da a
p o ec ion and digi al se ices. The ini ial assessmen o
he use case highligh s he complexi ies and he need o
ongoing s udies.
In he case ha he OWI se es as a basis o he
de elopmen o new ( e ical) sea ch engines he OWI
de elope p o ides a comp ehensi e da abase o he
applica ion de elope o his new sea ch engine. The
ensuing ela ionship as well as he ope a ion o he new
se ice, ha e o be sc u inized in ligh o he
a o emen ioned egula ions. This a icle ocuses on he
GDPR and he DSA.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17229609
RULES ON DATA PROTECTION
The OWI will, in en ionally o unin en ionally, con ain
pe sonal da a o na u al pe sons (da a subjec s) wi hin he
meaning o A icle 4 No. 1 GDPR [10][11]. This da a will
be con ained in he c awled da a. I may e en be special
ca ego y da a wi hin he meaning o A icle 9 pa a. 1
GDPR. Pe sonal da a could also be pa o he me ada a
collec ed and en iched by he OWI (e.g. owne s o
websi es, con ac de ails). The p o ec ion o pe sonal da a
is a undamen al igh (see A icle 8 Cha e o
Fundamen al Righ s o he EU (CFR)) and is go e ned by
he GDPR. The en i y ope a ing he OWI is a con olle
wi h all esponsibili ies unde he GDPR in ela ion o he
pe sonal da a i p ocesses.
LAWFUL PROCESSING
The p ocessing o pe sonal da a is only law ul i i can
be jus i ied on a legal basis wi hin he meaning o A icle 6
GDPR. The c ea ion and ope a ion o an independen ,
eely accessible web index is in he public in e es , i only
o educe he dependence o In e ne use s on o eign
sea ch engines. Fo he law ulness o p ocessing in he
public in e es pu suan o A icle 6 pa a. 1 subpa a. 1 li . e
GDPR equi es a legal basis in Union law o in he law o
he Membe S a es in acco dance wi h pa a. 3. Such a basis
is no ye appa en , so ha a public body o public bodies
p ocessing he OWI would ha e o all back on a gene al
pu pose au ho isa ion in law o he membe s a es. Fo
example: A da a cen e, o ganized as a public body in
Ba a ia in Ge many is likely o p ocess pe sonal da a o
an OWI, e.g. c awling, en iching and so ing websi es and
indexing hem, on he basis o i s own pu pose (i.e. s a u es
and/o es ablishmen ac ) in conjunc ion wi h A icle 4
Ba a ian Da a P o ec ion Ac (BayDSG) on he basis o
and in conjunc ion wi h A icle 6 pa a. 1 subpa a. 1. li . e
and pa a. 2 and 3 GDPR.
Fo p i a e en i ies, he c ea ion and ope a ion o he
OWI can only be based on he p o ec ion o legi ima e
in e es s o he con olle o a hi d pa y in acco dance
wi h A icle 6 pa a. 1 subpa a. 1 li . GDPR. This equi es
a balancing o he in e es s, undamen al igh s and
eedoms o he da a subjec . The legi ima e in e es o he
OWI ope a o as he con olle is o c ea e and main ain an
OWI. The legi ima e in e es o he gene al public as a hi d
pa y is o ha e access o an independen , eely accessible
web index. The in e es o he da a subjec s in no being
included in a web index and hus p o ec ing hei
in o ma ional sel -de e mina ion does no ou weigh hese
legi ima e in e es s. The OWI only c awls da a ha is eely
accessible o e e yone and has al eady been c awled many
imes by sea ch engine ope a o s such as Google, Bing,
Yandex o Baidu. I is also common knowledge ha his
happens echnically, so ha da a subjec s can p o ec
hemsel es agains i by aking app op ia e measu es
agains hose who publish hei da a. The e o e, he
in e es s o he da a subjec s do no ou weigh he legi ima e
in e es s o he OWI de elope and he gene al public in
he c ea ion o an OWI. This is also ue o he applica ion
de elope s using he OWI’s da a. The news sea ch engine
de elope s as de ined in he use case can ely hei
p ocessing o pe sonal da a (OWI da a as well as he
que ies o i ’s end use s) on li . as well.
The cons ella ion in which an OWI c awls special
ca ego ies o pe sonal da a ha a e publicly accessible bu
ha e no been made publicly accessible by he da a subjec
i sel emains p oblema ic and has no ye been ully
cla i ied. This also applies o applica ion de elope s who
use his da a. Acco ding o A icle 9 pa a. 1 GDPR, he
p ocessing o special ca ego ies o pe sonal da a like
heal h da a o da a ega ding sexual o ien a ion, is
p ohibi ed unless he e is an excep ion acco ding o
A icle 9 pa a. 2 GDPR, especially making ha da a
a ailable o he public by he da a subjec i sel (li . e).
I a hi d pa y has made his da a accessible on he
in e ne ins ead o he da a subjec i sel , he e migh be no
legal basis o he OWI o c awl his da a and he sea ch
engine de elope s o use his da a. I is doub ul ha he
OWI p o ide and sea ch engine de elope could ace
eques s o dele ion in acco dance wi h A icle 17 GDPR.
Theo e ically, ines could be imposed in acco dance wi h
A icle 83 GDPR, whe eby many ac o s would play a
ole in he assessmen o a possible ine, in pa icula
whe he he con olle is esponsible o disclosing he
speci ic da a in ques ion. Howe e , in ligh o he ac ha
majo sea ch engines ha e been exposed o his isk o
many yea s and in ingemen s ha e no ye been
p osecu ed, a ine is a he unlikely. S ill, a isk emains.
To add ess his, i could be a gued ha he OWI and he
sea ch engines ope a e unde he assump ion, ha
in o ma ion con ained in c awled webda a is no
p ocessed wi hin he meaning o A icle 9 pa a. 1 GDPR,
since i does no ake ac ion o iden i y his in o ma ion as
such. I can also be a gued, ha he OWI and he sea ch
engine can assume ha , since all da a c awled is publicly
a ailable, i was made publicly a ailable by he da a
subjec i sel wi hin he meaning o A icle 9 pa a. 2 li . e
GDPR. Fu he p ocessing o iden i y o asce ain his a e
no necessa y because o A icle 11 GDPR, which s a es
ha he con olle shall no be obliged o main ain, acqui e
o p ocess addi ional in o ma ion in o de o iden i y he
da a subjec o he sole pu pose o complying wi h he
GDPR. Fu he mo e, in he case ha he con olle o he
OWI is a public body, i is e y likely ha i is allowed o
p ocess special ca ego ies o pe sonal da a in acco dance
wi h membe s a e law on he basis o a gene al pu pose
au ho isa ion s a u e in conjunc ion wi h i s own
go e ning s a ues on he basis o A icle 9 pa a. 2 GDPR.
OBLIGATIONS
Bo h he OWI de elope and applica ion de elope s
like sea ch engine p o ide s would ha e o comply wi h
GDPR p inciples (A icle 5 GDPR) when p ocessing
pe sonal da a included in he in he da abase o he OWI.
As con olle s hey mus ul il a numbe o echnical and
o ganiza ional obliga ions in acco dance wi h he GDPR
in o de o mi iga e he isks o da a subjec s and hei
igh s and undamen al eedoms (e.g. Chap e IV
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17229609
GDPR). On he echnical and ope a ional le el hese
include, bu a e no limi ed o he c ea ion and main enance
o eco ds o p ocessing ac i i ies (A icle 30 GDPR), he
obliga ion o implemen app op ia e echnical and
o ganisa ional measu es o ensu e secu i y o p ocessing
(A icle 32 GDPR) and he implemen a ion o app op ia e
echnical and o ganisa ional measu es o ensu e da a
p o ec ion by design and by de aul (A icle 25 GDPR).
O he obliga ions o OWI and sea ch engine p o ide s a e
he need o unde ake a Da a P o ec ion Impac Assessmen
(DPIA, see A icle 35 GDPR) and o designa e a Da a
P o ec ion O ice (see A icle 37 GDPR).
The OWI de elope as well as he applica ion de elope s
should also c ea e in o ma ion policies: The OWI
de elope as well as he sea ch engine de elope a e no
obliged o in o m he da a subjec s abou he da a collec ion
o p ocessing p oac i ely. Acco ding o A icle 14 pa a. 5
li . b sen ence 2 GDPR, howe e , he con olle mus ake
app op ia e measu es o p o ec he undamen al igh s and
eedoms as well as he legi ima e in e es s o da a subjec s.
Sen ence 2 men ions he p o ision o in o ma ion o he
public as an example. The OWI de elope as well as he
sea ch engine de elope should he e o e p o ide
anspa en , clea and comp ehensible in o ma ion on hei
websi e abou he manne in which (pe sonal) da a is
collec ed and he igh s o he da a subjec s as well as he
easons why hey espec i ely, as he con olle s, a e
elying on A icle 14 pa a. 5 li . b GDPR. They should
he e o e d a and make publicly a ailable a p i acy
policy o da a p i acy s a emen . Fu he mo e, he GDPR
con ains a numbe o da a subjec igh s abou which he
con olle mus p o ide ull in o ma ion and which i mus
comply wi h a he eques o he da a subjec . These
include he igh o access unde A icle 15 GDPR, he
igh o ec i ica ion unde A icle 16 GDPR, he igh o
e asu e unde A icle 17 GDPR, he igh o es ic ion o
p ocessing unde A icle 18 GDPR and he igh o objec
unde A icle 21 GDPR. In addi ion, e e y da a subjec has
he igh o lodge a complain wi h a supe iso y au ho i y
in acco dance wi h A icle 77 GDPR. The OWI de elope
as well as he sea ch engine de elope should as
o ganisa ional measu es implemen each concep s o
ecei e and ac upon que ies o a da a subjec pe aining o
hei igh s.
The OWI de elope sha es da a wi h he applica ion
de elope s e.g. he sea ch engine p o ide . I he e a e
se e al con olle s who join ly de e mine he pu poses and
means o p ocessing, hey a e join ly esponsible. This
applies i se e al o ganiza ions ope a e he OWI oge he .
As such, hey a e join con olle s and obliged o de ine in
an ag eemen in acco dance wi h A icle 26 GDPR how he
obliga ions unde he GDPR a e o be implemen ed in
de ail. The join con olle ag eemen shall be made
a ailable o he da a subjec s. I in ingemen s occu du ing
he p ocessing o pe sonal da a, bo h join con olle s can
be held liable. Tha he OWI de elope and sea ch engine
de elope would also be join con olle s wi hin he
meaning o A icle 26 GDPR is unlikely. They migh be o
ce ain aspec s o hei ela ionship and da a p ocessing
ope a ions, like he sha ing o he index da a o o pa s o
he c awled da a.
RULES ON DIGITAL SERVICES
In i s cu en o m, he OWI as well as he (news) sea ch
engine will each all unde he egula ion o digi al
se ices, in pa icula he DSA. The DSA egula es he
liabili y and scope o due diligence obliga ions o
p o ide s o digi al in e media y se ices. The aim o he
egula ion is o p o ide an app op ia e amewo k o he
digi al space, o c ea e a sa e, p edic able and us wo hy
online en i onmen and o p o ec undamen al igh s, see
A icle 1 pa a. 1 DSA. Acco ding o Reci al 29 DSA
in e media y se ices “co e a wide ange o economic
ac i i ies ha ake place online and a e con inuously
e ol ing o enable he as , sa e and secu e ansmission
o in o ma ion and o p o ide con enien solu ions o all
s akeholde s in he online ecosys em”.
INTERMEDIARY SERVICES
The classi ica ion o he OWI as an in e media y se ice
unde he indi idual cha ac e is ics o he DSA is di icul ,
especially when i comes o he quali ica ion as a hos ing
se ice, online pla o m o sea ch engine. The OWI can
only be classi ied as an in e media y se ice wi hin he
meaning o A icle 3 li . g No. iii DSA and as an online
sea ch engine wi hin he meaning o A icle 3 li . j DSA
wi h some assump ions o leaps o hough [12]. I is
ob ious ha he legisla o had use cases such as social
media and ma ke po als in mind when designing he
DSA, while highe -le el applica ions such as a web
di ec o y o index we e no e en conside ed. Also, he
ules on online sea ch engines we e no hough h ough
o he end. Ne e heless, he unc ions and possibili ies o
he OWI a e o en compa able wi h ypical use cases
co e ed by he DSA, so ha acco ding o he pu pose o
he DSA, he OWI should all unde i and hus a legal-
eleological a gumen a ion (pu pose o he law) can be
made in his di ec ion.
The OWI de elope would no i sel all unde he ules
o he DSA conce ning sea ch engines, since i does no
p o ide a sea ch in e ace. The de elope o he news
sea ch engine on he o he hand would. The sea ch engine
ope a o would likely be conside ed an in e media y and
could bene i om limi ed liabili y o con en hos ed by
hi d pa ies, p o ided hey comply wi h hei obliga ions
unde he DSA (e.g. con en mode a ion, anspa ency
epo s).
In e ms o bo h, he pu pose o he DSA and gene al
conside a ions, i would make sense o allow he OWI
de elope o bene i om he exemp ion om liabili y o
he DSA o compa able p i ileges. A he same ime,
howe e , he OWI de elope should also be subjec o
co esponding du ies o ca e, which a e conside able.
These obliga ions a e e en g ea e when he OWI would
be ca ego ized as a e y la ge online sea ch engine.
The legisla o should cla i y his acco dingly and
include bo h online sea ch engines and indexing se ices
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17229609
in he de ini ion o A icle 3 li . g DSA and name hem
acco dingly in he obliga ions and exemp ions om
liabili y. In lieu o such clea -cu ules as o now, an OWI
ope a o should assume he OWI is as sea ch engine and
hos ing se ice wi hin he meaning o he DSA and egula e
i s ope a ion acco dingly.
LIABILITY UNDER DSA
As p o ide s o hos ing se ices, he OWI de elope as
well as he sea ch engine de elope would be exemp om
liabili y in acco dance wi h A icle 6 pa a. 1 li . a and b
DSA, p o ided ha hey ha e no knowledge o illegal
con en in he index da a and ake immedia e ac ion o
block access o his con en as soon as hey become awa e
o i . Acco ding o Reci al 22 DSA, knowledge canno be
assumed solely om he gene al awa eness ha he se ice
can be used o s o e illegal con en . Reci al 22 DSA also
emphasizes ha au oma ic indexing o illegal con en is no
su icien o es ablish speci ic knowledge. Acco ding o
A icle 7 DSA, he exemp ion o liabili y also applies i he
p o ide , on i s own ini ia i e, ca ies ou olun a y
in es iga ions in good ai h and diligen ly o unde akes
o he measu es o de ec , iden i y and emo e illegal
con en o o block access o illegal con en o akes he
necessa y measu es o comply wi h legal equi emen s.
A gene al obliga ion o he OWI de elope o sea ch
engine de elope o moni o and ac i ely in es iga e he
index da a o illegal con en does no exis in acco dance
wi h A icle 8 DSA. Howe e , pu suan o A icle 6 pa a. 4
DSA, a he eques o a judicial o adminis a i e
au ho i y, hey would ha e o comply wi h an o de
pu suan o A icle 9 pa a. 1 DSA o ake ac ion agains
illegal con en and mus , pu suan o A icle 10 DSA,
in o m he issuing au ho i y immedia ely o he eceip and
implemen a ion o he o de .
GENERAL PROVISIONS UNDER DSA
Acco ding o A icle 11 DSA, he OWI ope a o is
obliged o designa e an easily accessible cen al poin o
con ac o he au ho i ies o he Membe S a es, he
Commission and he panel wi hin he meaning o
A icle 61 DSA. The poin o con ac should enable smoo h
elec onic communica ion. In addi ion, a cen al poin o
con ac o use s o he se ice mus be designa ed in
acco dance wi h A icle 12 DSA, which enables use s o
communica e di ec ly, quickly and e ec i ely.
In acco dance wi h A icle 14 DSA, bo h he OWI
de elope and he sea ch engine de elope a e obliged o
p o ide clea and comp ehensible in o ma ion in i s
Gene al Te ms and Condi ions (GTC) abou es ic ions on
he in o ma ion p o ided and he use o he se ices.
Acco ding o A icle 3 li . u DSA, he GTC a e all clauses
ha go e n he con ac ual ela ionship be ween he
de elope and he use s o end use s o he espec i e
se ices. Acco ding o A icle 14 pa a. 1 sen ence 2 DSA,
he in o ma ion obliga ion co e s all guidelines,
p ocedu es, measu es and ools used o mode a e he
con en . The OWI de elope p o ides se ices o he
applica ion de elope s. I should he e o e p o ide he
necessa y in o ma ion a leas o he sea ch engine
de elope . The sea ch engine de elope ende s i ’s
se ice o end use s and should add ess hem.
Fu he mo e, as discussed be o e i is concei ably o
conside all na u al pe sons whose da a a e indexed as
use s o he index wi hin he meaning o he DSA.
The e o e, he OWI de elope should p o ide he
in o ma ion publicly owa ds all, da a subjec s and end
use s, no only in he in e es o anspa ency bu also o
ensu e compliance wi h he DSA.
The in o ma ion should explici ly men ion algo i hmic
decision-making, human e iew and he p ocedu al ules
o he in e nal complain s managemen sys em pu suan o
A icle 20 pa a. 1 DSA. The e o e, he OWI de elope in
pa icula ly is obliged o explain anspa en ly and in
de ail whe he and how use con en is c awled and
indexed and how i is used in he index and made
accessible o hi d pa ies. In o de o comply wi h his
obliga ion, he OWI de elope could disclose he c awling
me hods and echnologies used, as well as p o ide a lis o
he excluded index e ms and domains.
In addi ion, in acco dance wi h A icle 14 pa a. 1 DSA,
he p ocedu al ules o he complain s managemen
sys em and measu es agains abusi e use o he sys em
mus be speci ied. Fu he mo e, in he case o e y la ge
online pla o ms, he GTC mus be supplemen ed wi h
con en on a ailable legal emedies in acco dance wi h
A icle 14 pa a. 5 and 6 DSA and mus be a ailable in he
o icial languages o all Membe S a es in which he
se ice is o e ed.
A icle 15 DSA speci ies special anspa ency
obliga ions: acco ding o his, he OWI de elope mus
make a epo on he con en mode a ion ca ied ou
publicly a ailable a leas once a yea . This would also
apply o he sea ch engine de elope . Con en mode a ion
is de ined in A . 3 li . DSA as he ac i i ies o
in e media y se ice p o ide s aimed a iden i ying and
comba ing illegal con en p o ided by use s ha is
incompa ible wi h he p o ide 's GTC, including
measu es ela ing o he accessibili y o illegal con en o
in o ma ion. A icle 15 pa a. 1 li . a o e DSA lis s a ious
aspec s ha need o be add essed.
ADDITIONAL PROVISIONS FOR HOSTING
SERVICES
Acco ding o A icle 16 pa a. 1 DSA, he OWI
de elope and sea ch engine de elope s would be obliged
o in oduce an easily accessible and digi al epo ing
p ocedu e so ha pe sons o en i ies can epo illegal
con en . In o de o acili a e a su icien ly accu a e and
easoned epo , A icle 16 pa a. 2 sen ence 2 li . a o d
DSA s a e ha epo s should con ain (1) a su icien ly
easoned explana ion as o why he pe son conce ned
conside s he in o ma ion o be illegal con en , (2) a clea
indica ion o he exac elec onic loca ion o his
in o ma ion, such as he URL add ess o , i necessa y, he
name o he websi e whe e he in o ma ion is s o ed, (3)
he name and email add ess o he epo ing pa y, unless
he in o ma ion ela es o a c iminal o ense, and (4) a
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17229609

s a emen ha he epo ing pa y has a good ai h belie
ha he epo is accu a e and comple e.
Such epo s mus be p ocessed p omp ly, ca e ully, ee
o a bi a iness and objec i ely and in o m he epo ing
pa y o he use o au oma ed means o decision-making
wi hin he meaning o A icle 16 pa a. 6 DSA; in addi ion,
in acco dance wi h A icle 16 pa a. 3 and 5 DSA, an
acknowledgemen o eceip and he decision mus be
issued o he epo ing pa y wi hou delay and he possible
legal emedy mus be explained.
In addi ion, he OWI de elope and sea ch engine
de elope s need o in o m he law en o cemen au ho i ies
o he espec i e Membe S a e acco ding o A icle 18
pa a. 1 DSA o , in acco dance wi h A icle 18 pa a. 2 DSA,
a ep esen a i e o Eu opol immedia ely as soon as hey
become awa e o in o ma ion ha gi es ise o suspicion o
a commi ed o possible c iminal o ence ha poses a h ea
o he li e o sa e y o a pe son.
USER ACCEPTANCE AND TRUST
Al hough legally complian design and conside a ions
like da a p o ec ion and p i acy hold g ea impo ance in
Eu ope, use beha iou sugges s ha hese ac o s a e o en
seconda y when selec ing digi al se ices. In p ac ice,
o he aspec s end o in luence decisions mo e s ongly.
Consequen ly, in eg a ing essen ial elemen s o use
accep ance in o he de elopmen o OWI and ela ed ools
is c ucial. Use pe cep ion and hei in en ion o use new
echnological solu ions a e essen ial concep s esea ched
o e he las decades. Many heo ies and models we e
in oduced p o iding insigh s in o ac o s ha a ec use
accep ance o echnology, such as TAM [13], UTAUT [14]
and hei ex ended e sions [15, 16, 17]. Fu he mo e, us
in IT-a i ac s has become an impo an cons uc o be
conside ed while designing new echnologies [18]. Fo he
p ac ical applica ion o use accep ance and us
conside a ions o OWI, a combina ion o wo heo e ical
heo ies is d awn upon, T us -TAM [ 19] and UTAUT2
[17]. The la e in oduces se en ac o s, such as
pe o mance and e o expec ancy, social in luence and
acili a ing condi ions. Ou s udy aims a adap ing each
ac o o he OWI con ex and in oducing sui able use
accep ance conside a ions unde each ac o . In pa icula ,
he ac o pe o mance expec ancy could be expanded o
include wo conside a ions, eliabili y and speed. These
concep s encou age de elope s o OWI ools o le e age
he da abase o OWI o implemen sea ch engines and
se ices since eliabili y and speed o OWI esponses
ma e o he ools’ esul s. Conside ing he end use s as
ac o s in hese use cases, p omo ing eliabili y and speed in
he unc ionali y and s uc u e o OWI indi ec ly a ec s he
pe cep ion o end use s since hese aspec s would be
mi o ed in he de eloped sea ch engines and local se ices
o he end usage.
Fo a Eu opean web index o be compe i i e on a global
scale—o a leas o challenge in e na ional i als wi hin
Eu ope—i mus balance Eu opean p inciples o p i acy
and da a secu i y wi h key use p e e ences, ensu ing ha
design choices and equi emen s a e well aligned.
CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
This analysis demons a es ha he de elopmen and
implemen a ion o an OWI and applica ions based on i ,
such as sea ch engines, p esen s a unique se o challenges
and oppo uni ies o he p o ec ion o undamen al igh s.
While he OWI holds he po en ial o enhance access o
in o ma ion (A icle 11 CFR), os e compe i ion in he
digi al ma ke , and p omo e inno a ion, i also aises
conce ns ega ding da a p o ec ion (A icle 8 CFR), he
eedom o conduc a business (A icle 16 CFR), and he
p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y (A icle 17 CFR).
The cu en legal amewo k o GDPR and DSA guides
and es ic s he de elopmen o an OWI and i ’s
applica ion such as sea ch engines in many ways. The
equi emen s o bo h legal ac s mus be obse ed.
Howe e , i should also be emphasized ha nei he he
GDPR no he DSA undamen ally p e en o ban he
business model p esen ed.
Fu he s udies and assessmen s o he OWI, i ’s use
cases and hei ela ionships wi h each o he a e ongoing
and necessa y. The comp ehensi e legal amewo k o he
EU add esses some o he unde lying conce ns o igh s
and eedoms. Ongoing moni o ing o he legal
amewo k, coupled wi h adap a ion, is c ucial o ensu e
ha he OWI con ibu es o a mo e open, inclusi e, and
igh s and eedoms espec ing Eu opean digi al
ecosys em.
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1L. Bee , P. C. Johannes and H. Koulani, “Legal aspec s o AI aining and e ie al augmen ed gene a ion”, p esen ed a OSSYM
2025 - 7 h In e na ional Open Sea ch Symposium, Helsinki, Finland, Oc . 2025, pape #####, his con e ence – submi ed.
2L. Bee e . al., “An Open Web Index - oppo uni ies and isks o un-damen al igh s and eedoms”, p esen ed a CPDP.ai 2025,
B ussels, Belgium, May 2025 – submi ed.
3G. Hend iksen e al., “The Open Web Index. C awling and Indexing he Web o Public Use.” in Ad ances in In o ma ion Re ie al:
46 h Eu opean Con e ence on In o ma ion Re ie al. ECIR 2024, Glasgow. UK. Ma . 2024. pp. 130-143.
4L. Bee e . al., “Ein o ene Webindex: Chancen und Risiken ü G und ech e und G und eihei en”, in Tagungsband Pla o m
P i a hei 2024, Be lin, Ge many, Oc . 2024 – o hcoming.
5Eu opean Commission, COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL,
THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS S a e o he
Digi al Decade 2024, COM(2024) 260 inal.
6 P iDI, h ps://p idi-p ojek .de/.
7D. Nowakowski, N. Zimme mann, “Ma ke po en ial assessmen o OpenWebSea ch.eu - Explo ing he economic and socie al
impac o an Open Web Index”, Mücke/Ro h, Ge many, 2024.
8H. Koulani, L. Bee , P. C. Johannes, C. Geminn, M. Söllne and S. Voig , “Anwendungs älle eines o enen Webindex”, P iDI, Ma .
2025, published as whi e pape on h ps://p idi-p ojek .de/.
9C. Geminn and P. C. Johannes (Eds.), Handbuch Eu opäisches Da en ech , Baden-Baden, Ge many: Nomos, 2025, o be published.
10C. Geminn, K. E enli and L. P ei e , “Legal Challenges o an Open Web Index”, In e na ional Cybe secu i y Law Re iew, ol. 2,
no. 2, pp. 183-94, 2021. h ps://doi.o g/10.1365/s43439-021-00017-8.
11C. Geminn, “Rech s agen eines o enen Web-Index - In as uk u en ü die digi ale Gesellscha ”, Mul imedia und Rech , no. 12,
pp. 16-19, 2021.
12M. Nebel and P. C. Johannes, “Open Web Index im Lich e des Digi al Se ices Ac – Vo ausse zungen – G enzen – Rech s olge”,
Mul imedia und Rech , no. 12, pp. 1010-1016, 2024.
13 F. D. Da is, “Use accep ance o in o ma ion echnology: sys em cha ac e is ics, use pe cep ions and beha io al impac s,”
In e na ional Jou nal o Man-Machine S udies, ol. 38, no. 3, pp. 475–487, Ma . 1993, doi: 10.1006/imms.1993.1022.
14 V. Venka esh, M. Mo is, G. Da is, and F. D. Da is, “Use accep ance o in o ma ion Technology: owa d a uni ied iew,” MIS
Qua e ly, ol. 27, no. 3, p. 425, Jan. 2003, doi: 10.2307/30036540.
15 V. Venka esh and F. D. Da is, “A heo e ical ex ension o he echnology accep ance model: ou longi udinal ield s udies,”
Managemen Science, ol. 46, no. 2, pp. 186–204, 2000, [Online]. A ailable: h ps://www.js o .o g/s able/2634758
16 V. Venka esh and H. Bala, “Technology Accep ance Model 3 and a esea ch Agenda on in e en ions,” Decision Sciences, ol. 39,
no. 2, pp. 273–315, May 2008, doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5915.2008.00192.x.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17229609
17 V. Venka esh, J. Thong, and X. Xu, “Consume Accep ance and use o In o ma ion echnology: Ex ending he uni ied heo y o
accep ance and use o echnology,” MIS Qua e ly, ol. 36, no. 1, p. 157, Jan. 2012, doi: 10.2307/41410412.
18 M. Söllne , A. Ho mann, and J. M. Leimeis e , “Why di e en us ela ionships ma e o in o ma ion sys ems use s,” Eu opean
Jou nal o In o ma ion Sys ems, ol. 25, no. 3, pp. 274–287, Dec. 2015, doi: 10.1057/ejis.2015.17.
19 D. Ge en, E. Ka ahanna, and D. S aub, “T us and TAM in online shopping: an in eg a ed model,” MIS Qua e ly, ol. 27, no. 1, p.
51, Jan. 2003, doi: 10.2307/30036519.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17229609