Sha ila, Khodo ; Yela A ánega, Alba; Soga, Lebene; He nández-La a, Ana Bea iz
A icle
Digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, human capi al, and
en ep eneu ial esilience: A case o dynamic business
ecosys ems
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge (JIK)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Else ie
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Sha ila, Khodo ; Yela A ánega, Alba; Soga, Lebene; He nández-La a, Ana Bea iz
(2025) : Digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, human capi al, and en ep eneu ial esilience: A case o
dynamic business ecosys ems, Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge (JIK), ISSN 2444-569X, Else ie ,
Ams e dam, Vol. 10, Iss. 3, pp. 1-12,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jik.2025.100709
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Digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, human capi al, and en ep eneu ial
esilience: a case o dynamic business ecosys ems
Khodo Sha ila
a
, Alba Yela A ´
anega
b
, Lebene Richmond Soga
c
,
Ana Bea iz He n´
andez-La a
d,*
a
Uni e si a Ro i a I Vi gili, Spain
b
Uni e si y o Alcal´
a, Mad id, Spain
c
Leeds Business School, Leeds Becke Uni e si y, Leeds, UK
d
Depa men o Business Managemen , Uni e si a Ro i a i Vi gili, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
JEL classi ica ion:
M1
M13
Keywo ds:
Digi al li e acy
Digi al accessibili y
Human capi al
Inno a ion
Agili y
En ep eneu ial esilience
ABSTRACT
This s udy examines he ole o digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, and human capi al in os e ing en ep e-
neu ial esilience among en ep eneu s in Qa a and he Uni ed A ab Emi a es (UAE). These coun ies se e as
exempla y models in digi al ans o ma ion, pa icula ly in na iga ing c ises such as he COVID-19 pandemic.
G ounded in he esou ce-based iew and he heo y o dynamic capabili ies, his esea ch in es iga es how hese
ac o s con ibu e o en ep eneu ial esilience. This s udy employs s uc u al equa ion modeling o analyze
su ey da a om 317 indi iduals wi h en ep eneu ial expe ience. Acco ding o he indings, digi al li e acy,
accessibili y, and human capi al signi ican ly enhance inno a ion, s eng hening en ep eneu ial esilience.
Agili y is iden i ied as a key mode a o , ampli ying he posi i e impac o hese compe encies on esilience.
Al hough he success o en ep eneu ial ecosys ems has o en been a ibu ed o en ep eneu ial ac o s, esou ce
p o ide s, connec o s, o en ep eneu ial in en ions, his s udy unde sco es he impo ance o os e ing digi al
compe encies and agili y o build esilien en ep eneu ial ecosys ems. I o e s policymake s and business
leade s insigh s in o he mechanisms ha enhance esilience in dynamic and c isis-a ec ed en i onmen s whe e
he digi al landscape is apidly e ol ing.
In oduc ion
In oday’s apidly e ol ing global economy, digi al en ep eneu ship
is a c i ical d i e o inno a ion, economic g ow h, and esilience
(Al-Hakimi e al., 2021; S aniewski e al., 2025). In eg a ing digi al
echnologies in o business p ac ices has undamen ally ans o med
en ep eneu s’ ope a ions, enabling hem o each new ma ke s,
imp o e e iciencies, and de elop inno a i e p oduc s and se ices
(Dowin Kennedy, 2021; Yin e al., 2023; Sil a e al., 2025). This shi
owa d digi al en ep eneu ship is pa icula ly ele an in a con ex o
inc easing global unce ain y, whe e he abili y o adap quickly o
changing condi ions has become essen ial o business su i al (Knox
e al., 2021; Lam e al., 2024). The COVID-19 pandemic, geopoli ical
ensions, and economic dis up ions u he unde sco e he impo ance
o digi al ools and s a egies in sus aining businesses du ing c ises.
Se e al global challenges ha e al eady con ibu ed o his si ua ion.
I is u he exace ba ed by he ola ile s a e o he Middle Eas , a egion
cha ac e ized by di e se economies and apidly g owing popula ions
(Sha ma e al., 2021). Addi ionally, ongoing poli ical ensions, esul ing
in con lic s and economic sanc ions, ha e c ea ed an a mosphe e o
unce ain y, making i inc easingly di icul o small businesses o
ope a e. Howe e , hese challenges ha e also unde sco ed he impo -
ance o esilience and adap abili y among Middle Eas e n en ep e-
neu s, who mus use digi al echnology o na iga e he unce ain y ha
su ounds hem (Zhang e al., 2021). In his e e -changing and o en
unp edic able business en i onmen , en ep eneu ial esilience is
de ined by he abili y o espond o bo h in e nal and ex e nal dis up-
ions ei he by inno a ing h ough echnology o by seizing eme ging
oppo uni ies.
Qa a and he Uni ed A ab Emi a es (UAE) ha e ea ned a special
place in he digi al ans o ma ion ho izons o Middle Eas e n coun ies.
Bo h coun ies ha e in es ed hea ily in digi al in as uc u e, educa ion,
and echnology o di e si y hei economies and ely less on oil and gas
(Abubak e e al., 2021; Li e al., 2023). Ye hese achie emen s ha e no
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A.B. He n´
andez-La a).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/jik
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jik.2025.100709
Recei ed 15 No embe 2024; Accep ed 15 Ap il 2025
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100709
A ailable online 19 Ap il 2025
2444-569X/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie España, S.L.U. on behal o Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge. This is an open access a icle unde he CC
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changed he ac ha i ms in Qa a and he UAE a e s ill s uggling o
ind a solid oo ing in such pe iods o global o egional c ises. Mo eo e ,
he COVID-19 pandemic e ealed signi ican ulne abili ies in global
supply chains, unde sco ing he u gen need o adap i e s a egies. As
Qa a and he UAE na iga e a apidly e ol ing geopoli ical landscape,
os e ing digi al en ep eneu ship has become a c i ical way o build
esilience.
The esea ch p oblem add essed in his pape is how o unde s and
he way in which digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, and human capi al
con ibu e o en ep eneu ial esilience in apidly de eloping economies
such as Qa a and he UAE. Bo h Qa a ’s Na ional Vision 2030 and he
UAE’s Vision 2021 p io i ize digi al inno a ion as a key d i e o eco-
nomic di e si ica ion and sus ainabili y. Howe e , he ex en o which
hese digi al ini ia i es ansla e in o angible en ep eneu ial esilience
emains unde explo ed. While bo h coun ies ha e made s ides in
os e ing digi al en ep eneu ship, he e is s ill a gap in unde s anding
he speci ic ac o s ha d i e esilience in he ace o c ises, especially
because mos s udies on en ep eneu ial esilience ha e examined
Wes e n con ex s.
This esea ch aims o add ess his gap in he li e a u e by examining
how digi al esou ces and adap i e capabili ies enable en ep eneu s o
na iga e challenges and h i e in ola ile economic con ex s h ough
hei en ep eneu ial esilience. The e o e, he p ima y objec i e o his
s udy is o explo e he mechanisms unde lying en ep eneu ial esil-
ience in challenging en i onmen s such as Qa a and he UAE. Speci -
ically, his esea ch seeks o (1) examine he di ec e ec s o digi al
li e acy, digi al accessibili y, and human capi al on en ep eneu ial
esilience; (2) in es iga e he indi ec e ec s o hese ac o s h ough he
media ing ole o inno a ion, which se es as a b idge be ween digi al
esou ces and esilience; and (3) analyze how he mode a ing ole o
agili y (i.e., he abili y o adap quickly and e ec i ely o changing
ma ke condi ions) ampli ies he bene i s o digi al li e acy, digi al
accessibili y, and human capi al in os e ing esilience in such con ex s.
By add essing hese objec i es, his s udy p o ides a comp ehensi e
unde s anding o how digi al esou ces, inno a ion, and agili y collec-
i ely con ibu e o building en ep eneu ial esilience in dynamic and
unce ain economic landscapes h ough he heo e ical lenses o he
esou ce-based iew and he heo y o dynamic capabili ies. In doing so,
i ad ances he b oade discussion a ound digi al en ep eneu ship by
o e ing a nuanced pe spec i e on he in e play be ween digi al e-
sou ces, inno a ion, agili y, and esilien en ep eneu ial ecosys ems in
he unique con ex o he Middle Eas . The indings o his s udy a e
expec ed o ha e aluable implica ions o policymake s, business
leade s, and en ep eneu s in Qa a , he UAE, and beyond, as hey
na iga e he challenges o an inc easingly digi al and unp edic able
wo ld.
Sec ion 2 o his s udy in oduces he unde lying heo e ical ame-
wo k, ollowed by an ex ensi e e iew o he li e a u e and hypo hesis
de elopmen . Sec ion 3 explains he me hodology. Sec ion 4 p esen s
he indings. Sec ions 5 and 6 discuss he indings and ou line he
heo e ical and p ac ical implica ions. Sec ions 7, 8, and 9 hen p esen
he conclusions, limi a ions, and ideas o u u e lines o esea ch.
Theo e ical amewo k
The esou ce-based iew posi s ha a i m’s esou ces and capabil-
i ies a e c i ical o achie ing sus ainable compe i i e ad an age and
esilience (M´
endez-Picazo e al., 2021). Acco ding o he esou ce-based
iew, a i m’s esilience is p ima ily de e mined by i s unique esou ces,
such as digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, and human capi al, which
di e en ia e i om o he companies (Ajili & Ben Slimene, 2021). The
esou ce-based iew emphasizes le e aging in e nal s eng hs o na i-
ga e ex e nal challenges and capi alize on oppo uni ies, aligned wi h
he ocus on digi al echnologies and hei ole in os e ing esilience
(Chauhan e al., 2022). As an essen ial esou ce, digi al li e acy enables
en ep eneu s o adap swi ly o ma ke changes, na iga e complex
digi al landscapes, and le e age echnology o o e inno a i e solu ions
(Ska e e al., 2023). High le els o digi al accessibili y ensu e ha en-
ep eneu s can access in o ma ion and ne wo ks, which a e c i ical o
main aining business ope a ions and con inui y, especially du ing c ises
(Soluk e al., 2021). In es men s in p o essional de elopmen o acqui e
skills, knowledge, and expe ise unde sco e he impo ance o human
capi al in building esilien en ep eneu ial ecosys ems (Sj¨
odin e al.,
2021).
The heo y o dynamic capabili ies cen e s on a i m’s abili y o
in eg a e, build, and econ igu e in e nal and ex e nal compe encies o
add ess apidly changing en i onmen s (Capu o e al., 2021; Ma a azzo
e al., 2021). This heo y is pa icula ly pe inen o unde s anding how
digi al li e acy, accessibili y, and human capi al enable i ms o adap
and h i e amid ma ke dis up ions and echnological ad ancemen s
(Saa ikko e al., 2020). D awing on he heo y o dynamic capabili ies,
his esea ch examines how en ep eneu s le e age hei digi al e-
sou ces and capabili ies o c ea e inno a i e solu ions, apidly add ess
ma ke changes, and build esilience. Inno a ion enables en ep eneu s
o c ea e new p oduc s, se ices, and business models, allowing hem o
adap e ec i ely o shi ing ma ke demands (K ishnamu hy, 2020).
Simul aneously, agili y empowe s en ep eneu s o econ igu e e-
sou ces and s a egies swi ly in esponse o eme ging challenges,
he eby ensu ing sus ained compe i i eness in ola ile en i onmen s
(P iyono e al., 2020).
En ep eneu ial esilience in a ech-d i en wo ld
Xia e al. (2024) a gue ha he dis up i e na u e and b oad- anging
e ec s o digi al echnologies make hem iable ins umen s o acili-
a ing o ganiza ional ans o ma ion. Digi al echnologies ha e he po-
en ial o s imula e inno a i e ideas and d i e wo ldwide g ow h
(Al-Omoush e al., 2023; Buck e al., 2023). These echnologies also play
a ole in shaping ecosys ems and c ea ing new business models and
s a egic posi ions. Howe e , o achie e hese ans o ma i e changes,
ce ain speci ic equi emen s mus be me . Acco ding o Al-Omoush
e al. (2023), success ul digi al ans o ma ion equi es a blend o
echnology- ocused elemen s ha connec echnology capabili ies and
in eg a ion, along wi h a eam o skilled execu i es and employees
capable o s a egically planning and e ec i ely implemen ing he
equi ed changes (Ga ila & De Lucas Ancillo, 2022).
Du ing he COVID-19 c isis, en ep eneu s expanded hei e o s
beyond new in e ne echnologies (Sulas i e al., 2023). They de ised
inno a i e go- o-ma ke s a egies in a i ual en i onmen , imp o ed
he public pe cep ion o echnology as a ool o os e ing communi y,
and s eamlined online ansac ions (An ai & Eze, 2023; San os e al.,
2023). Va ious pla o ms and so wa e packages we e de eloped in
esponse o speci ic comme cial ope a ions (Xiao e al., 2024). Howe e ,
hei deploymen o en equi ed majo in es men s in human and
inancial esou ces (San os e al., 2023; Sede a e al., 2022). Imple-
men ing digi al echnology wi hin an o ganiza ion may be challenging
due o he apidly e ol ing digi al landscape. Thus, en ep eneu s
equi e ad anced digi al li e acy and echnological expe ise o e ec-
i ely na iga e eme ging challenges (Sumbal e al., 2024). Addi ionally,
a i m’s o ganiza ional and manage ial capabili ies, as well as i s wo k
en i onmen , play a c i ical ole in de e mining how e ec i ely digi al
echnology can be le e aged o build esilience (Sha ila e al., 2025).
These ac o s unde sco e he impo ance o digi al li e acy as a i al
ac o o success ul digi al ans o ma ion, leading o he o mula ion o
he i s hypo hesis:
H1.The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween digi al li e acy and en ep e-
neu ial esilience.
Imp o ing business esilience is a c i ical managemen app oach ha
elies hea ily on digi al accessibili y. Digi al accessibili y e e s o he
a ailabili y and usabili y o echnological in as uc u e, ools, and e-
sou ces ha enable businesses o ope a e e icien ly. Acco ding o
K. Sha ila e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100709
2
K euze e al. (2022) and Oh e al. (2022), businesses mus enhance hei
digi al capabili ies and accessibili y o adap o changing ci cums ances
and alloca e esou ces mo e e icien ly. Small and medium-sized en e -
p ises (SMEs) wi h digi al accessibili y can be e espond o changing
ma ke condi ions and cus ome demands, inc easing hei esilience in
he ace o ex e nal shocks (Roncancio-Ma in e al., 2022; S eininge
e al., 2022; Sonmez Caki e al., 2024; Khodo e al., 2024). In addi ion,
businesses mus use digi al capabili ies o gain new esou ces, pa icu-
la ly da a esou ces, o expand in o new ma ke s and achie e sus ainable
de elopmen when con on ed wi h ma ke c ises (Sa alkina & S eine ,
2020). In addi ion, p io esea ch has shown ha digi al s a egy, digi al
pla o m capaci y, and digi al echnology a e c ucial ac o s ha in lu-
ence a i m’s esilience. The e o e, he second hypo hesis is p oposed:
H2.The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween digi al accessibili y and
en ep eneu ial esilience.
Acco ding o he esou ce-based iew, en ep eneu ial esilience is
la gely shaped by a i m’s unique and di e se esou ces (Al a ez &
Buseni z, 2001), wi h human capi al playing a pi o al ole. Human
capi al, which is de ined as he collec i e skills, knowledge, and expe-
ience o en ep eneu s and hei eams, se es as a c i ical d i e o
compe i i e ad an age (P iyono e al., 2020; Chen e al., 2024). Access
o di e se in o ma ion enables i ms o challenge con en ional as-
sump ions, de elop inno a i e amewo ks, and s eng hen hei esil-
ience in he ace o ma ke ola ili y (Bouncken e al., 2021). Ga ila and
De Lucas Ancillo (2022) also no ed ha i ms gain ad an ages by
o e coming knowledge ba ie s and p omp ly adap ing o ma ke
changes. Knowledge sea ch, in pa icula , allows o ganiza ions o ga he
c i ical ma ke da a such as cus ome demand, indus y ends, and
egula o y de elopmen s, he eby enhancing hei abili y o deal wi h
challenges (Alho hali & Al-Dajani, 2022; Nigam & Sha ila, 2024).
Th ough hese knowledge-building ac i i ies, businesses de elop he
human capi al hey need o bols e hei esilience, mi iga e ulne a-
bili ies, and compe e e ec i ely du ing c ises. By le e aging comple-
men a y in o ma ion and main aining lexibili y in esou ce alloca ion,
i ms can eco e mo e swi ly om dis up ions. This a gumen leads o
he o mula ion o he hi d hypo hesis:
H3.The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween human capi al and en ep e-
neu ial esilience.
Knowledge o digi al pla o ms o inno a ion
O ganiza ions ha ecognize he impo ance o inno a ion o en
alloca e esou ces o s a aining in digi al pla o m echnologies
(Sulas i e al., 2023) o ac i ely ec ui indi iduals wi h high digi al
li e acy o d i e inno a ion (Al-Omoush e al., 2023). A key aspec o
digi al li e acy is he a i ude owa d adop ing digi al echnologies,
which e lec s a pe son’s openness o expe imen wi h new digi al ools
and solu ions. En ep eneu s wi h ad anced echnological p o iciency
a e mo e likely o demons a e inno a i eness and adap abili y,
enabling hem o h i e in he e e -changing con empo a y wo k en i-
onmen (Mulki & Lassk, 2019). This link highligh s he connec ion
be ween an en ep eneu ’s capaci y o c ea i i y and willingness o
acqui e and apply digi al knowledge o inno a ion. The e o e, he
ou h hypo hesis is p oposed:
H4.The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween digi al li e acy and inno a ion.
P o iciency in digi al pla o ms p o ides se e al ad an ages,
including g ea e p oduc i i y, imp o ed s a e iciency, s eamlined
wo k lows, as e ask upda es, ime and e o sa ings, and he abili y o
keep up wi h echnological ad ancemen s (Ushako e al., 2023). Digi al
pla o m li e acy and digi al ans o ma ion play a pi o al ole in
enhancing inno a ion le els ac oss di e en indus ies (Sede a e al.,
2022). Fi ms wi h g ea e inancial esou ces a e mo e inclined o in es
in acqui ing ad anced pla o m echnologies and p o iding
comp ehensi e aining o ensu e hei e ec i e use, he eby os e ing
inno a ion (Al-Omoush e al., 2023). Recognizing he alue o digi al
skills, en ep eneu s ac i ely seek employees wi h ad anced digi al
pla o m li e acy because such skills can boos c ea i i y and accele a e
he achie emen o o ganiza ional goals (Sulas i e al., 2023).
Digi al accessibili y o pla o m echnologies enhances an en ep e-
neu ’s capaci y o engage wi h and le e age echnology o business
inno a ion (Ga ila & De Lucas Ancillo, 2022; Ushako e al., 2023).
En ep eneu s wi h access o hese pla o ms mus combine c ea i i y
wi h echnological p o iciency o h i e in oday’s dynamic wo k en i-
onmen . Such accessibili y is c i ical o os e ing inno a ion (Soga
e al., 2024), bene i ing bo h o ganiza ions and indi iduals by enabling
c ea i e p oblem-sol ing and acili a ing p o essional g ow h. This line
o a gumen leads o he ollowing hypo hesis:
H5.The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween digi al accessibili y and
inno a ion.
Unge e al. (2011) conduc ed a me a-analysis co e ing 30 yea s o
esea ch on human capi al in en ep eneu ship. Thei indings con i m
he c i ical ole o human capi al in c ea ing en ep eneu ial alue,
pa icula ly o inno a ion. Compe encies such as knowledge, c ea i i y,
p oblem-sol ing, leade ship, and pe sonal commi men a e essen ial
asse s o na iga ing unce ain en i onmen s and achie ing o ganiza-
ional goals. Acco dingly, human capi al is widely ega ded as a key
de e minan o o ganiza ional compe i i eness (Ga ila & De Lucas
Ancillo, 2022), wi h en ep eneu s’ educa ional a ainmen cons i u ing
a signi ican p edic o o inancial success in bo h de eloped and
de eloping na ions (Oh e al., 2022).
Van Uden e al. (2017) examined he ela ionship be ween human
capi al endowmen s (e.g., employee educa ion le els) and inno a i e
ou pu in Sub-Saha an coun ies, which gene ally ha e lowe human
capi al le els han de eloped na ions. They ound ha in e nal mecha-
nisms os e ing human capi al a e essen ial o d i ing inno a ion in his
con ex . Howe e , ce ain combina ions o human capi al elemen s may
ha e ad e se e ec s, pa icula ly in manu ac u ing i ms ha p o ide
employees wi h slack ime. Based on his line o a gumen , he six h
hypo hesis o his s udy is p oposed:
H6.The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween human capi al and inno a ion.
The ela ionship be ween inno a ion and en ep eneu ial esilience
Acco ding o Teece (2010), inno a ion is no jus abou new ech-
nologies and esea ch and de elopmen (R&D). Inno a ion, co po a e
s a egy, echnology managemen , and en ep eneu ial alliances may all
lead o new en ep eneu ial models. When co po a ions le e age digi al
echnology o expand hei ange o esponses o a shi ing business
en i onmen , hey a e essen ially inno a ing hei business model
(S eininge e al., 2022). Digi al echnologies ac as ca alys s o he
in oduc ion o g ound-b eaking p oduc s and se ices o he ma ke ,
e en in imes o c isis. Fu he mo e, emb acing digi al echnology in
adi ionally low- ech indus ies may d i e inno a ion and enhance
compe i i e ad an age (Roncancio-Ma in e al., 2022).
Digi al inno a ion plays a c ucial ole in d i ing business success,
pa icula ly in challenging business en i onmen s (Shams izi e al.,
2021; Kemal & Shah, 2024; Sha ma e al., 2024). The eme gence o
digi al echnologies has enabled businesses o enhance hei compe i-
i eness h ough p ocess inno a ion and digi al ans o ma ion (Ka imi
& Wal e , 2021). Howe e , in complex ecosys ems, ensu ing seamless
in eg a ion and collabo a ion emain a challenge, necessi a ing a s a-
egic app oach o inno a ion ( on B iel e al., 2021; Zah a, 2021).
Paying close a en ion o an en ep eneu ’s business model migh lead
o a comple e unde s anding o he ac o s ha help o hinde eme ging
ans o ma ions as en ep eneu s inno a e and achie e esilience (Mua i
e al., 2021). The ollowing hypo hesis is hus posi ed:
H7.The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween inno a ion and en ep eneu ial
K. Sha ila e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100709
3
esilience.
Agili y in en ep eneu ial managemen
In hei analysis o he COVID-19 pandemic, Zahoo e al. (2022)
highligh ed he pi o al ole o business- o-business (B2B) high- ech
SMEs in e ms o hei s a egic agili y and dynamic skills. Acco ding
o hei indings, he main ways o cope wi h he dis up ions caused by
he COVID-19 pandemic we e o adap quickly and use new oppo u-
ni ies. The esul s o he a o emen ioned s udy show ha SMEs used
hei sensing and seizing skills o cope wi h he pandemic’s in luence on
hei companies and ac i ely engaged in oppo uni y de ec ion and
disco e y. Fu he indings e eal ha B2B SMEs adop ed a su i al
mindse du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in esponse o ex eme ma ke
ins abili y. Thei heigh ened ma ke awa eness enabled hem o iden i y
po en ial isks and oppo uni ies, allowing o s a egic adap a ion.
Mo eo e , Isensee e al. (2023) examined he in luence o agili y on
he ela ionship be ween inno a ion and esilience using panel da a
analysis. Thei longi udinal s udy p o ides a deepe unde s anding o
how he in e ac i e co ela ion be ween agili y and inno a ion a ec s
esilience o e an ex ended ime (Sulas i e al., 2023). The indings
sugges ha os e ing adap abili y wi hin o ganiza ions ampli ies he
posi i e e ec s o inno a ion on esilience, pa icula ly in highly ola ile
and compe i i e indus ies. Thus, he eigh h hypo hesis is p oposed:
H8.Agili y mode a es he ela ionship be ween inno a ion and en ep e-
neu ial esilience.
Acco ding o Kuma e al. (2023), SMEs play a majo ole in c ea ing
jobs, expanding ho izons, and boos ing expo s in na ional economies.
Using he Delphi me hod and uzzy in e p e i e s uc u al modeling
(F-ISM), hey ound ha managemen compe encies, knowledge man-
agemen , moni o ing and con olling, ma ke ing in es men s, p oduc
de elopmen , new pa ne ship o ma ion, and en ep eneu ship can
u n ad e si y in o oppo uni y. S a egic nimbleness, inancial backing,
and pa ne ships wi h academic ins i u ions make an i- agile beha io
possible (Co ello e al., 2022). Howe e , digi al ma ke ing, echno-
logical ad ancemen s, and dis up ions in he supply chain can pose se-
e e challenges o SMEs’ abili y o adap and h i e in an inc easingly
digi al economy (Hossain e al., 2022). Han and T imi (2022) ou lined a
oadmap o le e aging la ge da a se s o ex ac i al in o ma ion om
SMEs’ adop ion o digi al echnologies in Indus y 4.0, helping hem
deal wi h hese challenges. Simila ly, Cos a and Cas o (2021) epo ed
ha a smoo h digi al ansi ion is essen ial o e i alizing business
ecosys ems and d i ing economic g ow h.
Al hough much o he esea ch on en ep eneu ial esilience du ing
c ises has ocused on businesses’ abili y o wi hs and o adap o
dis up ions (Kucke z e al., 2020), ew s udies ha e explo ed he
esilience o en ep eneu ship i sel . Some schola s a gue ha s a ups
a e inhe en ly mo e c isis- eady han o he businesses, making i
essen ial o eo ganize hei inno a ion ecosys ems based on lessons
lea ned om c ises and he impac o hei esponse s a egies on
ope a ional pe o mance (Cowling e al., 2020; Janssen & an de Voo ,
2020; Mo a e al., 2022). This pe spec i e sugges s ha s a ups’ abili y
o eco e om ad e si y shapes hei c isis esponse s a egies, ul i-
ma ely mi iga ing nega i e e ec s on sho - e m inancial pe o mance.
Based on hese insigh s, he inal hypo hesis is p oposed:
H9.Agili y mode a es he ela ionships o (a) digi al li e acy, (b) digi al
accessibili y, and (c) human capi al wi h en ep eneu ial esilience.
These hypo heses a e isually ep esen ed in Fig. 1.
Me hodology
This s udy is based on a quan i a i e esea ch design. Speci ically,
s uc u al equa ion modeling (SEM) was used o examine complex e-
la ionships be ween mul iple a iables simul aneously and hus p o ide
a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he di ec and indi ec e ec s a play.
SEM was pa icula ly sui able o his s udy because i enabled analysis
o la en cons uc s ha we e no di ec ly obse able bu ha could be
in e ed om mul iple indica o s. Da a we e collec ed using con e-
nience sampling, a nonp obabili y sampling echnique in which pa ic-
ipan s a e selec ed based on hei a ailabili y and willingness o
pa icipa e. This me hod is sui able o explo a o y esea ch in speci ic
popula ions such as en ep eneu s in Qa a and he UAE.
The da a collec ion p ocess s a ed by conduc ing an online su ey
ia Google Fo ms. The su ey ques ionnai e was s uc u ed in o mul iple
sec ions. Each was designed o assess key cons uc s ele an o digi al
li e acy, digi al accessibili y, human capi al, inno a ion, agili y, and
en ep eneu ial esilience. The i s sec ion o he ques ionnai e
collec ed demog aphic da a, including esponden s’ age g oup, gende ,
and indus y. The second sec ion measu ed human capi al using i e
i ems ha assessed esponden s’ sel - epo ed knowledge, skills, con i-
dence in p oblem-sol ing, and engagemen in con inuous lea ning. I
was adap ed om he s udy by Dahiya and Raghu anshi (2022). The
hi d sec ion e alua ed digi al li e acy h ough i e i ems ocusing on
esponden s’ abili y o sol e echnological p oblems, lea n new digi al
ools, and unde s and cybe secu i y issues. I was adap ed om he
s udy by A inç and Do˘
gan (2024). The ou h sec ion add essed digi al
accessibili y, cap u ing esponden s’ access o high-speed in e ne , dig-
i al esou ces, and compa ibili y o digi al ools wi h hei de ices. I was
adap ed om he s udy by Conde-Jim´
enez (2018). The i h sec ion
assessed inno a ion h ough i e i ems ela ed o idea gene a ion,
Fig. 1. Resea ch model.
Sou ce: Au ho s.
K. Sha ila e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100709
4
collabo a ion, and e o s o imp o e e iciency. I was adap ed om he
s udy by Lukes and S ephan (2017). The six h sec ion measu ed agili y
using i e i ems examining esponden s’ abili y o adap o echnological
changes, adjus s a egies, and main ain high pe o mance unde un-
ce ain y. I was adap ed om he s udy by G a e and Caldwell (2016).
Finally, he se en h sec ion ocused on en ep eneu ial esilience, wi h
i e i ems e alua ing esponden s’ abili y o eco e om se backs,
manage s ess, and pe sis in hei en ep eneu ial pu sui s. I was
adap ed om he s udy by Ayala and Manzano (2014). All i ems we e
measu ed using a i e-poin Like scale, anging om 1 (s ongly
disag ee) o 5 (s ongly ag ee).
The su ey was sha ed h ough a ious channels, including social
media pla o ms, email lis s, and p o essional ne wo ks, o a ge en-
ep eneu s in Qa a and he UAE. Ini ially, 410 esponden s comple ed
he su ey. Howe e , a e da a cleaning, whe e esponses wi h missing
da a o inconsis encies we e emo ed, he inal sample consis ed o 317
esponden s.
Pa icipan s we e selec ed based on hei ac i e engagemen in
en ep eneu ship wi hin Qa a and he UAE, wi h emphasis on in-
dus ies unde going majo digi al ans o ma ion. The inclusion c i e ia
we e designed o ensu e he ele ance o he sample o he s udy’s aims,
equi ing pa icipan s o demons a e a minimum o wo yea s o
en ep eneu ial expe ience, di ec in ol emen in adop ing o imple-
men ing digi al ools and in as uc u e, and e idence o agili y o
inno a ion in hei business p ac ices. These c i e ia we e designed o
cap u e a coho wi h su icien exposu e o digi al compe encies and he
capaci y o exhibi esilience in he ace o challenges. Con e sely,
exclusion c i e ia we e es ablished o main ain he in eg i y o he
sample by il e ing ou pa icipan s who lacked adequa e access o
digi al in as uc u e, possessed insu icien digi al li e acy, o we e
in ol ed in businesses ha had no been ope a ional o a su icien
pe iod o e lec pa e ns o esilience o agili y. Addi ionally, en e-
p eneu s ope a ing in indus ies wi h minimal eliance on digi al ech-
nologies we e excluded o ensu e he s udy’s ocus emained on hose
mos aligned wi h he esea ch objec i es.
The sample size was conside ed accep able o SEM analysis, which
ypically equi es a minimum o 200 cases o ensu e s able and eliable
esul s. Da a we e analyzed using AMOS, a so wa e package o SEM
analysis. AMOS was used o assess he measu emen model by ensu ing
ha he cons uc s we e alid and eliable and o es he hypo hesized
ela ionships be ween he a iables. The use o SEM in AMOS allowed
o a igo ous examina ion o he p oposed esea ch model, p o iding
insigh s in o how digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, and human capi al
con ibu e o en ep eneu ial esilience in he con ex o Qa a and he
UAE.
Findings
Table 1 p esen s he demog aphic p o ile o he s udy sample o 317
pa icipan s. The dis ibu ion ac oss age g oups shows ha he majo i y
o pa icipan s we e aged 25 o 34 yea s (30 %), ollowed by 35 o 44
yea s (25 %), 18 o 24 yea s (18 %), 45 o 54 yea s (15 %), and 55 yea s
o mo e (12 %). Thus, he sample p ima ily consis ed o indi iduals in
hei ea ly- o-mid ca ee s ages, e lec ing a wo k o ce ac i ely engaged
in en ep eneu ial o p o essional ac i i ies. The gende dis ibu ion
showed a p edominance o male pa icipan s (60 %) o e women (40
%), which would seem o align wi h gende pa icipa ion ends in
en ep eneu ial ecosys ems in he egion. In e ms o indus y ep e-
sen a ion, he sample was la gely d awn om he echnology indus y
(30 %), ollowed by e ail (25 %), heal hca e (20 %), educa ion (15 %),
and o he indus ies (10 %). This dis ibu ion e lec s he di e si y o
indus ies unde going majo digi al ans o ma ion and inno a ion.
The p incipal componen analysis esul s a e p esen ed in Table 2,
which shows he ac o loadings o each i em wi hin i s espec i e
cons uc . The ac o loadings indica e he deg ee o which each i em
was associa ed wi h i s unde lying cons uc , p o iding insigh in o he
alidi y and eliabili y o he measu emen model. Fo he human cap-
i al cons uc , ou i ems (HC1, HC2, HC3, and HC5) had accep able
ac o loadings o 0.879, 0.856, 0.588, and 0.533, espec i ely. HC4 had
a ac o loading o 0.480, which ell below he gene ally accep ed
h eshold o 0.5. Hence, HC4 was excluded om he esea ch o main-
ain he in eg i y and eliabili y o he human capi al cons uc . Wi hin
he digi al accessibili y cons uc , he ac o loadings o he i ems we e
DA1 (0.484), DA2 (0.856), DA3 (0.619), DA4 (0.668), and DA5 (0.717).
DA1 had a loading o 0.484, so i did no mee he h eshold o 0.5. I was
he e o e excluded om he s udy. The inno a ion cons uc had ac o
loadings anging om 0.643 o 0.806. All i ems (INN1 o INN5) su -
passed he h eshold o 0.5. Simila ly, o he digi al li e acy cons uc ,
all i ems (DL1 o DL5) had sa is ac o y ac o loadings, anging om
0.612 o 0.701. Hence, each i em e ec i ely ep esen ed he digi al
li e acy cons uc . The agili y cons uc also had s ong ac o loadings
ac oss i s i ems. AG1 (0.860), AG2 (0.701), AG3 (0.666), AG4 (0.684),
Table 1
Sample p o ile.
Demog aphic a iable Ca ego ies Sample size (N) Dis ibu ion (%)
Age 18–24 yea s 57 18 %
25–34 yea s 95 30 %
35–44 yea s 79 25 %
45–54 yea s 48 15 %
55+yea s 38 12 %
Gende Male 190 60 %
Female 127 40 %
Indus y Technology 95 30 %
Re ail 79 25 %
Heal hca e 63 20 %
Educa ion 48 15 %
O he 32 10 %
Sou ce: Au ho s.
Table 2
P incipal componen ma ix.
I em Fac o loading
HC1 .879
HC2 .856
HC3 .588
HC4 .480
HC5 .533
DA1 .484
DA2 .856
DA3 .619
DA4 .668
DA5 .717
INN1 .806
INN2 .643
INN3 .709
INN4 .700
INN5 .674
DL1 .635
DL2 .612
DL3 .671
DL4 .701
DL5 .620
AG1 .860
AG2 .701
AG3 .666
AG4 .684
AG5 .674
RES1 .878
RES2 .722
RES3 .890
RES4 .668
RES5 .690
Sou ce: Au ho s.
No es: HC =human capi al; DA =digi al acces-
sibili y; INN =inno a ion; DL =digi al li e acy;
AG =agili y; RES = esilience.
K. Sha ila e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100709
5
and AG5 (0.674) all su passed he 0.5 h eshold. Finally, he esilience
cons uc had high ac o loadings o i s i ems. RES1 (0.878), RES2
(0.722), RES3 (0.890), RES4 (0.668), and RES5 (0.690) all had s ong
associa ions wi h he unde lying cons uc .
The obus ness es s conduc ed o he cons uc s in he s udy e ealed
p omising esul s, as p esen ed in Table 3.
These es s included he e alua ion o C onbach’s alpha, composi e
eliabili y (CR), a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE), and he squa e oo
o AVE (SQRT AVE) o he six cons uc s: human capi al, digi al
accessibili y, inno a ion, digi al li e acy, agili y, and esilience. C on-
bach’s alpha alues o all cons uc s anged om 0.719 o 0.847,
indica ing accep able in e nal consis ency eliabili y. Speci ically,
human capi al (
α
=0.727), digi al accessibili y (
α
=0.802), inno a ion
(
α
=0.847), digi al li e acy (
α
=0.844), agili y (
α
=0.775), and esil-
ience (
α
=0.719) all su passed he gene ally accep ed h eshold o 0.7,
sugges ing ha he i ems wi hin each cons uc eliably measu ed he
same unde lying concep . CR alues p o ided a mo e comp ehensi e
measu e o eliabili y han C onbach’s alpha. They also e lec ed s ong
eliabili y o each cons uc . CR alues o human capi al (0.813),
digi al accessibili y (0.809), inno a ion (0.833), digi al li e acy (0.851),
agili y (0.842), and esilience (0.881) we e all abo e he ecommended
h eshold o 0.7, indica ing high eliabili y. AVE alues we e calcula ed
o assess he amoun o a iance cap u ed by he cons uc in ela ion o
he amoun o a iance due o measu emen e o . The AVE alues o
human capi al (0.533), digi al accessibili y (0.519), inno a ion (0.502),
digi al li e acy (0.536), agili y (0.519), and esilience (0.501) we e all
abo e he ecommended h eshold o 0.5, indica ing ha he cons uc s’
indica o s explained mo e han 50 % o he a iance. The SQRT AVE was
also compu ed o e alua e disc iminan alidi y. The SQRT AVE alues
o human capi al (0.730), digi al accessibili y (0.720), inno a ion
(0.708), digi al li e acy (0.732), agili y (0.720), and esilience (0.707)
we e all g ea e han he co ela ions be ween he cons uc s and any
o he cons uc , indica ing ha each cons uc was dis inc om he
o he s. The disc iminan alidi y o he cons uc s was e alua ed using
co ela ion analysis, as shown in Table 4.
Table 4 p esen s he a ying co ela ions among he six cons uc s.
Human capi al had he lowes co ela ions wi h o he cons uc s,
anging om 0.218 o 0.345. Speci ically, human capi al co ela ed wi h
digi al accessibili y ( =0.219), inno a ion ( =0.223), digi al li e acy
( =0.218), agili y ( =0.345), and esilience ( =0.317). Digi al
accessibili y had mode a e co ela ions wi h he o he cons uc s,
pa icula ly wi h inno a ion ( =0.638**), digi al li e acy ( =
0.703**), agili y ( =0.696**), and esilience ( =0.684**), indica ing
signi ican ela ionships a he 0.01 le el. Inno a ion also had signi ican
co ela ions wi h digi al li e acy ( =0.628**), agili y ( =0.701**), and
esilience ( =0.619**), u he highligh ing he in e connec edness o
hese cons uc s. Simila ly, digi al li e acy had signi ican co ela ions
wi h agili y ( =0.691**) and esilience ( =0.698**). Agili y and
esilience we e co ela ed ( =0.685**), sugges ing a s ong ela ion-
ship be ween hese wo cons uc s. Impo an ly, all he co ela ion co-
e icien s among he cons uc s we e lowe han he squa e oo o he
AVE alues epo ed in Table 3.
Table 5 p o ides se e al key indices o assess he o e all goodness-
o - i o he de aul model. These indices a e he numbe o pa ame-
e s (NPAR), chi-squa e s a is ic (CMIN), deg ees o eedom (d ),
p obabili y (p), chi-squa e o deg ees o eedom a io (CMIN/d ),
no med i index (NFI), ela i e i index (RFI), inc emen al i index
(IFI), Tucke -Lewis index (TLI), and compa a i e i index (CFI).
The de aul model comp ised 85 pa ame e s, wi h a CMIN o 605.872
and 265 deg ees o eedom. The esul ing p alue was less han 0.001,
indica ing ha he model’s i o he da a was s a is ically signi ican .
The CMIN/d a io was 2.286, which is accep able, sugges ing a
easonable i be ween he model and he da a. Fu he examina ion o
he i indices e eals ha he NFI was 0.861, indica ing a good i
ela i e o he null model. Despi e being sligh ly lowe , he RFI was
0.830, which s ill e lec s a easonable i . The IFI was 0.917, and he CFI
was 0.916, bo h abo e he ecommended h eshold o 0.90, sugges ing a
good i o he model o he da a. The TLI was 0.896, close o he
accep able le el o 0.90, indica ing a ela i ely good i .
Table 6 p esen s he esul s o pa h analysis o he ela ionships
among he key a iables o digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, human
capi al, inno a ion, and esilience. This analysis highligh s how hese
ac o s in luence one ano he , pa icula ly in os e ing esilience and
inno a ion. Key indica o s, such as es ima es, s anda d e o s, c i ical
a ios, and signi icance le els (p alues), p o ide insigh s in o he
s eng h and s a is ical signi icance o hese ela ionships.
Table 6 e eals ha digi al li e acy had a signi ican posi i e impac
on RES, wi h an es ima e o 0.328, a c i ical a io o 3.932, and a highly
signi ican p alue (p <0.001). This inding unde sco es he impo ance
o adequa e digi al li e acy in s eng hening esilience by p o iding
s a egic di ec ion and enhancing decision-making p ocesses du ing
pe iods o c isis. Simila ly, digi al accessibili y had a signi ican posi i e
e ec on esilience, wi h an es ima e o 0.383, a c i ical a io o 2.034,
and a p alue o 0.042. Accessibili y o digi al esou ces con ibu es o
esilience by os e ing us in ins i u ions and ensu ing he e icien
alloca ion o esou ces. Human capi al also s eng hens esilience, as
e lec ed by i s signi ican posi i e e ec , wi h an es ima e o 0.388, a
c i ical a io o 2.844, and a p alue o 0.015. This inding highligh s
in es men ’s c ucial ole in educa ion, skills de elopmen , and wo k-
o ce eadiness o enhance he economy’s abili y o adap and eco e
om c ises. Addi ionally, inno a ion signi ican ly in luenced esilience,
wi h an es ima e o 0.324, a c i ical a io o 2.467, and a p alue o
0.014. Inno a ion eme ges as a c ucial enable o esilience, os e ing
adap abili y, e iciency, and he abili y o add ess eme ging challenges
h ough new solu ions.
The pa h analysis also highligh ed he ac o s d i ing inno a ion.
Human capi al had he la ges di ec e ec on inno a ion, wi h an es-
ima e o 0.827, a c i ical a io o 3.132, and a highly signi ican p alue
(p <0.001). This inding emphasizes he impo ance o a skilled and
knowledgeable wo k o ce in os e ing c ea i i y, echnological
ad ancemen , and p oblem-sol ing capabili ies. Digi al li e acy also
signi ican ly in luenced inno a ion, wi h an es ima e o 0.374, a c i ical
a io o 2.337, and a p alue o less han 0.001, highligh ing he ole o
digi al li e acy in p omo ing an en i onmen conduci e o inno a ion.
Table 3
Robus ness es s.
C onbach Alpha CR AVE SQRT AVE KMO
HC .727 0.813 0.533 0.730 0.861
DA .802 0.809 0.519 0.720
INN .847 0.833 0.502 0.708
DL .844 0.851 0.536 0.732
AG .775 0.842 0.519 0.720
RES .719 0.881 0.501 0.707
Sou ce: Au ho s.
No es: HC =human capi al; DA =digi al accessibili y; INN =inno a ion; DL =
digi al li e acy; AG =agili y; RES = esilience; AVE =a e age a iance
ex ac ed; CR =composi e eliabili y; C onbach’s alpha >0.7, CR >0.7, AVE >
0.5, KMO >0.6 (Hai , Ringle, & Sa s ed , 2011).
Table 4
Disc iminan alidi y.
HC DA INN DL AG RES
HC 1
DA .219 1
INN .223 .638** 1
DL .218 .703** .628** 1
AG .345 .696** .701** .691** 1
RES .317 .684** .619** .698** .685** 1
Sou ce: Au ho s.
No es: HC =human capi al; DA =digi al accessibili y; INN =inno a ion; DL =
digi al li e acy; AG =agili y; RES = esilience.
K. Sha ila e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100709
6
Simila ly, digi al accessibili y had a s ong e ec on inno a ion, wi h an
es ima e o 0.799, a c i ical a io o 2.708, and a highly signi ican p
alue o less han 0.001.
Fig. 2 p esen s a diag am o he pa h analysis model and illus a es
he ela ionships be ween digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, human
capi al, inno a ion, agili y, and en ep eneu ial esilience. The e-
la ionships be ween hese a iables a e cap u ed in he s udy hypo heses
(H1 o H9). The co esponding pa h coe icien s and p alues indica e
he s a is ical signi icance o each ela ionship. The model explo ed he
di ec e ec s o digi al and human capi al ac o s on en ep eneu ial
esilience, as well as he indi ec e ec s, wi h inno a ion and agili y
ac ing as media ing and mode a ing a iables, espec i ely.
Fig. 2 shows he esul s o he ela ionship cap u ed by H1 (0.328, p
=0.001), es ablishing a signi ican posi i e ela ionship be ween digi al
li e acy and en ep eneu ial esilience. This esul sugges s ha in-
di iduals and businesses wi h highe le els o digi al li e acy a e be e
equipped o na iga e unce ain ma ke condi ions, adap o echnolog-
ical ad ancemen s, and sus ain ope a ions du ing c ises. A simila e ec
was obse ed o H2 (0.383, p =0.042), whe e digi al accessibili y was
also ound o play a c ucial ole in os e ing esilience. This inding
highligh s he impo ance o equi able access o digi al ools, esou ces,
and in as uc u e in s eng hening he abili y o en ep eneu s o
wi hs and economic shocks and emain compe i i e. Fu he mo e, he
esul s o H3 (0.388, p =0.015) imply ha human capi al con ibu es
signi ican ly o en ep eneu ial esilience, ein o cing he idea ha ed-
uca ion, skills de elopmen , and wo k o ce capabili ies a e undamen al
o sus aining business success and adap abili y.
Beyond hese di ec ela ionships, he model explo ed inno a ion as
a media o . The esul s o he ela ionship be ween digi al li e acy and
inno a ion cap u ed by H4 (0.374, p =0.002) con i med he p edic ion
ha digi al compe encies enable indi iduals o de elop new ideas, adop
eme ging echnologies, and d i e business g ow h h ough c ea i e so-
lu ions. Simila ly, digi al accessibili y (H5; 0.799, p =0.003) and human
capi al (H6; 0.826, p =0.001) had s ong posi i e e ec s on inno a ion,
u he ein o cing he asse ion ha hese esou ces a e impo an in
os e ing an inno a i e and o wa d- hinking business en i onmen .
The impac o inno a ion on en ep eneu ial esilience was cap u ed
in H7 (0.374, p =0.001), indica ing ha businesses and indi iduals
ac i ely engaging in inno a ion a e signi ican ly mo e esilien . This
g ea e esilience is p obably because o hei abili y o pi o , expe i-
men wi h new business models, and emain compe i i e despi e ma ke
unce ain ies.
The s onges ela ionship in he model was he one cap u ed in H8
(0.936, p =0.02), wi h agili y se ing as a mode a o o he ela ionship
be ween inno a ion and en ep eneu ial esilience. Agili y signi ican ly
enhanced he e ec s o hese ac o s. Speci ically, he esul s o H9a
(0.481, p =0.01), whe e agili y was p edic ed o mode a e he ela-
ionship be ween digi al li e acy and en ep eneu ial esilience, sugges
ha indi iduals who a e digi ally li e a e and agile in hei decision-
making and s a egic esponses a e mo e esilien in he ace o chal-
lenges. Simila ly, he esul s o H9b (0.421, p =0.02) imply ha agili y
s eng hens he link be ween digi al accessibili y and en ep eneu ial
esilience, indica ing ha accessible digi al ools a e mos bene icial
when en ep eneu s quickly adap and in eg a e hese ools e ec i ely.
Finally, he esul s o H9c (0.428, p =0.01) imply ha agili y also
enhances he posi i e e ec o human capi al on en ep eneu ial esil-
ience, meaning ha well- ained and highly skilled indi iduals who
demons a e adap abili y and quick decision-making a e signi ican ly
mo e esilien .
The pa h analysis con i ms ha digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y,
Table 5
Model i .
Model NPAR CMIN d P CMIN/d NFI RFI IFI TLI CFI
De aul model 85 605.872 265 .000 2.286 0.861 0.830 0.917 0.896 0.916
Sou ce: Au ho s.
No es: NPAR =numbe o pa ame e s; CMIN =chi-squa e s a is ic; NFI =no med i index; RFI = ela i e i index; IFI =inc emen al i index; TLI =Tucke -Lewis
index; CFI =compa a i e i index; CMIN <3, NFI >0.80, RFI >0.80, IFI >0.90, TLI >0.80, CFI >0.90.
Table 6
Pa h analysis.
Es ima e SE C i ical a io p alue
RES <—DL .328 .083 3.932 ***
RES <—DA .383 .188 2.034 .042
RES <—HC .388 .135 2.844 .015
INN <—HC .827 .264 3.132 ***
INN <—DL .374 .160 2.337 ***
INN <—DA .799 .295 2.708 ***
RES <—INN .324 .131 2.467 .014
Sou ce: Au ho s.
No es: HC =human capi al; DA =digi al accessibili y; INN =inno a ion; DL =
digi al li e acy; AG =agili y; RES = esilience.
Fig. 2. Media o and mode a o pa h analysis.
Sou ce: Au ho s.
K. Sha ila e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100709
7
and human capi al all play c ucial oles in enhancing en ep eneu ial
esilience, bo h di ec ly and indi ec ly, h ough inno a ion and agili y.
These esul s con i m he impo ance o digi al skills, equi able access o
echnology, and a well- ained wo k o ce in os e ing inno a ion,
adap abili y, and business su i al. Mo eo e , he mode a ion e ec s o
agili y imply ha esilien businesses a e inno a i e and capable o
quickly esponding o dis up ions and ma ke changes.
Discussion
Hypo heses H1, H2, and H3 p edic ed posi i e ela ionships be ween
digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, human capi al, and en ep eneu ial
esilience. These ela ionships a e s ongly e lec ed in he en ep e-
neu ial landscapes o bo h Qa a and he UAE, whe e s a egic emphasis
on digi al ans o ma ion is a key d i e o success. Digi al li e acy en-
ables en ep eneu s o adap o ma ke changes quickly, maneu e
h ough ugged digi al e ains, and u n echnology in o a business
oppo uni y. Quickly e ol ing ma ke s in Qa a and he UAE mean ha
echnological ad ancemen always ou s ips egula o y de elopmen . In
bo h cases, he go e nmen has pou ed millions o dolla s in o digi al
educa ion and aining p og ams o imp o e he gene al le el o digi al
skills ha o m he basis o an en ep eneu ial mindse . This s udy also
shows ha digi al accessibili y os e s en ep eneu ial esilience in
Qa a and he UAE. C ises o en highligh he impo ance o high digi al
accessibili y. I enables en ep eneu s o easily access esou ces, in o -
ma ion, and ne wo ks, which a e essen ial o sus aining a business
du ing challenging imes. En ep eneu s can capi alize on he obus
digi al in as uc u e in bo h coun ies o conduc e-comme ce, digi al
ma ke ing, and emo e wo k, which leads o business con inui y du ing
dis up ions. The signi ican in es men s in educa ion, p o essional
de elopmen , and alen acquisi ion in Qa a and he UAE highligh he
c i ical ole o human capi al in c ea ing solid en ep eneu ial ecosys-
ems. These in es men s ha e c ea ed a deep pool o alen ed indi iduals
who can lead inno a ion and espond well o dis up ion. The posi i e
in luence o digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, and human capi al on
en ep eneu ial esilience has also been ound in p e ious s udies such
as hose o Al-Omoush e al. (2023), Ga ila and De Lucas Ancillo
(2022), Isensee e al. (2023), and Xia e al. (2024). Howe e , i disag ees
wi h he indings o Shen e al. (2023) and Sulas i e al. (2023).
Hypo heses H4, H5, and H6 p edic ed posi i e ela ionships be ween
digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y, human capi al, and inno a ion.
These ela ionships a e pa icula ly ele an in Qa a and he UAE.
Ini ia i es o enhance digi al li e acy among en ep eneu s and he
wo k o ce ha e inc eased he capaci y o inno a i e hinking and
p oblem-sol ing in hese egions. These coun ies ha e launched na-
ional digi al educa ion p og ams and ha e c ea ed pla o ms o ech-
nology hubs and inno a ion cen e s o encou age he de elopmen o a
ech- eady cul u e. Consequen ly, new p oduc s and se ices ha e been
c ea ed along wi h he co esponding business models, enabling eco-
nomic g ow h and compe i i eness.
In addi ion, digi al accessibili y o pla o ms is c ucial o encou age
inno a ion. In Qa a and he UAE, obus digi al in as uc u es o e
en ep eneu s access o a wide ange o digi al pla o ms, unlocking a
key ad an age and acili a ing bene icial collabo a ions among s ake-
holde s, knowledge sha ing, and ma ke expansion. These pla o ms no
only p o ide essen ial esou ces o en ep eneu s bu also connec hem
wi h a dynamic ne wo k o s akeholde s, os e ing inno a ion. S eam-
lining access o hese pla o ms accele a es he inno a ion cycle,
enabling companies o quickly p o o ype, es , and b ing new ideas o
ma ke .
Addi ionally, bo h coun ies ha e in es ed hea ily in educa ion and
aining, cul i a ing a highly skilled wo k o ce. By p io i izing human
capi al, hey ha e empowe ed en ep eneu s o compe e wi h op alen
globally. The indings ega ding he e ec s o digi al li e acy, digi al
accessibili y, and human capi al on inno a ion a e aligned wi h esea ch
by Al-Omoush e al. (2023), Ga ila and De Lucas Ancillo (2022),
Isensee e al. (2023), and Xia e al. (2024), al hough hey con as wi h
he conclusions o Shen e al. (2023) and Sulas i e al. (2023).
H7 posi ed ha inno a ion posi i ely a ec s en ep eneu ial esil-
ience. Wi h he apidly e ol ing business landscapes o Qa a and he
UAE, inno a ion plays a c ucial ole in s eng hening en ep eneu ial
esilience. Inno a ion enables en ep eneu s o pi o o eac o shi s in
ma ke winds, c ea e new p oduc s and se ices, and add ess eme ging
challenges c ea i ely. Go e nmen s in Qa a and he UAE ha e played a
di ec ole in p omo ing inno a ion h ough policies and ini ia i es,
including se ing up incuba o s, unding R&D p ojec s, and os e ing
academia–indus y collabo a i e models. These ini ia i es ha e c ea ed
an enabling en i onmen o en ep eneu s o h i e, adap , and emain
esilien amid economic down u ns and global c ises. In addi ion, many
s a ups and es ablished companies om Qa a and he UAE ha e suc-
cess s o ies whe e inno a ion co ela es wi h en ep eneu ial esilience.
The indings e eal ha SMEs ha ocus on inno a ion a e mo e agile
and lexible, allowing hem o swi ly adjus hei s a egies and ope -
a ions in imes o u bulence. In hese coun ies du ing he COVID-19
c isis, many businesses emb aced digi al solu ions, allowing hem o
adap and su i e du ing his pe iod amid mass lockdowns and social
dis ancing measu es. Consequen ly, he emphasis on inno a ion as a
d i e o en ep eneu ial esilience unde sco es he pi o al ole o a
cul u e o c ea i i y and con inuous imp o emen in s eng hening he
business ecosys ems o Qa a and he UAE.
The esea ch con i ms H8, which posi ed ha agili y mode a es he
ela ionship be ween inno a ion and en ep eneu ial esilience. This
inding implies ha al hough inno a ion con ibu es o esilience, he
ex en o his e ec is signi ican ly in luenced by i ms’ agili y. Mo e
agile businesses can maximize he bene i s o inno a ion o enhance
hei esilience, pa icula ly in dynamic and unce ain economic en i-
onmen s. In egional con ex s, whe e businesses ace inancial ins a-
bili y, egula o y challenges, and echnological dis up ions, agili y
ensu es ha i ms can quickly adap , e ine inno a i e solu ions, and
espond e ec i ely o unexpec ed ma ke shi s. Agili y enhances he
impac o inno a ion by enabling i ms o apidly es , alida e, and
i e a e new ideas in esponse o e ol ing economic and ma ke condi-
ions. Agile businesses can pi o s a egies, econ igu e business models,
and op imize esou ces o sus ain long- e m g ow h and s abili y. This
abili y is pa icula ly c ucial in ola ile ma ke s whe e ex e nal shocks
such as economic down u ns o indus y dis up ions demand con inuous
adap a ion and ein en ion. By le e aging agile me hodologies, busi-
nesses can sho en p oduc de elopmen cycles, imp o e cus ome
esponsi eness, and in eg a e eedback-d i en imp o emen s, ul i-
ma ely s eng hening hei esilience. These esul s a e in line wi h hose
o Alho hali and Al-Dajani (2022), Oh e al. (2022), and San os e al.
(2023), al hough hey disag ee wi h he indings o Shen e al. (2023)
and Sulas i e al. (2023).
The esea ch alida es H9, con i ming ha agili y signi ican ly
mode a es he ela ionships linking digi al li e acy, digi al accessibili y,
and human capi al wi h en ep eneu ial esilience. Agili y enables
businesses o swi ly adop new digi al capabili ies, helping hem
main ain o gain a compe i i e edge by enhancing en ep eneu s’ abili y
o quickly lea n and apply eme ging digi al skills. Examples include
le e aging ad anced digi al ma ke ing echniques, in eg a ing sophis-
ica ed da a analy ics, and implemen ing cu ing-edge echnologies o
op imize p ocesses and cus ome in e ac ions, he eby enhancing o e -
all esilience. Agili y also mode a es he link be ween digi al accessi-
bili y and en ep eneu ial esilience. In Qa a and he UAE, a digi ally
li e a e popula ion p o ides a s ong ounda ion o inno a ion. How-
e e , he ue alue o digi al asse s depends on how quickly businesses
can u ilize hem e ec i ely. Agile en e p ises seamlessly in eg a e dig-
i al capabili ies, apidly adap o new echnologies, and le e age sha ed
pla o ms o o m pa ne ships o en e new ma ke s, he eby ensu ing
ha hey emain compe i i e in an e ol ing digi al landscape. In imes
o ma ke dis up ion, agile businesses can swi ly ansi ion om
adi ional e ail o e-comme ce, implemen emo e wo k solu ions o
K. Sha ila e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100709
8
