A ch. Me all. Ma e . 68 (2023), 2, 463-468
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.24425/amm.2023.142423
A. SApie o á 1*, M. Raček 1, V. Dekýš 1, M. SApie A 1, M. SágA 1, P. šo eR 2
Acous ic Emission And in A Ed hE mog Aphy s udy o Low s Ain EnsiLE BEhA iou
o Aisi 304L s AinLEss s EEL
in-si u s udy o de o ma ion beha iou and mechanisms occu ing du ing ea ly s ages o de o ma ion is o a g ea p ac ical
impo ance. Low s acking aul ene gy ma e ials, as is he case o AiSi 304L, show non-linea de o ma ion cha ac e is ics way
below he bulk yield poin . Shockley pa ial disloca ions, o ma ion o s acking aul s espec i ely, esul ing in c ea ion o shea
bands and ε-ma ensi e ans o ma ion a e he mechanisms occu ing in he low s ains in he s udied s eel. acous ic emission
and in a ed he mog aphy ha e been used in his s udy o in es iga e he de o ma ion kine ics a he low s ain s ages o slow
s ain a e ensile es s. Acous ic emission cumula i e ene gy oge he wi h he acking o specimen maximum empe a u e
ha e been ound o be e y use ul in-si u echniques bo h supplemen ing each o he in he sense o he sensi i i y o di e en
mechanisms. Mechanical, acous ic emission and in a ed he mog aphy esul s a e discussed in de ail wi h espec o po en ial
occu ed mechanism.
Keywo ds: Acous ic emission; in a ed he mog aphy; S ainless S eel; ensile De o ma ion
1. in oduc ion
AiSi 304/304L is he widely used s ainless s eel (SS) g ade
which applica ion ange spans om he simple cons uc ions like
he hand ails o he c yogenic p essu e essels used in chemi-
cal indus y. Non-de o med c ys al s uc u e o annealed AiSi
304/304L SS consis s o aus eni e-γ wi h ace-cen ed cubic
( CC) uni cells [1]. on plas ic de o ma ion o CC low s acking
aul ene gy (S e) me als he pe ec disloca ions dissocia e o
Shockley pa ial disloca ions and he s acking aul s (S ) a e ak-
ing place. Wi h p og essing s aining, S s o e lapp on aus eni e
{1 1 1}γ planes and o m he shea bands. S s o e lapped on
e e y second {1 1 1}γ plane c ea e he hexagonal close-packed
(HCP) s uc u e o ε-ma ensi e, whe eas he o e lapping on
successi e {1 1 1}γ planes gene a es mechanical wins [2,3].
om mode a e o high s ains, α'-ma ensi e ans o ms ei he
di ec ly om aus eni e γ o om ε-ma ensi e [4,5]. The e a e
many pape s in es iga ing he mic os uc u e o ensile de o -
ma ion o AiSi 304, whe he pos -mo em a e he speci ic
s ages o de o ma ion [4-6] o in si u [7,8]. Despi e he numbe
o expe imen s he esul s a e no consis en mainly in e ms o
s ains whe e he speci ic mechanisms occu . his is expec -
able ega ding he s ong sensi i i y o de o ma ion beha iou
o a ia ion on S e, loading a e, and empe a u e espec i ely.
Wi hin he AiSi 304 SS g ade he ela i ely la ge span o essen ial
s abilizing componen as Ni, C , C a ec s he ma e ial S e sig-
ni ican ly. Dependence o mechanisms on S e ob ained by Sa o
e al. [2] o e-Mn-al aus eni ic alloys shows he occu ence o
ε-ma ensi e unde 20 mJm–2 and winning abo e his S e alue.
allain e al [3] ha e epo ed he occu ence o ε-ma ensi e unde
18 mJm–2 and winning in he ange 12-35 mJm–2 o e-Mn-C
aus eni ic alloys. u he mo e Galindo-Na a e al [4] ha e shown
he a ea o coexis ence o ε-ma ensi e, α'-ma ensi e and win-
ning in he ange o 13-22 mJm–2 a 20% s ain, s a ed h ough
he wide scale o aus eni ic s eel g ades. Dis inguishing be ween
mechanisms in low de o ma ion s ages is a challenging ask
bu wi h a g ea p ac ical impo ance as mos o he de ices a e
designed o ope a e in assumed elas ic s age wi h espec o bulk
yield poin . Non-des uc i e in-si u ools enabling o cap u e he
changes in mechanisms is hus e y desi able. Acous ic emission
(Ae) and in a ed he mog aphy (iR ) a e ele an echniques
de ec ing he po ion o dissipa ed ene gy di ec ly connec ed o
he occu ed p ocess. in his pape Ae and iR ha e been used
o dis inguish he changes in mechanisms below 7% s ain.
1 UNiVeRSiTy o ŽiLiNa, aCULTy o MeCHaNiCaL eNGiNeeRiNG, DePaRTMeNT o aPPLieD MeCHaNiCS, UNiVeRziTNá 8215/1, 010 26 ŽiLiNa, SLoVak RePUbLiC
2 Všb-TeCHNiCaL UNiVeRSiTy o oSTRaVa, aCULTy o MeCHaNiCaL eNGiNeeRiNG, DePaRTMeNT o CoNTRoL SySTeMS aND iNSTRUMeNTaTioN, 17. LiSToPaDU 15/2127,
708 33 oSTRaVa-PoRUba, CzeCH RePUbLiC
* Co esponding au ho : [email p o ec ed]
BY NC
© 2023. The au ho (s). This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons a ibu ion-NonCom-
me cial License (CC by-NC 4.0, h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en which pe mi s he use, edis ibu ion o
he ma e ial in any medium o o ma , ans o ming and building upon he ma e ial, p o ided ha he a icle is p ope ly ci ed, he
use is noncomme cial, and no modi ica ions o adap a ions a e made.
464
2. Expe imen al
A se o eigh slow s ain a e ensile expe imen s has
been conduc ed using Tes ome ic M500-50CT, 25 kN ensile
de ice. Dog bone specimens wi h he gauge c oss sec ion 3×10
mm and gauge leng h 70 mm we e milled om he comme cial
ho olled and annealed ba s o AiSi 304L SS. he chemical
composi ion o expe imen al s eel is s a ed in he CHeMiCaL
CoMPoSiTioN o THe iNVeSTiGaTeD aiSi 304 L SS
iN (WT.%, e baLaNCe)1.
TabLe 1
Chemical composi ion o he in es iga ed aiSi 304 L SS
in (w .%, e balance)
c si mn p s c ni co n
0.024 0.41 1.49 0.034 0.003 18.05 8.03 0.245 0.069
Ma e ial S e compu ed acco ding o Sch amm and Reed
o mula [5] (assigned as S eS-R) and b o man and ansell ela-
ion [6] ( e e ed as S eb-a) is as ollows: S eS-R = 14.2 mJm–2,
S eb-a = 17.9 mJm–2. Specimens we e s ained a oom empe a-
u e by wo a es: ε
· = 7×10–4 s–1 and ε
· = 1.4×10–4 s–1. he s ain
a es ha e been chosen o lie abo e and unde ε
· = 5×10–4 s–1,
which is he alue published by Li e al. [7] as he a e whe e
he hea dissipa ion app oaches he hea gene a ion by adiaba ic
hea ing on plas ic de o ma ion and ma ensi ic ans o ma ion
in AiSi 304 SS. De o ma ion has been measu ed using con ac
ex ensome e .
o ae measu emen s he s a e-o - he-a se up consis ing
o Vallen aMSy-6a sys em and Vallen aeP5 p eampli ie s wi h
35db gain has been used which mee s he highes equi emen s
o he p ac ical applicabili y, e.g. he es s o high-p essu e s eel
essels [8]. ae wa es ha e been cap u ed using wo wide-band
Vallen VS45 and VS900 ansduce s wi h di e en sensi i i y
cha ac e is ics. Senso s ha e been placed on he shoulde pa o
he specimen a he same posi ion and on opposi e su aces and
clamped by ubbe bands. allen acous ic g ease has been used
as a couplan ensu ing he good ans e o elas ic wa es om
sample su ace o ce amic pla e o he senso . wo addi ional
senso s ( allen S 900) ha e been placed on he uppe and
lowe clamp o ensile de ice ia magne ic holde s se ing as he
gua ds. Signals wi h he i s a i al on one o he gua d senso s
ha e been a ibu ed o he noise and disca ded om e alua ed
da ase . Da a pos p ocessing has been done in Ma lab so wa e.
Se e al au ho s ha e add essed he use o a he mal image
o de ec changes in he empe a u e o es specimens in me-
chanical es s [15,16]. The LiR SC7200 came a (MWiR, inSb,
320×256 pixels) was used o de ec he in a ed adia ion o he
samples du ing he ensile es s. Na i e ame a es o 383 Hz
and 100 Hz, espec i ely, we e used in he measu emen s. An im-
po an pa ame e in quan i a i e empe a u e measu emen s
wi h in a ed de ec o s is he knowledge o he emissi i y o
he es ed samples [17,18]. The maSp ay 800 (emissi i y 0.97)
was applied o he es specimens be o e measu emen . he
ame a es o 383 Hz and 100 Hz, espec i ely, we e used in he
measu emen s. Da a we e p ocessed in LiR Resea chiR MaX
and Diadem so wa e (Na ional ins umen s), espec i ely. he
came a wi h a cooled de ec o was used due o he possibili y
o using sho in eg a ion imes, o de ec possible a eas o he
sample wi h inc eased adia ion.
3. esul s and discussion
Mos o he ene gy eleased on he disloca ion mo emen
is dissipa ed as a hea in he c ys al la ice, whe e he he mal
ene gy can be conside ed as some so o cumula i e quan i y.
he inc emen s o elas ic s ain, as he consequence o o e com-
ing he ene gy ba ie s sepa a ing he posi ions o a oms, a e
being suddenly i e e sibly eleased in he o m o Ae wa es
[9]. The mal emission de ec ed by medium wa eleng h in a ed
came a is ep esen ed by he maximum empe a u e acked
on he su ace o specimen gauge. Ae hi ene gy on he o he
hand is he o he adequa e pa ame e di ec ly connec ed o he
kine ics o plas ic de o ma ion mechanisms. ins ead o analys-
ing he Ae ene gy o sepa a ed hi s, i is mo e na u al o isual-
ize he cumula i e ene gy o hi s o uni y he ou pu s o bo h
NDe echniques. As a esul , s ess-s ain cu es oge he wi h
he cumula i e Ae ene gy and maximum empe a u e has been
isualized oge he o s udy he plas ic de o ma ion e olu ion
in he low de o ma ion s ages. S ains up o 7% a e analysed in
his wo k. accoun ing he compu ed S e o in es iga ed ma e-
ial he coexis ence o γ, ε and α' phases and winning could be
expec ed [4]. Mechanical wins and ansi ion o α´ ma ensi e
is assumed o occu a mode a e and high s ains [4,5,20,21].
assumed mechanisms below 7% s ain a e hus Shockley pa ial
disloca ions and S , shea bands, and ε-ma ensi e ansi ion.
Shea bands mus no be only ε-ma ensi e bands and winn bands
bu also he bands wi h aul ed ε and aul ed winn as a esul o
i egula o e lapping o S in close-packed planes [10]
ypical mechanical da a oge he wi h Ae and iR esul s
o he sample s ained a he a e ε
· = 7×10–4 s–1 a e plo -
ed on ig. 1. S ess s ain cu e o s ain a e ε· = 7×10–4
s–1. S ess s ain cu e ( ed line) plo ed wi h maximum
empe a u e (black line) and Ae cumula i e ene gy (blue
solid line – senso VS900, blue dashed line – senso VS45).
e ical dashed lines sepa a e he s ages i, ii, and iii1.
behind he e y sho linea egion (below 140 MPa) he
s ess-s ain cu e s a s o show non-linea beha iou , which
is he poin o Ae cumula i e ene gy onse on bo h channels.
De ec able Ae wa es a e hus gene a ed wi h he mac oscopic
s ess changes, as i has been published by z eihan e al. [11].
i is in e es ing o poin ou ha e en hough he wo Ae senso s
ha e di e en equency sensi i i y and some small a ia ions in
cumula i e ene gy a e p ominen , bo h senso s e lec he same
inc easing end wi h he non-linea s ess-s ain cha ac e below
he assumed yield poin . Small a ia ions a e p obably caused
by highe sensi i i y o S900 o he equencies abo e app ox.
450 kHz bu lowe sensi i i y o he e en s below 200 kHz. Du -
465
ing he ea ly s ages o de o ma ion and in he non-linea s age
below he yield poin he empe a u e emains p ac ically cons an
(apa om he sligh oscilla ions a ound he nea ly cons an mean
alue). i s wi h he decele a ion o ae ene gy inc emen he
maximum empe a u e s a s o ise. he e mus be highligh ed
he unique coope a ion/supplemen a ion o Ae and iR ech-
niques bo h o which seems o be sensi i e o he di e en plas ic
de o ma ion mechanisms. Maximum empe a u e shows basi-
cally he linea inc ease wi h p og essing s ain behind he yield
poin . his beha iou likely co esponds o he equali y o hea
dissipa ion wi h he hea gene a ion a he s ain a e o app ox.
ε
· = 7×10–4 s–1, which is s ill in a good ag eemen wi h he a e
ε
· = 5 ×10–4 s–1, published o he same s eel g ade by Li e al. [7].
Rep esen a i e esul s co esponding o he samples s ained
a he lowe a e: ε
· = 1.4×10–4 s–1, a e plo ed on ig. 2. S ess
s ain cu e o s ain a e ε· = 1.4×10–4 s–1. S ess s ain cu e
( ed line) plo ed wi h maximum empe a u e (black line) and
Ae cumula i e ene gy (blue solid line – senso S900, blue
dashed line – senso VS45). Ve ical dashed lines sepa a e he
s ages i, ii, and iii2.
Mechanical loading da a show p ac ically he same end
as in he case o as e s aining, bu he yield poin is shi ed
o he highe s ains and he non-linea egion is e en mo e
p ominen . Ae cumula i e ene gy inc ease ollows he non-linea
mechanical p ope ies wi h only sligh delay in he beginning o
plas ic de o ma ion and some sligh cumula ion occu ing e en
beyond he yield poin . in addi ion o his a ea he e is also he
cumula ion o hi s in he quasi-linea pa on he e y beginning
ig. 1. S ess s ain cu e o s ain a e ε
· = 7×10–4 s–1. S ess s ain cu e ( ed line) plo ed wi h maximum empe a u e (black line) and Ae
cumula i e ene gy (blue solid line – senso VS900, blue dashed line – senso VS45). Ve ical dashed lines sepa a e he s ages i, ii, and iii
ig. 2. S ess s ain cu e o s ain a e ε
· = 1.4×10–4 s–1. S ess s ain cu e ( ed line) plo ed wi h maximum empe a u e (black line) and Ae
cumula i e ene gy (blue solid line – senso VS900, blue dashed line – senso VS45). Ve ical dashed lines sepa a e he s ages i, ii, and iii
466
o de o ma ion which was also he case in he as e loading. he
o e all amoun o ene gy is howe e app oxima ely one o de
o magni ude lowe han in he ollowing plas ic bellow-yield
s age. he cha ac e o maximum empe a u e a he lowe s ain
a e appea s di e en ly. in he ea ly s age o s aining and in he
below-yield-plas ic de o ma ion s age he maximum empe a u e
i s dec eases. This e ec was also epo ed by kozlowska [12]
as a cha ac e is ic o elas ic de o ma ion. in o de o cap u e he
empe a u e changes in he beginning o de o ma ion, zoomed
a ea below he s ain 0.02 is isualized on ig. 3. zoomed onse
o de o ma ion o a sample s ained a he a e ε· = 1.4×10–4 s–1.
e ical dashed lines sepa a e he s ages i, ii, and iii3.
i is in e es ing o poin ou , ha he sha p dec ease o maxi-
mum empe a u e in he e y beginning o loading coincide e y
well wi h he quasi-linea de o ma ion s age and is subsequen ly
ollowed by g adual dec ease du ing he below-yield plas ici y.
Sluggish cooling which is in a good ag eemen wi h he onse o
non-linea s ess-s ain cha ac e hus mos likely indica es he
localized plas ic de o ma ion. Wi h he p og essing s aining,
maximum empe a u e mono onously ises ha ing he conca e
cha ac e which is in con a y o he linea empe a u e ise a he
a e ε
· = 7×10–4 s–1, ig. 1. S ess s ain cu e o s ain a e ε· =
7×10–4 s–1. S ess s ain cu e ( ed line) plo ed wi h maximum
empe a u e (black line) and Ae cumula i e ene gy (blue solid
line – senso VS900, blue dashed line – senso VS45). Ve ical
dashed lines sepa a e he s ages i, ii, and iii1. o igin o his
beha iou is p obably he as e hea dissipa ion han he hea
gene a ion a he lowe s ain a e. he p ope y o supplemen ing
sensi i i y o Ae and iR o di e en mechanisms is p ese ed
e en a he lowe s ain a e.
Analyses abo e s ongly indica e ha he loading unde
7% could be sec ioned in o h ee p incipal s ages whe e he
consis en changes a e p ominen om all he h ee e alua ed
indica o s: s ess-s ain cu e, ae cumula i e ene gy, iTR maxi-
mum empe a u e. S age i in he e y beginning o de o ma ion
is a ibu ed o he p e ailing elas ic de o ma ion. Some local
plas ic de o ma ion on he s ess concen a o s could no be
excluded which is he po en ial sou ce o Ae esponses wi h low
accumula ed ene gy. hese signals o igina e om he sample
and no om a po en ial noise in he g ips as he gua d senso
echnique excludes he hi s wi h he i s a i al on g ips. S age ii
co esponds o he plas ic de o ma ion bellow he assumed yield
poin which p oceeds h ough he Shockley pa ial disloca ions
in aus eni e {111}γ planes, he s acking aul s o med be ween
pa ials espec i ely. Wi h p og essing de o ma ion, he S s
may di e ge and o m he shea bands when exceeding some
c i ical s ess, p opo ional o he S e o a ma e ial. S age iii
hus mos likely co esponds o he o ma ion o shea bands as
a esul o o e lapping o S s in he {111}γ planes. i he egula
o e lapping occu s in e e y second {111}γ planes, ans o ma-
ion o ε-ma ensi e akes place. S age iii could he e o e be
a ibu ed o he o ma ion o shea bands and ans o ma ion
o ε-ma ensi e.
4. conclusions
Acous ic emission and in a ed he mog aphy ha e been
deployed o s udy he low s ain plas ic de o ma ion o AiSi
304L SS. i was demons a ed ha he combina ion o hese wo
echniques is ema kably ad an ageous as bo h he cumula i e
Ae ene gy and he maximum iR empe a u e a e supplemen a y
in e ms o he sensi i i y o he di e en mechanisms. h ee
s ages o de o ma ion below 7% s ain can be concluded wi h
he ollowing cha ac e is ics:
• S age i is he elas ic de o ma ion. ae shows some ac i i y
wi h he low accumula ed ene gy. iR cap u es he ela i ely
s eep cooling o sample a he lowe a e ε
· = 1.4×10–4 s–1
and basically he cons an empe a u e a as e s aining
ε
· = 7×10–4 s–1.
ig. 3. zoomed onse o de o ma ion o a sample s ained a he a e ε
· = 1.4×10–4 s–1. e ical dashed lines sepa a e he s ages i, ii, and iii
467
• S age ii co esponds o he o ma ion o Shockley pa ial
disloca ions and he S s. ae displays he s ong sensi i -
i y o hese mechanisms as he cumula i e ene gy sha ply
ises, which is in he good coincidence wi h he a ea o
s ongly non-linea beha iou o s ess s ain cu e. Cool-
ing o he sample slows down a ε
· = 1.4×10–4 s–1 as a esul
o he occu ence o plas ic de o ma ion in localized do-
mains. he cons an (sligh ly oscilla ing) end is obse ed
a he highe loading speed ε
· = 7×10–4 s–1.
• S age iii is a ibu ed o he shea bands and ε-ma ensi e
o ma ion. Wi h espec o he p e ious s age Ae s a s o
become quie . on he o he hand, he i R supplemen s he
Ae ou pu by sha p inc ease o maximum empe a u e.
S ain a e ε
· = 7×10–4 s–1 seems o be he speed whe e
he hea gene a ed equals he hea dissipa ed which is
mani es ed by linea ise o maximum empe a u e wi h
s aining. he maximum empe a u e inc ease wi h s ain
shows a he conca e cha ac e is ics a he lowe a e
ε
· = 1.4×10–4 s–1.
Acknowledgemen
This wo k was inanced by g an agency VeGa1/0510/20; keGa 011zU-
4/2022. his publica ion is he esul o suppo unde he ope a ional
P og am in eg a ed in as uc u e o he p ojec : S a egic implemen a ion
o addi i e echnologies o s eng hen he in e en ion capaci ies caused by
he CoViD-19 pandemic iTMS code: 313011aSy4, co- inanced by he
eu opean Regional De elopmen und. The wo k was also suppo ed by he
eu opean Regional De elopmen und in he Resea ch Cen e o ad anced
Mecha onic Sys ems p ojec , Cz.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000867 wi hin
he ope a ional p og amme Resea ch, De elopmen and educa ion and
he p ojec SP2021/27 ad anced me hods and echnologies in he ield o
machine and p ocess con ol suppo ed by he Minis y o educa ion, You h
and Spo s, Czech Republic. The suppo is acknowledged.
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