Constructive challenges in the water supply to cities, from Roman times to Modern times. Some reflections based on the Portuguese reality

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=uarc20 International Journal of Architectural Heritage Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/uarc20 Constructive Challenges in the Water Supply to Cities, from Roman Times to Modern Times. Some Reflections Based on the Portuguese Reality Maria Do Carmo Ribeiro To cite this article: Maria Do Carmo Ribeiro (02 Jul 2024): Constructive Challenges in the Water Supply to Cities, from Roman Times to Modern Times. Some Reflections Based on the Portuguese Reality, International Journal of Architectural Heritage, DOI: 10.1080/15583058.2024.2367687 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2024.2367687 Published online: 02 Jul 2024. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data DATA NOTE Constructive Challenges in the Water Supply to Cities, from Roman Times to Modern Times. Some Reflections Based on the Portuguese Reality Maria Do Carmo Ribeiro Department of History, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal ABSTRACT Water, as an essential element for life, has always been present in the daily lives of societies. In the case of urban agglomerations, the quantities of water needed to supply them have in some cases been extremely challenging for human abilities, not only in terms of collecting it, but also in terms of transporting it and distributing it for final consumption by the population. Today, the lack of water continues to be a concern, taking centre stage in the global political agenda and in the UN’s 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. Convinced that the lessons of history can help minimise the harmful effects of climate change, the aim of this work is to analyse some of the constructive and architectural solutions found by past societies to obtain water, from which we can learn to preserve and value this important resource. Our approach will focus on analysing cases that refer mainly to the urban landscapes of Portuguese territory, as it is a territory that, in addition to having an occupational history that dates back to ancient prehistory, is characterised by a diversity of river basins and a relief that presents a great variety of forms, but which has nevertheless historically faced various challenges related to the supply of water to its urban centres. Likewise, in order to be able to attest to the fact that the lack of water was a common shortage in the overwhelming majority of urban societies in the past, we will chronologically base our approach between Roman times and the Modern Age, necessarily taking into account the different historical and cultural contexts of the examples presented, as well as the water resources they had, which is why we have structured our presentation in three parts. The first is dedicated to water supply requirements in roman cities, the second to the analysis of continuities and ruptures in the supply of water to the medieval city and third to the main challenges facing modern cities in the field of hydraulic construction. Finally, in the concluding remarks we reflect on the different solutions found, but also on the changes that have occurred in construction solutions, their diffusion and/or rehabilitation throughout history. ARTICLE HISTORY Received 1 April 2024 Accepted 6 June 2024 KEYWORDS Built heritage; constructive challenges; Roman, medieval and modern times; supply; water 1. Introduction The problems that have arisen in recent decades around the important resource of water, as well as the knowledge accumulated about its management and use in the past, have led to the publication of numerous studies and the organisation of specific scientific meetings on the subject, fuelling and prompting the renewal of research in this field (Porfyriou and Genivese 2012). In reality, the study of the constructive challenges of water supply posed to past societies currently benefits from a very diverse range of data from different types of information sources, including written, iconographic and cartographic, archaeological and material, but also surviving buildings from different historical periods that are still part of today’s landscapes and are part of their cultural heritage. However, although water catchment sites can be found all over the territory, most of the information is undoubtedly related to urban centres, making it possible to document how societies have related to this resource and to analyse the importance they have attached to it, as well as the way they have managed it, while at the same time making it possible to assess the changes that have taken place throughout history, particularly between Roman and Modern times. Even so, the study of water supply in cities is a complex research topic, in that each city is a particular case study, taking into account the singularities of each of the respective geographical and historical contexts, and it is extremely important to analyse the topographical and geohydrological framework in which each city is located, as well as the surrounding region, This also requires specific knowledge of the hydraulic engineering techniques that were adapted to the resources of each city at different times in history, as well as the CONTACT Maria Do Carmo Ribeiro [email protected] Department of History, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga 4710-057, Portugal INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2024.2367687 © 2024 Taylor & Francis infrastructures used to distribute water to the population and to the different spaces and buildings where it was consumed. In this sense, it is also important to consider the social use given to water, which would have contributed significantly to the volume consumed by urban communities. In the case of Roman cities, archaeological evidence as well as written and literary sources document the importance that this resource assumed in this society. In fact, a large part of the public infrastructure preserved in Roman cities is directly or indirectly related to water, bearing witness to concerns about its regular supply and distribution, its social and cultural use, as well as demonstrating that water management was one of the main challenges in the overall organisation of Roman cities (Adams 1994) Although Roman technological systems for collecting and managing water continued to be used in some urban centres during the Middle Ages, as some archaeological investigations have shown, the amount of water used decreased significantly from the 5th century onwards with the disappearance of Roman equipment and spaces that were highly demanding of water, such as bathhouses and show buildings, or garden areas. In reality, the greater austerity of social and cultural habits imposed by Christianity and the new political framework that emerged, as well as the shrinking urban population, certainly contributed to a decrease in water consumption in medieval cities and, consequently, in investment in equipment related to its use in urban spaces (Magnusson 2002). However, from the end of the Middle Ages onwards, problems with the lack of water supply to cities led to significant changes, both in terms of water collection sites and distribution equipment, particularly with the re-entry and spread of aqueducts in the urban world (Trindade 2014) and, from the 16th century onwards, issues related to the supply and management of water resources once again acquired a preponderant role in Modern Age society (Rodrigues and Marín 2020). Inevitably, analysing the theme of water in the city presupposes considering various aspects of urbanism, including the place where the water was collected, the means and techniques used to collect it and then convey it to fountains, fountains, tanks, public and/or private buildings. This is indeed a very interesting subject due to its complexity and the need to cross-reference different sources of information to analyse the various aspects related to this indispensable element of urban life. In this way, we will endeavour to value some of the knowledge produced about the constructive challenges surrounding the city’s water supply, based on crossreferencing the data provided by different sources of information, from Roman times to the Modern Age. 2. Water supply requirements in roman cities Supplying water to Roman cities could in many cases be extremely challenging, because although rainwater was an important source of supply, it was not sufficient for the levels of consumption that the cities required, which is why water was mostly collected from natural sources that ran underground or deep underground or through dams and reservoirs (saepti) and then conveyed via aqueducts to the urban centres (Adams 1994, 488) The practice of collection rainwater is well documented in all excavated Roman cities, as the Roman did so through the tanks found in practically all the open spaces inside Roman houses (domus), usually located in the peristyles (peristylum) and atriums (atrium). The best examples of this type of tank can be found in the atriums of the domus of the Italian cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Ostia, thanks to their particular preservation, although the great variability of these structures is well attested to by the countless structures excavated in recent decades (Koloski-Ostrow 2001), particularly in Portugal (Magalhães 2019). In the atrium, usually in an axial position, the tank, impluvium, located next to the pavement, received rainwater that entered from an opening in the roof of the house, the compluvium. These tanks, which varied in size and morphology, were shallow and the water could then be channelled into underground cisterns. The cladding could also be made from different types of materials, such as tesserae or marble, as can be seen in the Tramezzo di Legno house, in Herculaneum, Italy, see Figure 1 (Koloski-Ostrow 2001). The water collected in this type of reservoir was essentially used later for irrigation and washing. Similarly, the tanks in the gardens, especially in the Figure 1. House of Tramezzo di Legno, in Herculaneum, Italy. 2M. RIBEIRO houses (peristyles), served the same function, although these spaces, the peristyles, were very particular domestic units, associated with the private life of the masters of the house (the dominus and the domina). In this regard, it is worth mentioning the two private peristyles, both with a tank and garden, found in the House of Cantaber, in Conimbriga (Portugal), namely the large central tank, with curved shapes typical of 2nd century luxury architecture, see Figure 2) (Magalhães 2019). However, rainwater was not enough to meet all the needs of Roman urban society, which is why groundwater collection was also very common and is represented by wells (putei), which have been archaeologically documented in various places throughout the urban areas of many Roman cities (Fortes 2008). For the Roman city of Bracara Augusta, present-day Braga, founded by Emperor Augustus between 16/ 15 BC in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, a total of 11 wells are known so far. The way in which the city of Bracara Augusta was organised since its foundation is sufficiently well known, thanks to the results of the urban archaeology project that has been ongoing since 1976 (Martins, Fontes, and Cunha 2013). The foundational urban plan projected a rectangular city, occupying an area of around 30 Ha, structured in orthogonal streets and square blocks, with around 156 feet on a side between the axis of the streets, which included streets and porches of 12 feet and built areas of 1 actus (120 feet). The site where Bracara Augusta was built benefited from a rich, relatively shallow groundwater table, which may have favoured the collection of underground water. The wells documented so far had similar characteristics and chronologies, integrated into houses and craft establishments, as is the case with the well that existed in a glass-making craft complex, set in a flagstone courtyard, see Figure 3. It had an internal diameter of 0.90 metres and its rim was topped by large rectangular granite ashlars with a square cross-section that were set high up. Another example is the well discovered in the Carvalheiras domus, with the same internal diameter as the previous one, 0.90 metres, having been excavated to a depth of 3.8 metres, which made it possible to observe its wall executed in careful parallel horizontal courses of granite blocks (opus vittatum), see Figure 4 (Martins and Ribeiro 2012). The city of Bracara Augusta also has a water fountain, one of the few to be found in the Roman cities of the Iberian Peninsula. Known as Fonte do Ídolo (Fountain of Idol), it is a sanctuary/fountain carved Figure 2. House of Cantaber, in Conimbriga, Portugal, ©FM (Magalhães 2019, 380). Figure 3. Roman well (Casa do Poço, Braga, Portugal) ©UAUM. Figure 4. Roman well (Domus das Carvalheiras, Braga, Portugal) ©UAUM. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 3 into the rock of indigenous origin, dedicated to the goddess Nabia, a deity associated with water, but also with fertility and nature. Located in a peripheral urban area, this fountain/sanctuary was the subject of a monumental process dating back to the early days of the city’s occupation, marked by sculptures and inscriptions that were surrounded by a granite masonry wall. The fountain’s water came from a spring and its provenance was probably significant, given that in Flavian times the monument underwent a small remodelling process that included the construction of a tank. Its water probably supplied an associated bathing complex, identified on the south side of the fountain, see Figure 5 (Garrido Elena, Mar, and Martins 2008). However, in general terms, the aforementioned collection systems did not guarantee the quantity, regularity and quality of water needed, so in the vast majority of Roman cities water had to be collected on the urban periphery and brought into the city via aqueducts. The type of works carried out by the Romans to collect water depended on whether the water was on the surface, as in the case of rivers or springs that flowed to the surface, such as the fountains mentioned above, or whether it was underground, in which case it had to be collected by means of drainage galleries, which collected the water from the auriferous zone and led it to the outlet. From there it was taken to the city using aqueducts. The term aqueduct comes from the Latin aquae ductus or ductus aquae and means precisely the conduction of water, which could be underground, above ground and/or or aerial, and since it was a large-scale work, it required significant funding from the public aerarium, or sponsored by rich men, by summa honoraria. The technical management of the work was delegated to a hydraulic engineer, or an architectus, and was the responsibility by the cura aquarum (González Tascón 2004). Although there are several archaeologically documented Roman cities in Portuguese territory, most of their aqueducts are not well known. A circumstance that can be explained by the fact that most provincial Roman aqueducts were not aerial and monumental, but surface and underground. The best known Roman aqueducts in Portugal are those that were reused later, particularly in the modern age, such as the Prata Aqueduct in Évora, an aqueduct with Roman foundations on the remains of which the current 16th century structure was built (Branco, Nunes, and Bandeira 1996). In the case of the Roman Alcabideque Aqueduct, which feeds the city of Conimbriga, a combination of aerial and underground sections is documented, with the last 170 metres running through arches, of which only one has survived (Cravo and Bonifácio 2010). In fact, Roman aqueducts were therefore complex structures designed to transport water from distant sources to cities, using a combination of gravity and hydraulic engineering. Although most of the Roman aqueducts that supplied provincial cities were surface and underground and followed the contours of the topography of the land, this doesn’t mean that they weren’t almost always complex and expensive structures that involved a prior study of the region to identify the sources of abstraction in order to guarantee a constant Figure 5. Fonte do Ídolo, Braga, Portugal (Fountain of Idol) ©UAUM. 4M. RIBEIRO supply of good quality water at all times of the year. In fact, this was a premise to be taken into consideration when founding new cities, as Vitruvius points out in Book VIII So, if the place where the water was collected was high enough in relation to the point of arrival (cistern) in the city, it could be conveyed by gravity through conduits, underground or surface like those documented for Bracara Augusta, in the Gualtar area. In this case, the structure was built directly into the rock, its walls were made of regular masonry and it was approximately 2 metres high. The internal width was around 0.40 metres and the base was made of rectangular bricks. The whole structure was covered in large, irregularly shaped granite stones (Braga and Pacheco 2013). However, it was common for there to be topographical accidents between the source and the destination, which would have to be solved with different types of solutions, such as tunnels (cuniculus), siphons (siphon) and arches (arcus) or aqueduct bridges (pontes-aquae). In the case of tunnels, which were usually dug into the rock to cross high areas that could not be circumvented, they were lined and there were vertical shafts for ventilation and cleaning. This was a technique used, for example, in the Acqua Appia aqueduct, one of Rome’s first aqueducts, which made extensive use of underground tunnels (cuniculus). In the case of inverted siphons were used to overcome depressions, recommended by Vitruvius as the best way to overcome valleys (VIII, 6.4.6). Similar in shape to a U, they interconnect two chambers, allowing the water that enters one chamber to drop to a lower level and gain pressure, and then return to a higher level. In general terms, the chambers were connected by pipework and the water flowed by gravity through conduits that could be made of lead, ceramic or stone. The inverted siphons technique involved the use of water-pipes, often made by lead (fistula), by earth/ceramic (tubuli), or by masonry (canales), was we can see in Figure 9). Although the former, lead pipes (fistulae), were the most widely used for distributing water from aqueducts because they were more resistant to the high hydraulic pressure. These tubes were made of very thick lead plates, joined together and soldered with molten lead. The resulting shape was not perfectly cylindrical, but rather pear-shaped, with the edges of the plate being joined together in an unimproved way (Middleton 1892, 460). To create a system where water could be led down into a valley and then back up again, using the pressure generated by the difference in height to maintain the flow, the inverted siphons system was made up of three types of elements: 1) downward and upward conduits, which carried the water down one side of the valley and raised it on the other side; 2) water-pipes, made of lead (fistulae), designed to withstand the pressure of the siphon; 3) loading and unloading reservoirs, which existed at the beginning and end of the siphon to help regulate the flow and pressure of the water. The inverted siphon technology is well known and it is known that it was widely adopted in the construction of several Roman Hispanic aqueducts, such as the four aqueducts built to supply the city of Lyon (Lugdunum), set up in a region that favoured the use of inverted siphons. Finally, in the case of arcades, aerial aqueducts, also known as aqueduct bridges, built to bridge depressions, the level of the deck had to preserve the horizontal inclination of the conduit, so these bridges were made up of pillars connected by one or more orders of arches, over the last of which the conduit ran, in order to guarantee the stability of the entire structure in the longitudinal direction. For transverse stability, which was more problematic due to the smallness of the crosssection, buttresses were used on the pillars, or crosssections of the pillars were adopted in order to increase the rigidity of the section in relation to transverse buckling (Fortes 2008). Even so, the length of the aqueducts varied greatly, depending of course on the distance from the place where the springs were located, with some being only a few kilometres long, others hundreds, and combining various construction solutions, such as arches, inverted siphons and tunnels, circumstances that necessarily made the work more expensive. In any case, to regulate the quantity and pressure of the water it was necessary to build settling tanks to regulate the quantity and pressure of the water. The quality of the water could be ensured through the construction of drains, or limestone pools, which often existed before the aqueducts entered the cities to prevent the sedimentation of solid materials in the city’s regulating reservoirs. They generally consisted of large rectangular tanks or ponds with a bottom below the level of the canal, where sediment was deposited, and were usually equipped with a bottom drain for automatic cleaning (Adams 1994, 488–510). Roman cities could be supplied by one or more aqueducts. Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire, had up to 11 main aqueducts with various branches. Some Roman aqueducts that have survived to the present day are a clear demonstration of the challenges overcome and the high level of hydraulic expertise of Roman engineering, such as the Zaghouan Aqueduct, which supplied the city of Carthage in present-day Tunisia, in the Figure 6, which is around 132 kilometres INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 5 long, with some of its sections still in operation today; or the Gades Aqueduct, in Cádiz, around 75 kilometres long, most of which is a siphon, the latter being the longest Roman aqueduct in Hispania, see Figure 7 (Fortes 2008). In the city, the distribution of water collected on the outskirts was regulated by storage reservoirs or castellum divisorium. In Portugal, an example of this type of reservoir can be found in Conimbriga, at the end of the aqueduct that supplied the city, mentioned above. It was a settling tower, a castellum divisorium, which functioned both as a settling tank and a siphon for changing the level/ pressure of urban water distribution (Reis 2013). Thus, the castellum divisorium was the place where the water supply ended and the distribution network began. It was usually a rectangular chamber with successive annexes; the roof had a barrel vault or grooved vault; the tanks had a water inlet and outlet; a bottom drain and a spillway connected to the city’s sewers. The bottom of the reservoirs suffered from sedimentation and had to be cleaned periodically. Later, the water was distributed through aqueducts, channelling, lead (fistulae or ceramic pipes, siphons, diverticula or water chests that served to divide and distribute the flow to the various parts of the urban network. Usually, water was distributed through three separate pipelines: one that served the thermal complexes, another for private homes and a third to supply the public network of fountains and springs(Ribeiro 2013) . An example of a complex water distribution network was the one that supplied the public fountains in the city of Pompeii, where water was channelled through ceramic or lead pipes that ran underground, reaching a depth of 0.60 metres and supplying around 40 public fountains (Koloski-Ostrow 2001). There was also a dense water distribution network in Bracara Augusta, well-illustrated by the underground aqueduct that supplied the public baths of Alto da Cividade, see Figure 8, built with walls of regular blocks, based on a brick ballast and covered by large stone slabs. This conduit had a specus about 0.60 metres high and 0.45 metres wide, clearly demonstrating the importance of its water flow. The structure’s ballast and walls were clad in opus signinum (Figure 8c) and showed a slight N/S slope (0.10 metres over a 60 metre stretch) (Martins and Ribeiro 2012). In any case, ceramic tubules and lead fistulas (fistulae) were widely and independently used for water distribution. They were in the shape of cylinders and had male/female ends (Figure 9b), which ensured that the pipes were watertight, also guaranteed by applying a mortar of quicklime mixed with olive oil to the joints (Vitruvius, VIII, VI, 8). As in other Hispanic Roman cities, some of these ceramic pipes were discovered in Braga, mainly associated with the distribution of water to the thermal complexes. The identification of a lead pipe (fistulae) in the excavations carried out in the archaeological area of the domus das Carvalheiras, associated with the construction of a balnea, see Figure 8c, clearly demonstrates that this type of material was also used in the water distribution network of Bracara Augusta. The fistula that was discovered had a section at its widest measuring 141 mm horizontally and 146 mm vertically, and also showed signs of welding at the edges. Also worth mentioning are the various perforated siphon blocks found in various parts of the city, see Figure 9a (Martins and Ribeiro 2012). 3. Continuities and ruptures in the supply of water to the medieval city With the end of the Roman Empire in the West, the fate of the Roman cities was very different: some ended up Figure 6. Zaghouan Aqueduct, Tunisia, ©2021 architectureofcities.com. Figure 7. Gades Aqueduct, Cádiz, ©2021 architectureofcities. com. 6M. RIBEIRO disappearing, others survived, albeit with a large demographic and urban reduction, which naturally had repercussions in terms of overall water consumption. Also, despite the importance of water in Christianity, its adoption implied a profound change in the social and cultural habits of communities in Western Europe, which gradually ceased to value the same type of architecture and urban spaces as the Romans. The water supply for urban centres in the High Middle Ages was largely made up of simple structures from which it was possible to collect the water available within the centre itself, whether surface or underground. The various forms of supply would change in quantity and quality as the urban centres themselves developed demographically and economically (Magnusson 2002). As in Roman cities, the water used in urban centres was also rainwater, stored in tanks and cisterns. In the case of cisterns, we can mention the one in the castle of Chaves, which occupied the entire first floor, receiving rainwater from the roof through a stone duct attached to the wall. In Bragança there was also an identical cistern in the castle, and another under the slabbed structure on which the town hall was built in the early 16th century (Amaral and Noé 2012). Although there may have been an abundance of surface water in some medieval settlements, flowing in open ditches through the streets, as the documentation shows for the cities of Coimbra, Leiria and Braga, the insufficiency of this water, whether rainwater or from springs that drew water from the surface, is well attested to by the reference to other forms of supply that required groundwater abstraction, such as wells (Ribeiro 2020). The importance of these structures, although architecturally not very elaborate and limited in number, can be measured by the references preserved in medieval documentation, but also in the road toponymy of urban centres, with the designation of Rua do Poço (Street of Well). In general, these were private wells, distributed Figure 8. Water supply aqueduct of the Alto da Cividade thermal baths (Braga): (a) and (b) Aspects of the aqueduct. (c) Interior view of the aqueduct lined with opus signinum ©UAUM. Figure 9. Water distribution elements: (a) perforated siphon block, (b) ceramic pipe, (c) lead pipe (fistulae) (Braga) ©UAUM. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 7 throughout the urban space, located in domestic spaces, namely in the backyards of houses, but also municipal wells, for collective use, see Figure 10. There were cases in which the importance of these wells conditioned the location of the town itself, as was the case of the urban centre of Bemposta (Portugal), where in 1315 King Dinis ordered that a well be included in the walled perimeter (Trindade 2013, 151). Water could also be distributed to the population by means of fountains, the typology of which was generally simple, sometimes referred to in the documentation as “cobertas” (covered) or “arcadas” (arcaded), called “mergulho” or “chafurdo”, because they consisted of a tank, covered by a stone structure that could be vaulted to protect the water. Access to the tank where the bucket was dipped was down several steps, as in the case of the S. Geraldo Fountain in Braga, located below the courtyard of the Misericórdia Church, currently inaccessible. In this case, it was an underground fountain “set in a very well-made stonework arch . . . and its waters were excellent, considered miraculous” (Ribeiro and Martins 2012, 206). Another type with a simple structure was the “espladar” (backrest) fountain, which was widespread at the end of the Middle Ages. Although they could be simple tanks attached to a vertical wall from which the water spout hung, they often included coat-of-arms and epigraphs, as can be seen in Alandroal or Évora (Portugal), according to the representation by Duarte de Armas, see Figure 11, but also in the Chafariz d’El Rei in Lisbon, or Figure 10. Medieval well at Montalvão (detail), Duarte de Armas, Book of Fortresses, c. 1509. Figure 11. Backrest fountain in Évora (detail), Duarte de Armas, Book of Fortresses, c. 1509. Figure 12. Fountain of Granjinhos, Braga, Portugal, in presentdays. 8M. RIBEIRO Acknowledgments This initiative was supported through the Multiannual Funding of the Landscape, Heritage and Territory Laboratory (Lab2PT), Ref. UID/04509/2020, financed by national funds (PIDDAC) through the FCT/MCTES. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). References Adams, P. 1994. Roman Building. Materials and Techniques. Lodon: R. T. Batsford Ltd. Amaral, P., and P. 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