Analyzing portuguese loanwords within a dictionary of indonesian language

Universidade do Minho Escola de Letras, Artes e Ciências Humanas Yulianti Suryawardhani Yudo July 2022 Analyzing Portuguese Loanwords within a Dictionary of Indonesian Language Yulianti Suryawardhani Yudo Analyzing Portuguese Loanwords within a Dictionary of Indonesian Language UMinho|2022 Yulianti Suryawardhani Yudo July 2022 Analyzing Portuguese Loanwords within a Dictionary of Indonesian Language Supervised by Prof. Dr. Álvaro Iriarte Sanromán Dr. Dominik Brückner Master Thesis European Master in Lexicography Universidade do Minho Escola de Letras, Artes e Ciências Humanas ii DIREITOS DE AUTOR E CONDIÇÕES DE UTILIZAÇÃO DO TRABALHO POR TERCEIROS Este é um trabalho académico que pode ser utilizado por terceiros desde que respeitadas as regras e boas práticas internacionalmente aceites, no que concerne aos direitos de autor e direitos conexos. Assim, o presente trabalho pode ser utilizado nos termos previstos na licença abaixo indicada. Caso o utilizador necessite de permissão para poder fazer um uso do trabalho em condições não previstas no licenciamento indicado, deverá contactar o autor, através do RepositóriUM da Universidade do Minho. Licença concedida aos utilizadores deste trabalho Atribuição-NãoComercial-CompartilhaIgual CC BY-NC-SA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ iii STATEMENT OF INTEGRITY I hereby declare having conducted this academic work with integrity. I confirm that I have not used plagiarism or any form of undue use of information or falsification of results along the process leading to its elaboration. I further declare that I have fully acknowledged the Code of Ethical Conduct of the University of Minho. iv Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank EMLex and the entire consortium for giving me the opportunity to continue with my studies in Europe with this unique program. Secondly, I would like to thank both of my supervisors, Prof. Dr. Álvaro Iriarte Sanromán from Universidade do Minho in Braga, Portugal, and Dr. Dominik Brückner from Institut der Deutschen Sprache in Mannheim, Germany, who have pointed me to the right direction when I was confused and lost, and also shared with me so much of their knowledge, academically and otherwise. I would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Idalete Maria da Silva Dias, the coordinator of EMLex in Universidade do Minho and our mother while in Braga. Her dedication, love and kindness really made me feel at home. She always came to our rescue when things got tough and I can’t appreciate her enough for that. Of course, I can’t forget the brother and sister from different parents that I’ve gained during this program, David Huerta Meza and Snizhana Umanets. They have no idea how thankful I am to have met them. We shared this adventure and went through various ups-and-downs in the presence of one another. Hopefully this bond will last beyond the time we’ve shared together these past few years. To my real family: My mother Hertiningrum who never ceased to remind me to take care while being away from home and always prayed for my safety, as well as updated me with every little thing at home. My father Hindaryudo Soekarman, who’s always supported my choices and encouraged me to go beyond my comfort zone, as well as shared words of wisdom and discussed about anything under the sun with me. Also my brothers, Sakti Hananto Yudo and Kukuh Hario Yudo; we might not have communicated much during my time away from home, but they are always in my mind and heart, and so are their little families. During my stay in Portugal, I’ve been involved in the Association of Indonesian Students in Portugal (PPI Portugal). The members welcomed me with open arms when I first contacted them before my arrival, helped out with any question or trouble I’ve had, encouraged me to become part of the association body, then secretary, and finally appointed me as president since October 2021. It is truly an honor to have become an integral part of this close-knit family as it has widened my horizon and upgraded me in the process. In several parts of this thesis, I mentioned the work of Daya Negri Wijaya. He isn’t a mere scholar whose relevant work I cited, but he’s also been a great friend and respected senior while he’s doing his PhD in Universidade do Porto. I appreciate the insights, the discussions and the friendship he’s shared with me. To my flatmates Alice Mevis and Emilio Jerez, who have not only kept me entertained and full, but also talked about many different aspects of life with and given me insights from their points of view. Obrigada! Last but not least, I’d like to thank myself. Me, Yulianti Suryawardhani Yudo, for finishing this program and thesis in one piece; for the perseverance, the patience, the sweat and tears that were poured during the process. It was a very life-changing period, but I’ve made it! Here’s to more adventures in life! v Analyzing Portuguese Loanwords within a Dictionary of Indonesian Language Abstract This thesis studies the Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian language. Portuguese is one of the languages that has influenced and enriched Indonesian since the 16th century, and now some loanwords have become part of the vocabulary. However, little has been studied in comparison to other linguistic influences and therefore, through this study, we would like to analyze those loanwords from Portuguese as preliminary study, before ultimately be able to create a dictionary of loanwords with Portuguese, since in Indonesia, we do not have one that is comprehensive. The analysis is done through compiling the already available glossaries of Portuguese loanwords. The resulted compilation is then analyzed for its frequency and semantic field. This process is done with the help of a corpus and some available online resources related to loanwords, particularly in Indonesian, but also in general. Finally, we try representing some select loanwords in a dictionary. For this, we additionally look up for some etymological information with the help of some historical Portuguese dictionaries, as well as Portuguese etymological dictionaries. This is a necessary addition, because after all, a loanwords dictionary would not be comprehensive enough without etymological information. Keywords: Indonesian language, loanwords, Portuguese loanwords vi Análise dos Empréstimos do Português num Dicionário de Indonésio Resumo Este trabalho trata dos empréstimos do português no indonésio. O português é uma das línguas que têm influído no indonésio, desde o seu contacto das duas línguas no século XVI. No entanto, esta influência no tem sido suficientemente estudada, se compararmos com outras línguas que têm influenciado o indonésio ao longo da história. Por essa razão, decidimos fazer este estudo, e também para, posteriormente, poder criar um dicionário de empréstimos do português no indonésio. A análise dos empréstimos é feita usando glossários que já foram compilados em estudos prévios. A partir destes glossários foi compilada uma lista de empréstimos, que analisamos segundo a frequência e o campo semântico. Para isso, foram usados corpora e outros recursos ligados a empréstimos linguísticos, especialmente no indonésio, mas também em geral. Finalmente, apresentamos exemplos ilustrativos de como os empréstimos do português no indonésio serão recolhidos no dicionário de empréstimos. Neste dicionário é imprescindível a recolha de informação etimológica, que, neste caso, é feita com a ajuda de um dicionário histórico do português e da informação etimológica recolhida num dicionário português, nos dicionários etimológicos do português e num dicionário etimológico hispânico. Palavras-chave: empréstimo, empréstimos do português, indonésio vii Table of Contents DIREITOS DE AUTOR E CONDIÇÕES DE UTILIZAÇÃO DO TRABALHO POR TERCEIROS ........ ii Licença concedida aos utilizadores deste trabalho................................................................ ii STATEMENT OF INTEGRITY ......................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ v Resumo ............................................................................................................................................ vi Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 0.1. Objective of the Study ..................................................................................................... 3 0.2. Research Question ........................................................................................................... 3 0.3. Structure of the Study ..................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1: Theoretical Background ............................................................................................. 5 1.1. Language Borrowing ....................................................................................................... 5 1.2. Loanwords in Indonesian Language .............................................................................. 6 1.3. Portuguese Loanwords in Indonesian and Malay Language...................................... 8 Chapter 2: Methodology ..............................................................................................................11 2.1. Data Source ....................................................................................................................11 2.1.1. Loanword Online Resources .................................................................................11 2.1.2. Glossaries ................................................................................................................20 2.1.3. Historical and Etymological Dictionaries ............................................................20 2.2. Methodology ...................................................................................................................21 Chapter 3: Results & Discussion .................................................................................................23 3.1. Most Frequent Words in Indonesian Language ............................................................23 3.2. Frequency of Portuguese Loanwords .............................................................................26 3.3. Connotations of Portuguese Loanwords ........................................................................37 3.4. Semantic Fields of Portuguese Loanwords ...................................................................40 3.4.1. Commerce ...............................................................................................................41 3.4.2. Entertainment .........................................................................................................43 3.4.3. Warfare ....................................................................................................................45 3.4.4. Religion ....................................................................................................................46 3.4.5. Household ................................................................................................................49 3.4.6. Clothing ...................................................................................................................50 3 And yet, we Indonesians still only know very little of it in comparison to other language influences, so we feel the need to dedicate more time and resources in this study. 0.1. Objective of the Study We have discovered that scholars, Indonesian and otherwise, have tried figuring out the Portuguese linguistic influence in Indonesian, but so far, all they have produced were glossaries. Even the few dictionaries on loanwords such as Russel Jones’ Loan-Words in Indonesian and Malay (2007) don’t provide much information on the words aside from the specifications of the donor language. Furthermore, at the moment, KBBI Daring, which can be accessed through https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/Beranda as the online and most updated version of the standard Indonesian language dictionary does not provide any etymological information on Portuguese loanwords, so we still see the need to make an effort in studying Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian language for the sake of providing further information for users. In addition, in the second semester of EMLex, we had a module called Dictionary Planning and Production, held by Dr. Dominik Brückner, who also became one of the supervisors of this thesis. This module borne an assignment about planning and producing a multi-volume dictionary on loanwords in Indonesian, with each volume corresponding to one specific donor language. It was that assignment that became the inspiration and foundation for this thesis. As a long-term goal, we would like to create a dictionary of loanwords in Indonesian, specifically and starting with Portuguese, that has a proper microstructure and etymological information. However, as a preliminary study, we first need to analyze the words in order to later be able to provide a list of dictionary articles that are truly valid and accurate. This factor was what drove us into conducting this study of analyzing Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian language. 0.2. Research Question Based on the preliminary readings and the current situation of Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian language, we have decided to conduct our study based on the following research questions: 1. Identify the Portuguese loanwords frequently found within the Indonesian language. 2. Why are most of the high-frequency Portuguese loanwords nouns? 4 3. Do Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian language carry any connotation? 4. Which semantic fields do the high-frequency Portuguese loanwords belong to? 0.3. Structure of the Study This study will be divided into four chapters: Chapter 1 that will discuss the theoretical background, Chapter 2 that will discuss the methodology, Chapter 3 that will analyze the results of the study and finally, Chapter 4 that shows a representation of the loanwords in a dictionary. In Chapter 1, we will first discuss the theoretical background of language borrowing in 1.1, as the base of the analysis that will follow. From there, we will enter subchapter 1.2 that dwells more into loanwords in Indonesian in general, followed by Portuguese loanwords, especially, in 1.3. We will see the studies that have been done until date and which novelty we can offer from there. In Chapter 2, we will show the data source (both online and offline) that we will use for our study. In 2.1, we will explain each online resource, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. Subsequently, we will also explain our methodology for the study in 2.2, which will be explained and analyzed in detail in the following chapter. Thus, Chapter 3 will contain the results and discussion of our study on Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian language. The chapter will be divided into several subchapters. In 3.1, we will first look into the most frequent Indonesian words and whether any of them are of Portuguese origin, then in 3.2. we will see from another point of view and dwell with the most frequent Portuguese loanwords. Afterwards, in 3.3 we will also look into whether any of the Portuguese loanwords carry any particular connotation and in 3.4, we will divide those loanwords into different semantic fields and analyze them. Last but not least, in Chapter 4 we will show a representation of our proposed dictionary of Portuguese loanwords. Firstly, in 4.1. we will show a representation that was proposed for an assignment prior to this study and then in 4.2. we will redefine our dictionary representation based on the information we have obtained through this study. 5 Chapter 1: Theoretical Background 1.1. Language Borrowing When there is a prolonged contact between two different cultures that have languages that differ from one another, there is a high chance that words or terms would transfer from one language to another. Linguistically speaking, one language would replicate a linguistic feature of another language, either partly or wholly (Durkin, 2014, p. 3). This is called language borrowing, although despite being called such, it does not imply that words are borrowed or loaned with the intention of being given back at a later point. These words would be integrated and remain in the new language. These borrowed words are also called loanwords. There are two different situations of language transfer, namely imitation and adaptation. Imitation, or borrowing, refers to the situation in which the recipient language does not have the vocabulary used by the donor language and tries its best in imitating and reproducing it. This is usually a phonological case, in which the recipient hears something from the donor and thus tries to imitate and reproduce said word the best they can. However, if the recipient language does not have the sound heard in the recipient language, they are forced to adapt or impose to their own phonological system. Thus comes the process of adaptation, or imposition (Van Coetsem, 1988, p. 8). Furthermore, in the process of language transfer, there is a donor or source language, as well as the receiver or borrowing language. Usually, it occurs in a situation where the donor holds a higher power or position than the receiver. It may be socially, culturally, politically, or other. There is usually a stratum (or strate) when a language transfer occurs. When talking about a situation in which one language holds a higher stratum, that language becomes the superstratum, while the other language with the lower stratum becomes the substratum. According to Van Coetsem, “[b]oth substratum and superstratum presuppose the linguistic dominance of the s[ource]l[anguage].” (1988, p. 78) In the case of Dutch colonization in Indonesia, for example, Dutch was considered the language of higher stratum, while the then-Indonesian was considered of lower stratum. Hence, in that case, Dutch was the superstratum, while then-Indonesian was the substratum. This occurrence is also the case with many other colonies (“Stratum (linguistics)”, 2022). Nowadays, with the globalization and the history of humans discovering, conquering and migrating to other places, loanwords have become a normal part of a language’s vocabulary. According to the 6 Loanword Typology Project (WOLT) conducted by Haspelmath and Tadmor based on 41 languages of the world 4 , “[n]o language in the sample—and probably no language in the world—is entirely devoid of loanwords”. This means that practically every language in the world has been influenced by others, one way or another. Language borrowing is different from code-switching. In language borrowing, words are adapted into a language with some changes that may occur, be it in form or meaning, while code-switching is alternating more than one language together in one or more sentences in a conversation, depending on the situation. This mostly happens in bilingual or multilingual communities. (United Language Group, n.d.) 1.2. Loanwords in Indonesian Language Historically being a commerce hub for centuries between merchants coming from different countries that speak different language, obviously after some time, words would be integrated into the local speech of Indonesian. In the modern-day Indonesian, it is known that a part of the vocabulary comes from a different language, despite not everyone being familiar with its percentage and history, or where exactly which word comes from. But such is the influence, that the Indonesian artist/writer Alif Danya Munsyi saw the need to write the book titled 9 dari 10 Kata Bahasa Indonesia adalah Asing 5 , which translates into 9 out of 10 Words in Indonesian is Foreign , to emphasize this fact. The aforementioned book also gives some interesting text samples to show how much foreign influence is found within the language, such as the following: "Meski hari gerimis, setelah sembahyang lohor, para santri mengayuh roda sepedanya ke pasar, disuruh paderi membeli koran dan majalah, tetapi ternyata kiosnya disegel sebab bangkrut, jadi mampirlah semuanya di toko buku yang uniknya malah menyediakan perabotan khusus keluarga yang ditaburkan di meja baca, antara lain teko poselen, peniti emas, lap, setrika listrik, serta kalender berfoto artis idola" (Munsyi, 2003, p. 2) Afterwards, the writer broke down the words of the text and analyzed each word’s sources, to obtain the following result: 4 The results of the project can be accessed at https://wold.clld.org/ 5 Munsyi, Alif Danya. (2003). 9 dari 10 Kata Bahasa Indonesia adalah Asing . Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia. 7 Meski (Portuguese: mas que ), hari (Sanskrit: title of the God of Sun), setelah (Kawi 6 : telas ), sembahyang (Sanskrit: sembah hyang ), lohor (Arab: dzuhur ), para (Kawi: para ), santri (Tamil: santri ), mengayuh (Minangkabau: kayuh ), roda (Portuguese: roda ), sepeda (French: velocipede ), pasar (Persian: bazar ), disuruh (Kawi: suruh ), paderi (Spanish: padre ), membeli (Campa: blei ), koran (Dutch: krant ), majalah (Arabic: majalla ), tetapi (Sanskrit: tad-api ), ternyata (Javanese: nyata ), kiosnya (English: kiosk ), disegel (Dutch: zegel ), sebab (Arabic: ababun ), bangkrut (Italian: bancarotto ), jadi (Sanskrit: jati ), mampirlah (Javanese: mampir ), semuanya (Sanskrit: samuha ), toko (Chinese: to-ko ), buku (Dutch: boek ), yang (Austronesian: ia + ang ), uniknya (French: unique ), malah (Javanese: malah ), menyediakan (Sanskrit: sedya ), perabotan (Betawi: perabot ), khusus (Arabic: khusus ), keluarga (Sanskrit: kulabwarga ), ditaburkan (Hebrew: tabbwur ), di meja (Portuguese: mesa ), baca (Sanskrit: waca ), antara (Sanskrit: antara ), lain (Kawi: liyan ), teko (Chinese: te-ko ), porselen (English: porcelain ), peniti (Portuguese: alfinete ), emas (Sanskrit: amasha ), lap (Dutch: lap ), setrika (Dutch: strijkezer ) listrik (Dutch: elektrisch ), kalender (Dutch: kalender ), berfoto (Greek: photos ), artis (English: artist ), idola (Greek: eidolon ) (Munsyi, 2003, p. 3) Surprisingly or not, 49 out of 57 words in the text are loanwords from the most diverse sources, making it 85,96% of the total number. It makes complete sense if the writer expressed that nine out of ten words in Indonesian are foreign, or more specifically, have foreign origins. Sometimes it is not easy to determine what the language donor of a word is. For example, in the text above we see a couple of Greek loanwords, foto and idola . While it is true that those words initially come from Greek, they actually entered Indonesian through Dutch as the words foto and idool , respectively. Therefore, based on this fact, rather than stating the etimologia remota Greek, it would be more common to state the etimologia prossima for those words: Dutch. This method is also theoretically more favored by etymologists in general (Buchi, 2015). As seen in the example above, one of the language donors in Indonesian was Portuguese. In history classes in school, we were taught that the Portuguese arrived in the Indonesian archipelago to trade, spread their religion and conquer our lands, and as a consequence, they were considered our first colonizers 7 . 6 Kawi is an old language that used to be spoken in the eastern part of Java, Bali, and Lombok, which was largely influenced by Sanskrit. Nowadays the language is considered archaic and only used in ceremonies and art performances, such as shadow puppet shows (“Kawi language”, 2022). Kawi language (2022, January 22). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kawi_language&oldid=1061636037 7 In school we were always taught that we were colonized by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the Japanese, in that order, until we proclaimed our independence on August 17, 1945. 8 1.3. Portuguese Loanwords in Indonesian and Malay Language Ever since the middle of the previous century, scholars have tried studying the linguistic influences Portuguese has had on Indonesian, each approaching from different routes. Some try looking into the modern-day Indonesian, some others look from where Portuguese influence was most prominent in East Indonesia and others look further back into Malay of the 16th century, the lingua franca at the time the Portuguese arrived in the archipelago. Portugal acknowledged the independence of Indonesia in 1949 and opened a representative office in 1950. However, between the years 1965 and 1999, the diplomatic relations between the two countries were broken due to various factors. This factor contributed to the lack of knowledge and attention to Portugal and how the country had culturally influenced Indonesia in the past. Nevertheless, during that time of unstable diplomatic relations, Portuguese representatives still occupied the office as consul despite remaining without an ambassador. One remarkable Portuguese man called António Pinto da França was on this seat from 1965 to 1970. During his seat, he made a journey around the archipelago and discovered traces of Portuguese culture that ran deeper than what he had thought, thus he manually collected Portuguese-sounding words he heard from locals and compiled them into one glossary, which was included in the book he first published in 1970 (Pinto da França, 2014, pp. 27-35). This glossary becomes one of our starting points at analyzing Portuguese loanwords. In his book, Pinto da França mentioned having met a historian named Paramitha Abdurachman, who was very engaged in tracing the Portuguese heritage herself. One of her works was also to compile Portuguese loanwords, but based on the vernacular language in Central Moluccas in East Indonesia, which was the area where the Portuguese were mostly based centuries ago. She started conducting her project in 1965 by interviewing locals of different age groups between the ages 15 and 70. By the time her project was done in 1970, she was able to obtain a wordlist, that was also included in her book, alongside some explanations (Abdurachman, 2008, pp. 162-182). A few years later, in 1973, together with Dr. Denys Lombard and Prof. Luigi Santa Maria, Dr. Russel Jones founded the Indonesian Etymological Project. They were later joined by other scholars of different nationalities to compile loanwords in Indonesian (and Malay) of different language sources, namely Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Hindi, Tamil, Chinese, European languages and Japanese. This project borne a dictionary of loanwords with basic etymological information in 2008 (Jones, 2008). 9 In 2004, the scholars Martin Haspelmath and Uri Tadmor set up a project that aimed in collecting information on loanwords based on sample languages, which they named The World Typology Project. With the help of a group of contributors, they chose 41 representative languages of the world of varying number of speakers and ease of reach (some languages are quite remote), with a sample of 1,0001,400 words each. This project, funded by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany, was conducted until 2008, with the end product a database called The World Loanword Database and can be both accessed online and found in printed version. One of the chosen languages of the project was Indonesian and the database included some Portuguese loanwords as well (Haspelmath & Tadmor, 2009). Additionally, in the book that accompanied their project, Tadmor who did the research for Indonesian identified four major semantic fields that contained loanwords in Indonesian: Religion and belief (70% borrowed vocabulary), the Modern world (66,4%), Clothing and grooming (55,6%) and Law (51,4%) (Haspelmath & Tadmor, 2009, p. 700). Meanwhile, the Malaysian scholar Ahmat Adam traced his research on Portuguese language influence back to the classical Malay of the 16th century that used to be the lingua franca of both the Malaccan Peninsula and the Indonesian Archipelago. He discovered that classical texts of Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) written in 1612 or earlier already included some Portuguese vocabulary connected to warfare and navigation. For example, one excerpt mentioned the arrival of Afonso de Albuquerque in Malacca with his fleet as the following: “Fongso Dhalberkarki pun naik ke Portugal menghadap Raja Portugal minta irmada, maka diberi oleh Raja Portugal empat buah kapal dan lima buah ghali panjang. Maka ia turun berlengkap pula di Guha tiga buah kapal, lapan ghalias, empat buah ghali panjang, lima belas fusta, maka jadi empat puluh semuanya…” (Raffles 18: narrative 23, f.191) The text above was translated in his book into: “Afonso Dalboquerque then headed for Portugal to see the King of Portugal in order to request armadas which the King of Portugal then gave him, viz. four ships and five long galleys. He then came down to Goa fully armed with three ships, eight galleys, four long galleons, [and] 15 pinnaces making it 40 altogether…” (Raffles 18: narrative 23, f.191) We underlined words in the text that were clearly Portuguese influence, namely irmada (PT: armada ), ghalias (PT: galeaca ), ghali (PT: galé ) and fusta (PT: fusta ), which are all connected to navigation, explaining Albuquerque’s fleet and the types of ships he had brought with him. And to conclude, this 10 book also included a glossary of Portuguese loanwords in Malay, as well as a smaller glossary of Malay loanwords in Portuguese (Adam, 2020, pp. 61-74). Most recently, the Indonesian scholars Daya Negri Wijaya, Deny Yudo Wahyudi and Siti Zainatul Umaroh conducted a research in Ambon to trace the Portuguese influence in their lands that borne a book. One of the results of their research was that not only was Portuguese a big influence on Ambon Malay’s language, but also there were many toponyms in the area with Portuguese-sounding names, such as Lorong da Silva (Da Silva Corridor) where the descendants of the Da Silva family still live, Sungai Olifante (Olifante River) that is probably adapted from the Portuguese word elefante (elephant) and Batu Capeo (Chapeo Rock), which likely comes from the Portuguese word chapéu (hat), because of its similarity to a hat. The book’s chapter on language influence was also complemented with glossaries of toponyms in Ambon and Portuguese loanwords in Malay Ambon. (Wijaya, Wahyudi, Umaroh, 2021, pp. 44-61) 11 Chapter 2: Methodology 2.1. Data Source 2.1.1. Loanword Online Resources a. The Corpora Collection of the University of Leipzig In order to conduct the assessment and analysis of Portuguese loanwords, we will be using the help of Corpora Collection of University of Leipzig 8 . In this website, four different Indonesian corpora are available: - Mixed Corpus 2013 - News 2019 - News 2020 - Wikipedia 2021 We will be using the Mixed Corpus 2013 for the study, because it contains a mixed source, meaning that it covers various fields, user backgrounds and degrees of speech. Moreover, it is the largest among the four, with 74,329,815 sentences and 1,206,281,985 tokens, several times larger than the other three corpora. The Corpora Collection itself is a project done by the University of Leipzig, which compiles corpora in different languages and varying sizes, from 10,000 to 1 million sentences, collected randomly from various sources, such as news sites and blogs. These corpora can be used for various means. They can be downloaded, imported and used on other applications or databases as well. This website will be used not only due to the availability of the largest Indonesian corpus online we could find, but also because the site has features that will be useful for the analysis, especially to determine the frequency of words. Just to give an example, we will show how the word frequency and other useful features are presented on the website (see Figure 1): 8 https://corpora.uni-leipzig.de/en?corpusId=ind_mixed_2013# (retrieved on December 23, 2021) 12 Figure 1 Result page for the entry Natal on Corpora Collection of University of Leipzig, from https://corpora.unileipzig.de/en/res?corpusId=ind_mixed_2013&word=Natal (retrieved on December 23, 2021) In Figure 1, we used the Indonesian word Natal , loaned from the exact same word in Portuguese Natal , which equivalents to Christmas in English. On the top of the page, we can see the number of occurrences, rank and frequency class. Based on this information, we can determine that the Indonesian word Natal ranks 3,054 on the most frequent words within this corpus. 19 Figure 7 Map of Indonesian as donor language based on WOLD, from: https://wold.clld.org/language/27 (retrieved on January 17, 2022) On Figure 7, we see that the language has only been donor to Dutch, at least within the samples among the 41 languages conducted in this project 13 . Apart from meaning and basic etymological information, this website also has other interesting features, such as semantic fields. There’s a given list on fields, where we can click and see words within the entire database that belong to said field. This feature is very useful for comparison purposes. While this website may not be directly useful for our study in comparison with more complete available glossaries based on the number of samples, it is still resourceful and provides some insights that can be beneficial upon checking the words analyzed during the process, for example if we later on decide to look up for some basic etymological information of certain words or would like to know the semantic field of some. 13 English has loanwords from Indonesian as well and are even included in the Oxford dictionary, but despite English being one of the languages of the project, said words were not included in the samples. 20 2.1.2. Glossaries Thus far, several authors have gathered and included glossaries of Portuguese loanwords into their works. There are multiple glossaries available, but some are based on the same works, so we only considered the first source if used as reference and compiled everything into one sole list. The two remarkable works most glossaries are based upon are the books Bunga Angin Portugis di Nusantara by Paramitha Abdurachman (2008) and influência portuguesa na Indonésia by António Pinto da França (2014), so these will be the major works that will be considered in the making of our list. However, that will not disregard any other addition of vocabulary from other glossaries that we have seen in other works. 2.1.3. Historical and Etymological Dictionaries In Indonesia, we don’t have any dedicated etymological or diachronic dictionary and as mentioned before, even the standard Indonesian dictionary has only started adding etymological information recently. Thus, finding etymological information for Portuguese loanwords especially is a real challenge. Therefore, we will try changing perspectives and instead of looking for the earliest documented information on the language transfer between Portuguese and then-Malay, which may require plenty more resources, we will look up the meaning of the Portuguese source words of those loanwords in historical Portuguese dictionaries from the time of language contact (16th-18th century). Additionally, we will cross-check the etymological information of those words in Portuguese (and Spanish, because of the closeness of the two languages) etymological dictionaries, in order to at least learn the etimologia remota from Indonesian, from as many Portuguese sources as possible. a. Diccionario da lingua portugueza composto pelo padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva natural do Rio de Janeiro (1789) This dictionary written by Rafael Bluteau and perfected by António Moraes da Silva is the closest in timeline and best in content that we were able to find, in relation to Portuguese during the period of the language contact. The dictionary is divided into two volumes and are both available online 14 , so they provide an easy access. This work becomes our starting point on obtaining the history of our Portuguese loanwords. It is also known as the first edition of dictionary of Morais. 14 Silva, António de Morais. (1789) Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza Composto pelo Padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva. Lisboa, Ferreira. Retrieved March 14, 2022, from https://digital.bbm.usp.br/handle/bbm/5412 and https://digital.bbm.usp.br/handle/bbm/5413 21 b. Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa : com a mais antiga documentação escrita e conhecida de muitos dos vocábulos estudados (1967) This etymological dictionary was written by José Pedro Machado and is divided into five volumes. It has etymological information on Portuguese lemmata and gives us some good etymological information on Portuguese words of our concern. c. Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico (1980-1983) In order to obtain a more thorough etymological information, we will also check the information in this series of dictionary of three volumes by Joan Corominas and José A. Pascual. While this dictionary focuses on Spanish, it still serves us due to the closeness of Spanish and Portuguese. d. Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa (2003) Last but not least, we will also look up some etymological information in this dictionary by Antônio Houaiss. While Houaiss was Brazilian and this dictionary in its first release in 2001 was focused on the Brazilian variant of Portuguese, it was re-released in 2003 in three volumes with additional European Portuguese contents. This is a modern-day Portuguese dictionary, but what we will use is the etymology included with each lemma. 2.2. Methodology First, we will compile glossaries of Portuguese loanwords found in various resources. Thus far, resources that include these glossaries are the following: - Jumariam, M. T., Qodratillah, & Ruddyanto, C. (Eds.) (1996). Senarai Kata Serapan dalam Bahasa Indonesia . Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. - Abdurachman, P. R. (2008). Bunga Angin Portugis di Nusantara . Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia - Wijaya, D. N., Wahyudi, D. Y., & Umaroh, S. Z. (2021). Nusa Ambon Silang Budaya: Pertemuan Jaringan Global Abad XVI-XVII. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. - Jones, R. (general ed.), Grijns, C. D., De Vries, J. W. (Eds.) (2007). Loan-words in Indonesian and Malay . Compiled by the Indonesian Etymological Project. KITLV Press. - Adam, A. (2020). The Sejarah Melayu Revisited: A Collection of Six Essays . Strategic Information and Research Development Centre. - Haspelmath, M. & Tadmor, U. (2009). Loanwords in the World's Languages . De Gruyter Mouton. 22 - Pinto da França, A. & Rogers, R. (2014) A influência portuguesa na Indonésia: Portuguese influence in Indonesia. Ed. bilingue em português e inglês. ALIAC-Associação Luso-Indonésia para a Amizade e Cooperação, D.L. The compilation will sum up into one sole list of known Portuguese loanwords. These loanwords will be listed on a table with the Portuguese source words as well as English equivalents. Then, we will look into the frequency of each word on the Corpora Collection. Since the study dwells with frequency, we will only choose the entries with highest frequency rank to later analyze. Analyzing the frequency is one important way to study loanwords, “since it is generally assumed that lexical stability increases (and therefore borrowability decreases) with frequency.” (Haspelmath & Tadmor, 2009, p. 15) However, thus far, no research on the frequency of Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian has been made, which drove us to conduct this study. Subsequently, on the latter part of the analysis, we will work on the words’ semantic field, as well. For comparison purposes, we will also extract the 50 most frequent words in Indonesian from the Corpora Collection, which has this list as one of its features. That way, we can determine whether there are loanwords within the most frequent words and if there are, whether any come from Portuguese. Furthermore, we would also like to analyze other aspects of the words aside from the frequency per se, such as their semantic fields and connotations. It would be interesting to see which semantic fields those words belong to, and whether any of the loanwords has any negative, positive, or other connotation in Indonesian. 23 Chapter 3: Results & Discussion For this study, we will try analyzing the frequency of words in Indonesian seen from different points of view. First, we will see the most frequent words in Indonesian and next, we will determine the frequency of Portuguese loanwords within the Indonesian vocabulary. Afterwards, we will also analyze other aspects of the Portuguese loanwords, namely the connotations and semantic fields. 3.1. Most Frequent Words in Indonesian Language In this first part of the study, we will pick the 50 most frequent words in Indonesian based on chosen corpus at the Corpora Collection from the University of Leipzig. From that list, we can determine how many of them are loanwords and more specifically, Portuguese loanwords, if any, with the help of the etymology feature of KBBI Online, which, while it is still under development, may help give us an idea. A column of English equivalent is also included for reference. The 50 most frequent words are the following (see Table 1): No. Word Meaning in English Loanword Origin 1. yang that (conjuction) 2. dan and 3. di in/on/at 4. dengan with 5. ini this 6. untuk for 7. dari from 8. itu that 9. dalam inside 10. tidak no 11. pada at 12. akan will (denotes future) 13. juga also 14. adalah is/are 15. ke to 16. ada to exist 17. bisa can 18. tersebut said something 24 19. atau or 20. menjadi to become 21. oleh of 22. dapat can be 23. karena because  Sanskrit 24. lebih more 25. tahun year 26. sudah already (indicates past tense)  Sanskrit 27. sebagai as 28. kita we 29. mereka they 30. Indonesia Indonesia 31. saya I (pronoun)  Sanskrit 32. orang person/human 33. telah already (indicates past tense) 34. bahwa that (conjunction)  Sanskrit 35. satu one 36. harus must 37. saat when, moment  Arabic 38. seperti like, such as  Sanskrit 39. kepada for  Sanskrit 40. hanya only 41. sangat very 42. masih still 43. lain other 44. secara as 45. banyak many/much 46. kata word  Sanskrit 47. para (indicates plural for person) 48. Anda you (formal) 49. merupakan is/are 50. baik good Table 1 The 50 most frequent Indonesian words The Table 1 above shows that most of the words are conjunction, a case that occurs quite commonly in various languages. We cross-checked the words on the list with the etymology feature at KBBI Daring 15 15 The etymology feature of KBBI Daring is only provided to registered users. At the moment this study is done, the feature has only been developed for loanwords of Arabic and part of Sanskrit, which are two of the biggest donors of loanwords in Indonesian. 25 and found that eight of them are known to be loanwords, almost entirely coming from Sanskrit, with one exception from Arabic. Figure 8 Chart of 50 most frequent words in Indonesian If we project the list in a chart such as Figure 8 above, we can determine that among the 50 words, 14% among them come from Sanskrit, only 2% come from Arabic, while the rest, or 84% are not known to be loanwords or are of unknown origin. Since we have thus determined that there are no known Portuguese loanwords on the list and we are not dwelling with loanwords in Indonesian from donors aside from Portuguese, we will leave this information as is at this point and not make any further research on these words, although they will surely be useful for other types of studies. However, this result leaves us with the questions: how and why are there no Portuguese loanwords among these most frequent words in Indonesian? Where would Portuguese loanwords rank within the Indonesian vocabulary? Also, if we take a look at the list of words on Table 1 above, most of them are conjunctions or particles, with a few pronouns and adverbs. That also raises the question: what are the part of speech of Portuguese loanwords? 14 2 84 Known loanwords from Sanskrit Known loanwords from Arabic Not loanword or of unknown origin 010 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Top 50 Most Common Words in Indonesian (in %) Known loanwords from Sanskrit Known loanwords from Arabic Not loanword or of unknown origin 26 3.2. Frequency of Portuguese Loanwords In this second part, we will see the frequency of loanwords, seen from the Portuguese language point of view, to see how they rank within the Indonesian vocabulary. In order to do that, we take available glossaries from different sources mentioned in the previous chapter and compile them into one sole list. Using that list, we will compare their frequencies using the frequency feature available at the Corpora Collection and create a table of frequencies, as seen below (see Table 2): No. Indonesian Portuguese Origin English equivalent Frequency Rank 1. adven advento advent 129,995 2. algojo algoz executioner 30,009 3. almari (lemari) armário wardrobe 34,459 4. altar altar altar 21,750 5. antero inteiro whole 122,973 6. arena arena arena 4,881 7. arloji relógio watch/clock 37,816 8. armada armada armada 5,150 9. aula aula big, multifunctional room 8,841 10. baluarti baluarte stronghold 1,135,748 11. bangku banco bank (to sit on) 4,161 12. banyo banjo banjo 752,441 13. bantal avental pillow 10,682 14. Belanda Holanda Holland 967 15. baret bareta beret 37,000 16. beludru veludo velvet 54,148 17. bendera bandeira flag 3,671 18. beranda veranda veranda 24,906 19. biola viola violin 22,090 20. bola bola ball 918 21. bolu bolo cake 44,015 22. boneka boneca doll 6,584 22. botol botelha bottle 3,463 23. cerutu charuto cigar 40,770 24. cokelat chocolate chocolate 5,558 25. dadu dado dice 30,388 26. dansa dançar dance 28,119 27. duda viúva widower 32,227 28. gagu gago stutterer 139,080 29. gardu guarda guard 17,555 27 30. garpu garfo fork 29,071 31. gereja igreja church 2,010 32. gitar guitarra guitar 6,080 33. Inggris inglês English 458 34. jendela janela window 3,570 35. jurnal jornal journal 4,085 36. kaldera caldeira volcano crater 53,988 37. kaldu caldo broth 24,986 38. kamar câmara room/chamber 406 39. kampung campo countryside/village 1,908 40. kanon canon cannon 41,851 41. kantin cantina canteen 11,556 42. kapten capitão captain 5,553 43. karambol carambola fiddle 133,956 44. kartu cartão card 1,105 45. kastel castelo castle 34,671 46. keju queijo cheese 10,044 47. kemeja camisa shirt 10,848 48. komedi comédia comedy 12,140 49. kompeni companhia company 55,042 50. kereta carreta cart/train 1,570 51. koral coral coral 35,382 52. kubis couves cabbage 28,291 53. kursus cursos courses 3,864 54. kutang cotão undershirt 88,104 55. labu nabo pumpkin 19,354 56. lampion lampião lantern 27,909 57. legenda legenda legend 7,518 58. lelang leilão bidding 3,513 59. lemon/limau limão lemon 16,041 60. lentera lanterna lantern 42,043 61. lenso lenço tissue 270,556 62. loji loja shop 92,979 63. mandor mandador foreman 30,480 64. marakas maracas maracas 313,425 65. markisa maracujá passionfruit 49,689 66. marmot marmota guinea pig 145,477 67. martil martelo hammer 60,870 68. martir mártir martyr 32,599 69. meja mesa table/desk 1,982 70. mentega manteiga butter 17,287 28 71. meski (pun) mas que though 956 72. Minggu domingo Sunday 790 73. misa missa misa 17,397 74. nanas ananás pineapple 16,371 75. Natal Natal Christmas 3,054 76. nyonya senhora missus, lady 3,054 77. noda nódoa stain 11,565 78. nona dona miss 26,212 79. padri padre priest 198,327 80. palsu falso false, fake 2,995 81. Paskah Páscoa Easter 10,100 82. pastel pastel pie 33,061 83. pegang pegar to hold 11,962 84. peluru pelouro bullet 6,319 85. pena pena pen 16,142 86. peniti alfinete safety pin 57,556 87. pepaya papaia papaya 12,057 88. persero parceiro partner, stakeholder 4,244 89. pesiar passear Cruise 15,452 90. pesta festa party 2,613 91. Prancis francês french 3,014 92. prangko franco stamp 35,954 93. pigura figura frame 54,226 94. pion peão (xadrez) pawn (chess) 75,110 95. pita fita ribbon 7,415 96. Portugis português Portuguese 11,873 97. puisi poesia poem 3,391 98. rantai corrente chain 5,080 99. renda renda lace 45,389 100. roda roda wheel 2,328 101. ronda ronda night patrol 34,024 102. rosario rosario rosary 53,406 103. Sabtu sábado Saturday 888 104. sabun sabão soap 6,621 105. saku saco pocket 8,669 106. salto salto jump 50,526 107. seka secar to dry 85,957 108. sekolah escola school 215 109. selada salada salad 34,049 110. selai geleia jam 24,568 111. sepatu sapato shoe 2,549 35 Looking at the chart on Figure 11, which is increasing in number but decreasing in rank, meaning that the lower the frequency and consequently the rank, the bigger the number, we can see both the words and each of their respective ranks more easily. Also, from this new number and view, we can divide the words further by breaking down the information according to the levels of frequency. For this, the categories will be divided into words ranking 1,000 and above, 5,000 and above and 10,000 and above. From this categorization, we obtain the following information (see Figure 12): Figure 12 Rank of Portuguese loanwords With eight or 17.02% of the words ranking 1,000 or above, twenty-four or 51.06% words ranking 5,000 and above, as well as fifteen or 31.91% words ranking 10,000 and above, we can determine that at least half of the forty-four words on the list rank between 1,001 and 5,000. Now, if we go back to the information on Figure 11 above, the most frequent words (ranking less than 1,000) would be Belanda (Holland), bola (ball), Inggris (England), kamar (room), meski (though), Minggu (Sunday), Sabtu (Saturday) and sekolah (school). It is very interesting to find out how the country names Holland and England would be used more frequently than Portugal itself, which ranks only 11,873 and not included in our analysis, despite the loanwords coming from Portuguese. Most probably, it is because as history went by, Dutch colonization 17,02 51,06 31,91 Rank of Portuguese Loanwords (in %) 1,000 and above 5,000 and above 10,000 and above 36 has left far more impact and in more recent years, English has been used much more commonly, causing the words to appear more frequently. As for Sabtu and Minggu , they appear very frequently because of being the days of the week and these are words quite commonly used in texts, especially in news. For comparison purposes, we also checked the other days of the week on the Corpora Collection for frequency and obtained the following (see Table 4): Indonesian English Frequency Rank Senin Monday 541 Selasa Tuesday 582 Rabu Wednesday 549 Kamis Thursday 583 Jumat Friday 619 Sabtu Saturday 888 Minggu Sunday 790 Table 4 Frequency of Indonesian names of the days of the week As we can see on Table 4, the days of the week all appear rather frequently in corpora, ranking between 541 and 888, although for a certain reason, the weekend names appear a little less often (ranking 888 and 790, respectively) in texts than the working days (ranking between 541 and 619). But we will not go into further details as it requires further studies to determine the reason. Moreover, while we were analyzing the days of the week, we determined that aside from Sabtu and Minggu that are Portuguese loanwords, all the other days are loanwords of Arabic origin. This brought a thought to mind, that historically, Arabic-speaking merchants arrived at the archipelago much earlier with the earliest records being from the 14th century. The connection is very much related to the Islamization of the archipelago, which continues until the present day (Jones, 2008, p. xxiii). Some centuries after, when the Portuguese arrived and started spreading Catholicism in addition to carrying on trade, the words sábado and domingo that are very related to Catholicism were left behind, together with some other words in the field of religion. Sábado was adapted into Sabtu , while domingo was adapted into Minggu . 37 While on this category, we discovered that meski and palsu are the only words on the list that are not a noun. In Indonesian, meski falls under the particle or connecting word category, while palsu is an adjective. If we remember from the previous sub-chapter, we saw that conjunctions or particles have the tendency to rank higher due to its use, so we will conclude that it is the case with this word as well. 3.3. Connotations of Portuguese Loanwords One thing of interest that caught our attention when we decided to analyze Portuguese loanwords was whether those words have any connotation in particular. Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa (Language Development and Fostering Agency) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology, the department in charge of KBBI, has once released an article on how words become part of KBBI 18 and the pre-requisites are: unique, euphonic, adaptable to Indonesian grammar, has no negative connotation, as well as has high frequency and range. On connotations, the agency states that when there are two words with similar meaning, they will choose the one with no negative connotation, or at least the one with the more positive connotation, with the argument that words with a negative connotation may not be acceptable for higher level users. However, it is not clearly explained what it is meant with higher level. Is it the education level? Is it the status or title? Or are there other possible meanings? But this fact does not back us down from trying to check whether any of the Portuguese loanwords has a negative connotation. We will try figure it out by using the word graph feature in a word’s entry page on Corpora Collection, using the words on the list of most frequent Portuguese loanwords on Table 3. Historically, the relation between Indonesia and Portugal in languages and cultures have happened in colonial context, which would have emphasized the racism, prejudice, discrimination and glorification of foreigners between the locals and Europeans, as well as in the vocabulary. The prejudice and deviations registered in the vocabulary use should be included in the dictionaries while at the same time avoiding thoughts of what is politically correct. The use of words that are racist, sexist, xenophobic, etc. obviously need to be labelled as such, as not to contribute its legitimization in the definition and examples used. 18 Bidang Pengembangan, Pusat Pengembangan dan Perlindungan (n.d.) Bagaimana Sebuah Kata Masuk ke KBBI . Retrieved January 21, 2022 from https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/artikel/2547/bagaimana-sebuah-kata-masuk-ke-kbbi/ 38 In this sense, we think it is relevant to identify, wherever possible, every use of the Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian, as well as describe, also quantitatively, how much of these are marked connotatively (positive, negative or neutral). We start from the hypothesis that the information about how these loanwords are combined (aside from the pragmatic or contextual information, the access of which is more difficult) could deliver some semantic information and its use (a specific collocational use, for example), which helps identify the semantic differences (Iriarte, 2001, pp. 137) and eventually the connotative values. Upon checking the forty-seven loanwords one-by-one, we determined that there was indeed no word that had a negative connotation, in the sense that the co-occurrences did not give a negative connotation either, although we did see some interesting results. We will show here one representative graph from each level of frequency as we had broken down in the previous sub-chapter. Firstly, we chose kamar (room) for rank 1,000 and above (see Figure 13): Figure 13 Word graph of the loanword kamar (room) on Corpora Collection, from https://corpora.unileipzig.de/en/res?corpusId=ind_mixed_2013&word=kamar (retrieved on January 22, 2022) Most of the co-occurrences on the word graph on Figure 13 are related to a house. We can see that there are numbers between 1 and 4, certainly related to the number of rooms in a house in advertisements or articles, and so does m2 (or more specifically, m2 ). There is also hotel (hotel), making the compound kamar hotel (hotel room). However, we were a little intrigued by garasi (garage). We 39 assume it relates to housing as well, but the two words are normally not co-occurrences, because kamar garasi (garage room) or garasi kamar (room garage) make little sense. Next, we chose the word palsu (false, fake) for the rank 5,000 and above (see Figure 14): Figure 14 Word graph of the loanword palsu (false) on Corpora Collection, from https://corpora.unileipzig.de/en/res?corpusId=ind_mixed_2013&word=palsu (retrieved on January 22, 2022) We chose this word because despite not having a negative connotation on its own, its meaning is not exactly positive either, so that when put together with its co-occurrences, they may create compounds that do not sound really positive. For example, dokumen palsu (fake document), uang palsu (fake or conterfeit money), or even nabi palsu (false prophet), none of which have a very pleasant-sounding meaning, yet it does not mean that the word palsu itself has a negative connotation. As seen in the case of gigi palsu (false teeth), for example, it does not give the same negative connotation, since it simply means dentures, so we concluded that the connotation depends on the co-occurrences. Last but not least, from the rank 10,000 and above, we chose the word peluru (bullet) (see Figure 15): 40 Figure 15 Word graph of the loanword peluru (bullet) on Corpora Collection, from https://corpora.unileipzig.de/en/res?corpusId=ind_mixed_2013&word=peluru (retrieved on January 22, 2022) We chose this word with a similar reason than the previous word, palsu , on Figure 14. The word peluru itself has neither negative meaning nor negative connotation, but the co-occurrences may give one. For example, the compounds peluru nyasar (wrongly shot, unfairly targeted), peluru bersarang (bullet stuck inside something or someone), or tewas akibat peluru (death by bullet shot). We were especially intrigued by the compound peluru nyasar , words that often create unpleasant feelings on the listener or reader, because they imply a mistake by the shooter which wounds (even fatally) someone else who was at the wrong place and the wrong time. 3.4. Semantic Fields of Portuguese Loanwords Next, we analyzed the semantic fields of the most common Portuguese loanwords, in order to know how the language was adapted into then-Malay. For this analysis, we categorized the words into different fields that make sense 19 , as follow: 19 We did not include meski into any of the semantic fields, considering it was a stand-alone case of being a particle and would not fall into any of the categories made here. 41 3.4.1. Commerce Figure 16 Semantic field of Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian: commerce There are fourteen Portuguese loanwords that we categorized into the semantic field commerce as seen on Figure 16, which was one of the major activities the Portuguese conducted in the archipelago. We previously said that meski was a no-noun case among the list of words. However, there was actually another word that is not a noun, namely palsu (false, fake), which is an adjective. We still included the word into the field of commerce, because it does make sense to put it under said category. After all, it is a word related to trade, such as in occasions of considering and negotiating the authenticity of goods. In order to show how the word palsu is used in modern-day Indonesian and whether it still applies to the semantic field we have assigned the word to, we have selected a couple of example sentences from the corpus used in Corpora Collection: 1. Hasilnya, ditambahkan Kapoltabes, didapat ribuan produk palsu. (www.sinarharapan.co.id, collected on 26/04/2012) The result, added the Head of City Police, there were thousands of fake products. 2. Ironis, hingga kini masih banyak pemilih yang terkecoh pada janji-janji palsu kandidat. (ptpalangkaraya.go.id, collected on 07/02/2014) Ironically, until today many voters are still deceived by empty promises of the candidates. 3. Rias mata sebelum memasang bulu mata palsu. (www.thefaceshop.co.id, collected on 03/02/2014) Apply eye make-up before putting on your false lashes. As we can see, the word palsu now has a wide use, from false, fake, or imitation product (usually something that can be seen and/or touched) to false or empty things that are more abstract (such as promises in the example 2). It actually does not deviate much from its donor word falso and can really be used in the field of commerce. Commerce Belanda botol cokelat Inggris jurnal kartu lelang palsu persero Prancis tembakau tempo tinta tukar 42 Although the chosen name of the semantic field may be commerce, it is also meant to be seen in a wider term. After all, some words are not merely used in that field nowadays, such as the case with tempo . And in order to explain that, we will put some sample sentences below: 1. Reaksinya luar biasa, dalam tempo kurang dari sebulan saya sehat kembali dan bisa jalan normal lagi. (seputarkarawang.blogspot.com, collected on 08/05/2012) The reaction was amazing, in less than a month I was healthy and able to walk normally. 2. Jadi bagaimana bentuk penjajahan tempo dulu? (martinusadyh.web.id, collected on 31/01/2014) So, what was the colonization like in the old days? 3. Pembayaran harus dilakukan sebelum atau pada tanggal jatuh tempo yang tertera pada Lembar Penagihan. (lpse.pelalawankab.go.id, collected on 30/01/2014) The payment needs to be made before the due date stated on the billing. Although translating the sentences into English does not really give the literal equivalence of the word, from these sentences we can more or less see how the words are used in modern-day Indonesian. Since we did not really see the connection with commerce other than the case of the fixed expression jatuh tempo 20 (due), we tried analyzing the word using its word graph on Corpora Collection (see Figure 17): Figure 17 Word graph of the loanword tempo (time, speed) on Corpora Collection, from https://corpora.unileipzig.de/en/res?corpusId=ind_mixed_2013&word=tempo (retrieved on January 21, 2022) 20 KBBI Daring. (n.d.) Tempo. In KBBI Daring. Retrieved January 31, 2022, from https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/jatuh%20tempo 43 On the word graph on Figure 17 above, we see that the words most related to tempo are jatuh (fall), obligasi (bonds), membayar (to pay), pembayaran (payment), dulu (beforetime), bunga (interest) and permainan (game). Therefore, we can conclude that the word indeed has relations with commerce, although mostly in the context of jatuh tempo , as mentioned earlier. 3.4.2. Entertainment Figure 18 Semantic field of Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian: entertainment In this semantic field of entertainment as seen on Figure 18, we included six words, namely bola (ball), boneka (doll), gitar (guitar), legenda (legend), pesta (party) and puisi (poem/poetry). These words are quite self-explanatory in this field, except for legenda , because as we mentioned in sub-chapter 3.2, legenda was one of the homonyms among the loanwords. While both senses equivalent to legend in English, it is not the case in Portuguese. In Portuguese, legenda 21 refers to the caption or information in a map/picture, or even subtitle in a video. Meanwhile, to refer to a historical story or someone very famous, the Portuguese equivalence would be lenda 22 . This fact left us with a bit of confusion, so in order to ensure our hypothesis, we selected a few sample sentences from Corpora Collection: 1. Cerita-cerita ini juga bicara tentang Ramayana serta legenda lainnya. (bem-fh.umm.ac.id, collected on 04/02/2014) These tales also tell about Ramayana and other legends. 2. Sang legenda juga mendapatkan dukungan dari banyak pihak, kawan atau lawan, salah satunya Lauda. (ns1.kompas.web.id, collected on 02/02/2014) The legend also received support from friend and foe alike, one of them was Lauda. 21 Porto Editora. (n.d.) Legenda. In Infopédia . Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/legenda 22 Porto Editora. (n.d.) Lenda. In Infopédia . Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/lenda Entertainment bola boneka gitar legenda pesta puisi 44 3. Pele merupakan legenda hidup bagi Brasil. (lms.unhas.ac.id, collected on 05/02/2014) Pele was Brazil’s living legend. Interestingly, more than legenda in the context of historical tale, in the corpus the word was much more often used to refer to someone legendary, especially in sport-related articles or news, especially in football. This was also proven by looking at the word graph provided on the entry page of Corpora Collection, as seen on Figure 19 below: Figure 19 Word graph of the loanword legenda (legend) on Corpora Collection, from https://corpora.unileipzig.de/en/res?corpusId=ind_mixed_2013&word=legenda (retrieved on January 21, 2022) Even without knowing any Indonesian, anyone with a slight knowledge on football would realize that the word legenda often revolves around said sport, especially seeing the frequently-mentioned names Diego Maradona, together or separately, as well as Pele. It is also often mentioned together with Argentina, sepakbola (football) and rekor (record), all of which are very related to the football legend, Diego Maradona. As far as we could see on the first hundred occurrences of the word, we searched without encountering with the use of legenda in the context of mapping or similar, consequently we would conclude that the word is rather infrequently used in that context and thus, it is correctly categorized in the semantic field of entertainment. 51 From these samples, we can see that the words really literally mean pocket. However, we also have the expression uang saku as seen in example 3, which means allowance. This expression is very commonly used, in fact many sentences in the corpora use the word in this context. From the semantic fields we decided on above, we could conclude that every single word among the forty-seven most frequent Portuguese loanwords can belong to one, despite some of them having left us with a moment of doubt whether they really fit where we had assigned them. As seen on the explanation of each semantic field, we had also decided to assign the semantic fields diachronically, as we mentioned at the beginning of this sub-chapter, that we wanted to see how these loanwords were adapted into the then-Malay. We think it is important to know the meanings during the adaptation process, because through centuries, those meanings may have broadened, narrowed, or even changed. We could see that example in chapter 3.4.6. in the case of the loanword saku (pocket), loaned from the word saco , which means bag in general, however in modern Indonesian, its specifically means pocket and not just any bag; which means that the meaning has narrowed in comparison to the loaned word. As for how or why these semantic changes may have occurred in Indonesian, they would require further studies. However, we could say that there are motivations as to why the changes occurred and mechanisms that study how the changes occurred (Traugott, 2017, p. 8). To conclude our analysis on semantic fields and the loanwords in our study in general, we put them together on one graph for easier viewing, as seen below (see Figure 26): 52 Figure 26 Semantic Fields of Portuguese Loanwords To summarize, of the total forty-seven words, the semantic field commerce has fourteen words, comprising 29.79% of the words, entertainment has six words or 12.77%, warfare has nine or 19.15%, religion and household have seven words or 14.9% respectively, and last but not least, clothing has the remaining three words, making 6.38% of the total percentage. Looking back to Chapter 1 on Tadmor’s research on Indonesian loanwords, he had identified that these four semantic fields have a high loanword content: Religion and belief (70% borrowed vocabulary), the Modern world (66,4%), Clothing and grooming (55,6%) and Law (51,4%) (Haspelmath, M. & Tadmor, U., 2009, p. 700). We discovered that our analysis on Portuguese loanwords specifically did not deviate from those four semantic fields, considering that in our case the largest ones include commerce, warfare, household and religion. This is a logical result, considering those were the major activities the Portuguese conducted while in the archipelago. They traded goods, fought for spices and land with both locals and merchants of other nationalities, and also spread their religion. That was how words related to those field were frequently used, then left behind, adapted into the local language and continue being used until today. After this analysis, we have also gathered that most of the loanwords are nouns. This result is in line with what Peter Eisenberg said about the hierarchy of loanwords, in which “Noun > Adjective > Verb > 30 13 19 15 15 6 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Commerce Entertainment Warfare Religion Household Clothing SEMANTIC FIELDS OF PORTUGUESE LOANWORDS IN INDONESIAN (IN %) 53 Adverb > Preposition > other function words > Derivation > Inflection > Sound.” (2018, p. 28) This means that nouns are easiest to be loaned after a language contact than other parts of speech. 54 Chapter 4: Dictionary Representation Now that we have compiled a list of known Portuguese loanwords using the resources in Chapter 2 and analyzed them for frequency, connotation and semantic field in Chapter 3, we could use that list in order to try making a representation on how they would look in a dictionary, because ultimately, the long-term goal would be to create a dictionary of Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian. 4.1. Early Representation Idea Back when the assignment on Dictionary Planning and Production was written in 2020, we included an example on how a lemma would look like in a dictionary of loanwords as part of the user’s guidelines. Coincidentally, one of the examples was made for a Portuguese loanword, as seen on Figure 27 below: Figure 27 Example of dictionary entry for a Portuguese loanword (Yudo, 2020) The example on that previous paper as seen on Figure 27 used the word boneca (doll). The idea was to base our dictionary entries on KBBI Daring’s entry (see Figure 2 in Chapter 2), with the following information: - First row: lemma written in bigger font and bold, followed by IPA reading. - Second row: the source word for the lemma. - Third row: definition, including sense(s), part of speech, label if any and example sentence. In this early representation idea, the target audience of the dictionary was students, both Indonesians studying philology or literature especially, as well as foreigner studying Indonesian with at least intermediate level of language knowledge. Furthermore, “laypeople who have interest in Indonesian 55 linguistics may also enjoy this dictionary series to broaden their repertoire.” (Yudo, 2020) With that said, the dictionary series is meant not only for studying, but also for reading purposes, therefore, it was thought to be designed as simple as possible. 4.2. Representation Idea after Analysis While we think the initial idea of microstructure was good enough for the audience it was targeted at, after the study we did this time, we determined that the microstructure in a dictionary of loanwords should include more information based on our analysis, namely naming the semantic field and frequency. With the semantic field, we can tell the users in which way or field the words were introduced into our language, while the frequency determines how easily a word can be identified and remembered by a language user (Divjak, D. & Caldwell-Harris, C., 2015, p. 56). In the case of our study, the frequency of Portuguese loanwords can also determine their level of commonness within the Indonesian vocabulary. The semantic field will be named according to the analysis we did in Chapter 3.4. However, since we only analyzed the 47 most frequent words (see Table 3) and yet there were 126 words that we have compiled into a list of known Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian (see Table 2), the rest of the list will have to be categorized into their semantic fields accordingly. As for the frequency, it does not need to be written in their specific ranks, however, since the numbers are not absolute, considering the possible deviations from typos, suffixes and homonymy, as mentioned on Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. Instead, we would categorize the words into different degrees of frequency class, as follow: - Words ranking 1,000 and above: highly frequent (ID: sangat sering ) - Words ranking 10,000 and above: frequent (ID: sering ) - Words ranking 100,000 and above: often (ID: lazim ) - Words ranking 1,000,000 and above: seldom (ID: jarang ) - Words ranking less than 1,000,000: very rare (ID: sangat jarang ) We decided to choose six representative words based on the semantic fields we worked on in Chapter 3, of the words with frequency rank 10,000 and above. We came upon this latter decision because only those forty-seven words have been analyzed and we determined that choosing something from outside that list would require more study. Hence, we chose one word from each semantic field, as follow: 56 - Semantic field commerce: palsu (false, fake) - Semantic field entertainment: boneka (doll) - Semantic field warfare: armada (fleet) - Semantic field religion: sekolah (school) - Semantic field household: meja (table) - Semantic field clothing: saku (pocket) Since the dictionary will be in Indonesian, we also translated the semantic fields into: perdagangan (commerce), hiburan (entertainment), peperangan (warfare), agama (religion), rumah tangga (household) and pakaian (clothing). Moreover, a dictionary of loanwords would normally include some etymological information or a history of the lemma and that information we will incorporate as well, based on the Portuguese (and Spanish) etymological dictionaries we described in Chapter 2. Other than that, information such as definition(s) and part of speech will still be taken from KBBI Daring, while the example in sentence will be taken from Corpora Collection. The dictionaries that will be used as we have mentioned in Chapter 2 are namely the Diccionario da lingua portugueza composto pelo padre D. Rafael Bluteau by António de Morais Silva (1789), the Dicionário Etimológico da Língua Portuguesa by José Pedro Machado (1956), the Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico by Joan Corominas (1954) and Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa by António Houaiss (2003). The first dictionary serves the purpose of collecting the definition, while the other three are where we will collect the etymological information from. And the idea is to put the information found in each dictionary side-by-side in a table for an easy readability. Aside from the additional information described above, we will also modify the layout of the microstructure, so that despite having plenty of information, it will still be understandable and readable for the same target audience (mainly students), but also for laypeople interested in the field. The idea is that in the actual dictionary, the preface will also include a user’s guideline, in which we will show images of sample dictionary entries of the dictionaries we used as reference, in order for users to know where we take the references from, especially since the planned dictionary will be in Indonesian, which means that the information we cite will be translated. 57 All the above considered, below we will show our proposed dictionary entries one-by-one. But beforehand, we will show the entry template translated into English for the non-Indonesian-speaking in Figure 28 seen below. Despite the translated template in Figure 28, in the samples of dictionary entries that we will show below, we will also include the translation of each lemma for easier understanding of this representation. 4.2.1. Palsu pal.su Definisi: 1. a Tidak tulen; tidak sah; lancing (tentang ijazah, surat keterangan, uang, dan sebagainya) 2. a Tiruan (tentang gigi, kunci, dan sebagainya) 3. a Gadungan (tentang polisi, tentara, wartawan, dan sebagainya) 4. a Curang, tidak jujur (tentang permainan dan sebagainya) 5. a Sumbang (tentang suara dan sebagainya) Contoh kalimat: Pencuri diduga menggunakan kunci palsu . Kata asal: falso [ lemma, with syllable-separating dots and written in bold ] Definition: [ definition(s), accompanied by part of speech and label if any ] Example in sentence: [ taken from Corpora Collection, written in italics and the lemma underlined ] Source word: [ written in italics for being a foreign word ] Semantic field: Frequency class: Etymology: Morais Machado Corominas Houaiss Figure 28 Template of the microstructure of our dictionary of Portuguese loanwords 58 Bidang semantik: perdagangan Tingkat frekuensi: sering Etimologi: Morais Machado Corominas Houaiss Kebalikan dari benar, tidak benar; tiruan; palsu. Dari bahasa Latin falsu- [palsu, tiruan, penipu, gadungan, pembohong] Dari bahasa Latin falsus , terutama bentuk pasif dari fall ĕ re ‘menipu’. Dok. 1, paruh kedua abad X, Glosas Silenses. Dari bahasa Latin falsus, a, um [salah, tidak benar], bentuk pasif dari fals ō , is, fefell ī , falsum, ĕ re [salah]. English Translation: pal.su Definition: 1. a Not authentic; not valid (certificate, letter, money, etc.) 2. a Imitation or duplicate (teeth, keys, etc.) 3. a Impostor, copycat (police, military, journalist, etc.) 4. a Unfair, dishonest (game, etc.) 5. a discordant, off-key (voice, etc.) Example in sentence: The robber is suspected to have used a duplicate key. Source word: falso Semantic field: commerce Frequency class: frequent Etymology: Morais Machado Corominas Houaiss Opposite of correct, not correct; falsified; fake. From Latin falsu- [not true, imitation, liar, impostor] From Latin falsus , esp. passive form of fall ĕ re ‘to lie’. Doc. 1, 2nd half, 10th century, Glosas Silenses. From Latin falsus, a, um [wrong, not real], passive form of fals ō , is, fefell ī , falsum, ĕ re [to be wrong]. 59 4.2.2. Boneka bo.ne.ka Definisi: 1. n Tiruan anak untuk permainan; anak-anakan. 2. n ki Orang (negara dan sebagainya) yang hanya menjadi mainan orang (negara dan sebagainya) lain. Contoh kalimat: Sang boneka kodok selalu menemani tidur malamnya . Kata asal: boneca Bidang semantik: hiburan Tingkat frekuensi: sering Etimologi: Morais Machado Corominas Houaiss Figur yang meniru perempuan, terbuat dari kertas, kain, dll. Dari bahasa Spanyol muñeca dan bahasa Galicia moneca ., tampaknya bahasa-bahasa Iberia terhubung dengan kata ninna dan nonna , kata panggilan anak-anak Romawi untuk orang yang disayang. Ada catatan yang menyebutkan monna , panggilan sayang seorang suami pada istrinya. [benda berbentuk wanita yang digunakan sebagai mainan]. Berasal dari zaman pre-Romawi, bersaudara dengan bahasa Portugis boneca , yang pada awalnya bernama moñeca , sama-sama berawal dari kata bonn ǐ cca , yang mungkin berasimilasi dari bodinicca , turunan dari bahasa Kelt bod ǐ na . Dari bahasa Latin ninna dan nonna , panggilan sayang yang digunakan anak-anak Romawi untuk memanggil orang yang disayang; catatan abad ke-14 moneca , 1562 boneca . English Translation: bo.ne.ka Definition: 1. n Child imitation as toy; child-like. 2. n ki A person (or country, etc.) used as puppet of others (person, country, etc.). Example in sentence: The frog doll always accompanies her to sleep. Source word: boneca Semantic field: entertainment Frequency class: frequent Etymology: 60 Morais Machado Corominas Houaiss A figure resembling a woman, made of paper, fabric, etc. From Spanish muñeca and Galician moneca , it seems the Iberian languages are connected to the word ninna and nonna , a diminutive used by Roman children to call their loved ones. A note mentions monna , an endearing term used by a husband to his wife. [a woman-looking figure used as toy]. From the pre-Roman times, related to Portuguese word boneca , which at the beginning was called moñeca , both originally from the word bonn ǐ cca , maybe assimilated from bodinicca , a derivative of Celtic word bod ǐ na . From Latin ninna and nonna , a diminutive used by Roman children to call their loved ones; note from 14th century moneca , 1562 boneca . 4.2.3. Armada ar.ma.da Definisi: 1. n rombongan (pasukan) kapal perang 2. n Rombongan kapal dagang 3. n Rombongan suatu kesatuan Contoh kalimat: Waktu itu Kadiri memiliki armada laut yang cukup tangguh . Kata asal: armada Bidang semantik: peperangan Tingkat frekuensi: sering Etimologi: Morais Machado Corominas Houaiss Sejumlah kapal untuk perang. [ Andar d’armada e alguma paragem ] Berlayar, menepi, berhenti, untuk menanti atau mengamati musuh, menjaga pantai, atau aksi militer laut lainnya. [ Armadilha de caça ], dari kata armar . Dalam arti [sekumpulan kapal], dari bahasa Italia armata (abad XIII), dengan pengaruh dari adjektiva armado . Pengaruh dari bahasa Spanyol armadilla , armandija . Armada [1476, Woodbr.; APal. 297b]. Armandijo [A. de Cartagena, †1456] Dari kata armado ; menurut catatan tahun 1130 untuk istilah [ armadilha de caça ] dan 1317 untuk [sekelompok kapal]. English Translation: ar.ma.da Definition: 1. n A fleet of war ships 67 have seven words (14.9%) and clothing has three words (6.3%). This somewhat coincides with the analysis on Indonesian in the World Loanword Database that the loanwords in Indonesian in general belong to the semantic fields religion and belief, modern world, clothing and grooming, and law. As well, with the additional etymological information and how we proposed the loanwords to be represented in a dictionary of loanwords, this may become a starting point on an even further study on the history of the words. In this study, we took the information from the Portuguese side, but a future study may open new knowledge on the Indonesian side, which currently has not been done, as far as we know. The information gathered on this study may even be very useful for the time the KBBI team decides on picking up the Portuguese loanwords for their future updates, considering they are still ways to go from completing their etymological information. The information may also be useful for further studies in the linguistic aspect. It would be very interesting to discover how the phonetics changed upon the adaptation of those loanwords in Indonesian. Based on the phonetical changes, it would even be possible to discover even more Portuguese loanwords among the Indonesian vocabulary. This we think possible, considering the long stay of the Portuguese in the archipelago, so it would be plausible for the number of loanwords to be higher. 68 Bibliography Abdurachman, P. R. (2008). Bunga Angin Portugis di Nusantara . Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia Adam, A. (2020). The Sejarah Melayu Revisited: A Collection of Six Essays . Strategic Information and Research Development Centre. Buchi, E. (2015). Etymological dictionaries. In P. Durkin (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography (pp. 338 - 349). Oxford University Press. Divjak, D. & Caldwell-Harris, C. (2015). Chapter 3: Frequency and entrenchment. In E. Dabrowska & D. Divjak (Ed.), Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (pp. 53-75). De Gruyter Mouton. Durkin, P. (2014). Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English . Oxford University Press. Eisenberg, P. (2018). Das Fremdwort im Deutschen . De Gruyter Studium. Errington, J. J. (1986). Continuity and Change in Indonesian Language Development. The Journal of Asian Studies, 45(2) , 329-353. Haspelmath, M. & Tadmor, U. (2009). Loanwords in the World's Languages . De Gruyter Mouton. Iriarte, A. (2001). A Unidade Lexicográfica. Palavras, Colocações, Frasemas, Pragmatemas . Centro de Estudos Humanísticos-Universidade do Minho. Jones, R. (general ed.), Grijns, C. D., De Vries, J. W. (Eds.) (2007). Loan-words in Indonesian and Malay . Compiled by the Indonesian Etymological Project. KITLV Press. Jumariam, M. T., Qodratillah, & Ruddyanto, C. (Eds.) (1996). Senarai Kata Serapan dalam Bahasa Indonesia . Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Pinto da França, A. & Rogers, R. (2014) A influência portuguesa na Indonésia: Portuguese influence in Indonesia. Ed. bilingue em português e inglês. ALIAC-Associação Luso-Indonésia para a Amizade e Cooperação, D.L. Traugott, E. Semantic Change. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics . Retrieved 5 Jul. 2022, from https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore9780199384655-e-323. 69 Van Coetsem, F. (1988) Loan Phonology and the Two Transfer Types in Language Contact . Foris Publications Holland. Wijaya, D. N., Wahyudi, D. Y., & Umaroh, S. Z. (2021). Nusa Ambon Silang Budaya: Pertemuan Jaringan Global Abad XVI-XVII. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Yudo, Y. S. (2020). Module 9: Dictionary Planning and Production [Class Assignment]. European Master in Lexicography, University of Minho [unpublished]. Dictionaries Corominas, J. & Pascoal, J. A. (1980-1983). Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico . Gredos. Houaiss, A. (2003). Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa . Temas e Debates. Machado, J. P. (1967). Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa : com a mais antiga documentação escrita e conhecida de muitos dos vocábulos estudados . Confluência. Morais, A. (1789). Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza Composto pelo Padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva . Ferreira. Print Dictionary Entries Corominas, J. & Pascoal, J.A. (1980-1983). Armada. In Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico . Gredos. (Vol. 1, p. 22). Corominas, J. & Pascoal, J.A. (1980-1983). Escuela. In Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico . Gredos. (Vol. 2, pp. 714-715). Corominas, J. & Pascoal, J.A. (1980-1983). Falso. In Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico . Gredos. (Vol. 2, p. 841). Corominas, J. & Pascoal, J.A. (1980-1983). Mesa. In Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico . Gredos. (Vol. 4, p. 57). Corominas, J. & Pascoal, J.A. (1980-1983). Muñeca. In Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico . Gredos. (Vol. 4, pp. 188-190). 70 Corominas, J. & Pascoal, J.A. (1980-1983). Saco. In Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico . Gredos. (Vol. 5, p. 121-122). Houaiss, A. (2003). Armada. In Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa . Temas e Debates. (Vol. 1, pp. 375-376). Houaiss, A. (2003). Boneca. In Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa . Temas e Debates. (Vol. 1, p. 628). Houaiss, A. (2003). Escola. In Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa . Temas e Debates. (Vol. 2, p. 1563). Houaiss, A. (2003). Falso. In Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa . Temas e Debates. (Vol. 2, p. 1691). Houaiss, A. (2003). Mesa. In Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa . Temas e Debates. (Vol. 3, pp. 2465-2466). Houaiss, A. (2003). Saco. In Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa . Temas e Debates. (Vol. 3, p. 3226). Machado, J. P. (1967). Armada. In Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa : com a mais antiga documentação escrita e conhecida de muitos dos vocábulos estudados . Confluência. (Vol. 1, p. 307). Machado, J. P. (1967). Boneca. In Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa : com a mais antiga documentação escrita e conhecida de muitos dos vocábulos estudados . Confluência. (Vol. 1, p. 448). Machado, J. P. (1967). Escola. In Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa : com a mais antiga documentação escrita e conhecida de muitos dos vocábulos estudados . Confluência. (Vol. 2, p. 923). Machado, J. P. (1967). Falso. In Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa : com a mais antiga documentação escrita e conhecida de muitos dos vocábulos estudados . Confluência. (Vol. 2, p. 1010). Machado, J. P. (1967). Mesa. In Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa : com a mais antiga documentação escrita e conhecida de muitos dos vocábulos estudados . Confluência. (Vol. 2, p. 1554). Machado, J. P. (1967). Saco. In Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa : com a mais antiga documentação escrita e conhecida de muitos dos vocábulos estudados . Confluência. (Vol. 3, p. 2046). 71 Morais, A. (1789). Armada. In Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza Composto pelo Padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva. Ferreira (Vol. 1, p. 112). Morais, A. (1789). Boneca. In Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza Composto pelo Padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva . Ferreira (Vol. 1, p. 189). Morais, A. (1789). Escola. In Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza Composto pelo Padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva . Ferreira (Vol. 1, p. 533). Morais, A. (1789). Falso. In Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza Composto pelo Padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva . Ferreira (Vol. 1, p. 596). Morais, A. (1789). Mesa. In Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza Composto pelo Padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva . Ferreira (Vol. 2, p. 77). Morais, A. (1789). Saco. In Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza Composto pelo Padre D. Rafael Bluteau, reformado, e accrescentado por Antonio de Moraes Silva . Ferreira (Vol. 2, p. 364). Online Dictionary Entries Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. (2016) Armada. In KBBI Daring . Retrieved January 24, 2022, from https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/armada Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. (2016) Tempo. In KBBI Daring . Retrieved January 31, 2022, from https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/jatuh%20tempo Porto Editora. (n.d.) Armada. In Infopédia . Retrieved January 4, 2022, from https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/armada Porto Editora. Aula. In Infopédia . Retrieved January 25, 2022, from https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/aula Porto Editora. (n.d.) Legenda. In Infopédia . Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/legenda Porto Editora. (n.d.) Lenda. In Infopédia . Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/lenda 72 Online Resources Ardanareswari, I. (2019, June 25). 25 Juni 1938, Sejarah Kongres Bahasa Indonesia I: Meresmikan Bahasa Persatuan. Tirto.id . Retrieved on March 26, 2022 from https://tirto.id/sejarah-kongres-bahasaindonesia-i-meresmikan-bahasa-persatuan-ecjH Bidang Pengembangan, Pusat Pengembangan dan Perlindungan. (n.d.). Bagaimana Sebuah Kata Masuk ke KBBI . Retrieved on January 21, 2022 from https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/artikel/2547/bagaimana-sebuah-kata-masuk-kekbbi/ Haspelmath, M. & Tadmor, U. (eds.) (2009) World Loanword Database. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Retrieved October 10, 2021 from http://wold.clld.org Indonesia.Go.Id. Portal Informasi Indonesia. (n.d). Agama . Retrieved on January 24, 2022 from https://www.indonesia.go.id/profil/agama United Language Group. (n.d.). Linguistic Code-Switching: What It Is and Why It Happens . Retrieved on March 26, 2022 from https://www.unitedlanguagegroup.com/blog/linguistic-code-switching Wikipedia Entries Indonesian language. (2022, February 14). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_language&oldid=1070887199 Indo-Portuguese creoles (2022, January 19). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indo-Portuguese_creoles&oldid=1063533786 Islam in Indonesia. (2022, January 24). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_in_Indonesia&oldid=1066621470 Javanese language. (2022, January 26). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Javanese_language&oldid=1067983437 Kawi language. (2022, January 22). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kawi_language&oldid=1061636037 73 List of islands by population. (2022, January 13). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_islands_by_population&oldid=1065505979 Mardijker Creole (2022, January 19). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mardijker_Creole&oldid=1053076517 Stratum (linguistics). (2022, February 3). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&oldid=1069609575 Youth Pledge. (2021, November 16). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Youth_Pledge&oldid=1055590381 74 Appendix I List of known Portuguese Loanwords in Indonesian Language No. Indonesian Portuguese Origin English equivalent Frequency Rank 1. adven advento advent 129,995 2. algojo algoz executioner 30,009 3. almari (lemari) armário wardrobe 34,459 4. altar altar altar 21,750 5. antero inteiro whole 122,973 6. arena arena arena 4,881 7. arloji relógio watch/clock 37,816 8. armada armada armada 5,150 9. aula aula big, multifunctional room 8,841 10. baluarti baluarte stronghold 1,135,748 11. bangku banco bank (to sit on) 4,161 12. banyo banjo banjo 752,441 13. bantal avental pillow 10,682 14. Belanda Holanda Holland 967 15. baret bareta beret 37,000 16. beludru veludo velvet 54,148 17. bendera bandeira flag 3,671 18. beranda veranda veranda 24,906 19. biola viola violin 22,090 20. bola bola ball 918 21. bolu bolo cake 44,015 22. boneka boneca doll 6,584 22. botol botelha bottle 3,463 23. cerutu charuto cigar 40,770 24. cokelat chocolate chocolate 5,558 25. dadu dado dice 30,388 26. dansa dançar dance 28,119 27. duda viúva widower 32,227 28. gagu gago stutterer 139,080 29. gardu guarda guard 17,555 30. garpu garfo fork 29,071 31. gereja igreja church 2,010 32. gitar guitarra guitar 6,080 33. Inggris inglês English 458 34. jendela janela window 3,570 75 35. jurnal jornal journal 4,085 36. kaldera caldeira volcano crater 53,988 37. kaldu caldo broth 24,986 38. kamar câmara room/chamber 406 39. kampung campo countryside/village 1,908 40. kanon canon cannon 41,851 41. kantin cantina canteen 11,556 42. kapten capitão captain 5,553 43. karambol carambola fiddle 133,956 44. kartu cartão card 1,105 45. kastel castelo castle 34,671 46. keju queijo cheese 10,044 47. kemeja camisa shirt 10,848 48. komedi comédia comedy 12,140 49. kompeni companhia company 55,042 50. kereta carreta cart/train 1,570 51. koral coral coral 35,382 52. kubis couves cabbage 28,291 53. kursus cursos courses 3,864 54. kutang cotão undershirt 88,104 55. labu nabo pumpkin 19,354 56. lampion lampião lantern 27,909 57. legenda legenda legend 7,518 58. lelang leilão bidding 3,513 59. lemon/limau limão lemon 16,041 60. lentera lanterna lantern 42,043 61. lenso lenço tissue 270,556 62. loji loja shop 92,979 63. mandor mandador foreman 30,480 64. marakas maracas maracas 313,425 65. markisa maracujá passionfruit 49,689 66. marmot marmota guinea pig 145,477 67. martil martelo hammer 60,870 68. martir mártir martyr 32,599 69. meja mesa table/desk 1,982 70. mentega manteiga butter 17,287 71. meski (pun) mas que though 956 72. Minggu domingo Sunday 790 73. misa missa misa 17,397 74. nanas ananás pineapple 16,371 75. Natal Natal Christmas 3,054 76 76. nyonya senhora missus, lady 3,054 77. noda nódoa stain 11,565 78. nona dona miss 26,212 79. padri padre priest 198,327 80. palsu falso false, fake 2,995 81. Paskah Páscoa Easter 10,100 82. pastel pastel pie 33,061 83. pegang pegar to hold 11,962 84. peluru pelouro bullet 6,319 85. pena pena pen 16,142 86. peniti alfinete safety pin 57,556 87. pepaya papaia papaya 12,057 88. persero parceiro partner, stakeholder 4,244 89. pesiar passear Cruise 15,452 90. pesta festa party 2,613 91. Prancis francês french 3,014 92. prangko franco stamp 35,954 93. pigura figura frame 54,226 94. pion peão (xadrez) pawn (chess) 75,110 95. pita fita ribbon 7,415 96. Portugis português Portuguese 11,873 97. puisi poesia poem 3,391 98. rantai corrente chain 5,080 99. renda renda lace 45,389 100. roda roda wheel 2,328 101. ronda ronda night patrol 34,024 102. rosario rosario rosary 53,406 103. Sabtu sábado Saturday 888 104. sabun sabão soap 6,621 105. saku saco pocket 8,669 106. salto salto jump 50,526 107. seka secar to dry 85,957 108. sekolah escola school 215 109. selada salada salad 34,049 110. selai geleia jam 24,568 111. sepatu sapato shoe 2,549 112. serdadu soldado soldier 18,423 113. silet gilete razor 52,765 114. sinyo sinhô/senhor young man of European origin 252,412 115. sita citar (confiscar) To confiscate 22,531